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UNIT 3 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integral Calculus

Structure
3.1

Introduction
Objectives

3.2

Antiderivatives

3.3

Basic Definitions
3.3.1
3.3.2

3.4

Methods of Integration
3.4.1
3.4.2

3.5

Standard Integrals
Algebra of Integrals

Integration by Substitution
Integration by Parts

Integration of Rational Functions


3.5.1
3.5.2

Some Simple Rational Functions


Partial Fraction Decomposition

3.6

Integration of Irrational Functions

3.7

Integration of Trigonometric Functions

3.8

Definite Integrals

3.9

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus


3.9.1
3.9.2
3.9.3
3.9.4

Area Function
First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
Evaluation of a Definite Integral by Substitution

3.10 Properties of Definite Integrals


3.11 Applications
3.12 Summary
3.13 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall introduce the notions of antiderivatives, indefinite integral and
various methods and techniques of integration. The unit will also cover definite integrals
which can be evaluated using these methods.
We have seen in Unit 2 that one of the problems which motivated the concept of a
derivative was a geometrical one that of finding a tangent to a curve at a point. The
concept of integration was also similarly motivated by a geometrical problem that of
finding the areas of plane regions enclosed by curves. Some recently discovered Egyptian
manuscripts reveal that the formulas for finding the areas of triangles and rectangles were
known even in 1800 BC. Using these formulas, one could also find the area of any figure
bounded by straight line segments. But no method for finding the area of figures bounded
by curves had evolved till much later.
In the third century BC, Archimedes was successful in rigorously proving the formula for
the area of a circle. His solution contained the seeds of the present day integral calculus.
But it was only later, in the seventeenth century, that Newton and Leibniz were able to
generalize. Archimedes method and also to establish the link between differential and
integral calculus. The definition of the definite integral of a function, which we shall give

119

Calculus : Basic Concepts

in this unit, was first given by Riemann in 1854. We will also acquaint you with various
application of integration.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

compute the antiderivative of a given function,

define the indefinite integral of a function,

evaluate certain standard integrals by finding the antiderivatives of the


integrals,

compute integrals of various elementary and trigonometric functions,

integrate rational functions of a variable by using the method of partial


fractions,

evaluate the integrals of some specified types of irrational functions,

define the definite integral of a given function as a limit of a sum,

state the fundamental theorems of calculus,

learn the different properties of definite integral,

use the fundamental theorems to calculate the definite integral of an


integrable function, and

use the definite integrals to evaluate areas of figures bounded by curves.

3.2 ANTIDERIVATIVES
In Unit 1, we have been occupied with the problem of finding the derivative of a given
function. Some of the important applications of the calculus lead to the inverse problem,
namely, given the derivative of a function, is it possible to find the function? This
process is called antidifferentiation and the result of antidifferentiation is called an
antiderivative. The importance of the antiderivative results partly from the fact that
scientific laws often specify the rates of change of quantities. The quantities themselves
are then found by antidifferentiation.
To get started, suppose we are given that f (x) = 9, can we find f (x)? It is easy to see that
one such function f is given by f (x) = 9x, since the derivative of 9x is 9.
Before making any definite decision, consider the functions

9 x + 4, 9 x 10, 9 x + 3
Each of these functions has 9 as its derivative. Thus, not only can f (x) be 9x, but it can
also be 9 x + 4 or 9 x 10, 9 x + 3 . Not enough information is given to help us
determine which is the correct answer.
Let us look at each of these possible functions a bit more carefully. We notice that each
of these functions differs from another only by a constant. Therefore, we can say that if
f (x) = 9, then f (x) must be of the form f (x) = 9x + c, where c is a constant. We call
9x + c the antiderivative of 9.
More generally, we have the following definition.
Definition

Suppose f is a given function. Then a function F is called an antiderivative of f, if


F (x) = f (x) x .
We now state an important theorem without giving its proof.
Theorem 1
120

If F1 and F2 are two antiderivatives of the same function, then F1 and F2 differ
by a constant, that is

Integral Calculus

F1 ( x ) = F2 ( x ) + c
Remark
From above Theorem, it follows that we can find all the antiderivatives of a given
function, once we know one antiderivative of it. For instance, in the above
example, since one antiderivative of 9 is 9x, all antiderivative of 9 have the form
9x + c, where c is a constant. Let us do one example.

Example 3.1
Find all the antiderivatives of 4x.

Solution
We have to look for a function F such that F (x) = 4 x . Now, an antiderivative of
4x is 2x2. Thus, by Theorem 1, all antiderivatives of 4x are given by 2x2 + c, where
c is a constant.

SAQ 1
Find all the antiderivatives of each of the following function
(i)

f (x) = 10x

(ii)

f (x) = 11x10

(iii)

f (x) = 5x

3.3 BASIC DEFINITIONS


We have seen, that the antiderivative of a function is not unique. More precisely, we have
seen that if a function F is an antiderivative of a function f, then F + c is also an
antiderivative of f, where c is any arbitrary constant. Now we shall introduce a notation
here : we shall use the symbol
f (x) dx to denote the class of all antiderivatives of f.

We call it the indefinite integral or just the integral of f. Thus, if F (x) is an antiderivative
of f (x), then we can write
f (x) dx = F (x) + c .

Here c is called the constant of integration. The function f (x) is called the integrand,
f (x) dx is called the element of integration and the symbol stands for the integral sign.
The indefinite integral

f (x) dx is a class of functions which differ from one another

by constant. It is not a definite number; it is not even a definite function. We say that the
indefinite integral is unique up to an arbitrary constant.
Thus, having defined an indefinite integral, let us get acquainted with the various
techniques for evaluating integrals.

121

Calculus : Basic Concepts

3.3.1

Standard Integrals

We give below some elementary standard integrals which can be obtained directly from
our knowledge of derivatives.

Table 3.1
Sl. No.

Function

Integral

xn

x n +1
+ c, n 1
n +1

sin x

cos x + c

cos x

sin x + c

sec2 x

tan x + c

cosec x

cot x + c

sec x tan x

sec x + c

cosec x cot x

cosec x + c

sin 1 x + c or cos 1 x + c

1 x2

tan 1 x + c or cot 1 x + c

1
1+ x

10

sec 1 x + c or cosec 1 x + c

1
x

x2 1

11

1
x

ln | x | + c

12

ex

ex + c

13

ax

ax
+c
ln | a |

Now let us see how to evaluate some functions which are linear combination of the
functions listed in Table 3.1.

3.3.2

Algebra of Integrals

You are familiar with the rule for differential of sum of functions, which says
d
d
d
[a f (x) + b g (x)] = a [ f (x)] + b [ g (x)]
dx
dx
dx
There is a similar rule for integration :

Rule 1

[a f (x) + b g (x)] dx = a

f (x) dx + b

g (x) dx

This rule follows from the two theorems.

Theorem 2
If f is an integrable function, then so is K f (x) and
K f ( x ) dx = K
f ( x ) dx , where K is a constant.

122

Proof

Let

Integral Calculus

f (x) dx = F (x) + c

Then by definition,

d
[ F (x) + c] = f (x)
dx

d
[ K {F (x) + c}] = K f (x)
dx

Again, by definition of antiderivatives, we have

K f (x) dx = K [ F (x) + c] = K

f (x) dx

Theorem 3
If f and g are two integrable functions, then f + g is integrable, and we have
[ f ( x ) + g ( x )] dx = f ( x ) dx +
g ( x ) dx .

Proof

Let

Then

d
[{F (x) + c} + {G (x) + c1}] = f (x) + g (x)
dx

Thus,

[f (x) + g (x) ] dx = [ F (x) + c] + [G (x) + c1 ]

f (x) dx = F (x) + c,

g (x) dx = G (x) + c1

f (x) dx +

g (x) dx

Rule (1) may be extended to include a finite number of functions, that is, we can
write
Rule 2

[K1 f1 (x) + K 2 f 2 (x) + . . . + K n f n (x)] dx


= K1

f1 (x) dx + K 2

f 2 (x) dx + . . . + K n

f n (x) dx

We can make use of Rule (2) to evaluate certain integrals which are not listed in
Table 3.1.
Example 3.2

Let us evaluate

( 2 + 4 x + 3 sin x + 4e x ) dx

=2

dx + 4

x dx + 3

sin x dx + 4

e x dx

= 2 x + 2 x 2 3 cos x + 4e x + c
Example 3.3

Suppose we want to evaluate

Thus,

(1 x) 2
x

(1 x) 2
x

dx

dx

123

Calculus : Basic Concepts

1 2x + x2
3
x2

= 2x

3
2

dx
1
2

dx

2x

4x 2 +

1
2

dx +

x 2 dx

2 2
x +c
3

And now some exercises for you.

SAQ 2
Write down the integrals of the following using Table 3.1 and Rule 2

5
2

(i)

(a) x8

(ii)

(a) x 2 x 1

(b)

(iii)

(a) e x + e x + 4

(b) 4 cos x 3 sin x + e x + x

(iv)

(a)

(v)

(a) ax + bx + cx + d

(vi)

(a)

(b) x

2
1 x2
3

5
x

(b)

1
x

(c) 4x 2

(d) 9

3 x

(c) x
x

(c) 4 sec h 2 x + e x 8 x

2x2 + 5
x2 + 1

sin 4 x + cos 4 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x

(b) x
x

(b) (2 + x) (3

x)

3.4 METHODS OF INTEGRATION


We have seen in Section 3.3 that the decomposition of an integrand into the sum of a
number of integrands, with known integrals, is itself an important method of integration.
We now give two general methods of integration, namely,
(i)

Integration by substitution,

(ii)

Integration by parts.

The method of substitution consists in expressing the integral


another simpler integral,

f ( x) dx in terms of

F (t) dt , say, where the variables x and t are connected by

some suitable relation x = (t) .


124

The method of integration by parts enables one to express the given integral of a product
of two functions in terms of another, whose integration may be simpler.

3.4.1

Integral Calculus

Integration by Substitution

Consider the following integral

f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx

. . . (1)

Since

d
f [ g ( x)] = f [ g ( x)] g ( x) (by Chain rule)
dx

f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx = f [ g ( x)] + c

In Eq. (1), if we substitute g (x) = t


dt
dx

Then

g ( x) =

i.e.

g ( x) dx = dt

Hence

f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx = f (t) dt

f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx =

f (t) dt

= f (t) + c
= f [ g ( x)] + c
Let us now illustrate this technique with examples.
Example 3.4

Find

(x 2 + 1) 3 2 x dx

Solution

t = x2 + 1

Let

dt = 2 x dx

Therefore,

(x 2 + 1) 3 2 x dx

t4
1
+ c = ( x 2 + 1) 4 + c , since t = x 2 + 1 .
4
4

t 3 dt

Example 3.5

Find

x 3 e x dx .

Solution

t = x4

Let
Then

dt = 4 x 3 dx

Therefore,

x 3 e x dx =

1
4

4 x 3 e x dx

1
4

e t dt

125

Calculus : Basic Concepts

1 t
e +c
4

1 x4
e + c , since t = x4

Some Typical Examples of Substitution

We now consider the integral

f ( x) dx , where the integrand f (x) is in some

typical form and the integral can be obtained easily by the method of substitution.
Various forms of integral can be obtained easily by the method of substitution.
Various forms of integrals considered are as follows :
(a)

f (ax + b ) dx

To integrate

f (ax + b), put ax + b = t

Therefore

a dx = dt or dx =

1
dt
a

Thus

1
a

f (ax + b) dx =

f (t) dt

which can be evaluated, once the right hand side is known, for example, to
1
find
cos (ax + b) dx , we put ax + b = t and a dx = dt or dx = dt .
a

Then

cos (ax + b) dx =

1
a

or

cos (ax + b) dx =

1
sin (ax + b) + c
a

cos t dt =

1
sin t + c
a

Similarly, we have the following results


( ax + b) n + 1
+ c, n 1
(n + 1) a

(ax + b) n dx =

1
1
dx = ln (ax + b) + c
ax + b
a

e ax + b dx =

sec 2 (ax + b) dx =

1 ax + b
e
+c
a
1
tan (ax + b) + c etc.
a

You can make direct use of the above results in solving exercises.
(b)

f ( x n ) x n 1 dx

To integrate f ( x n ) x n 1 , we let x n = t .

126

Then

nx n 1 dx = dt

and

f ( x n ) x n 1 dx =

1
n

f (t) dt

which can be found out once the right hand side is known.

For example, to find


x 2 dx =

x 2 sin x 3 dx , put x 3 = t ; then 3x 2 dx = dt , that is

Integral Calculus

1
dt .
3

Then,

(c)

x 2 sin x 3 dx =

1
3

sin t dt

1
cos t + c
3

1
cos x 3 + c
3

{ f ( x )}n f ( x) dx , n 1

Putting f (x) = t; we see that f ( x) dx = dt and

{f ( x)}n f ( x) dx =

=
For example,

{f ( x)}n + 1
+c
n +1

t 2 dt , where t = cos x (and hence dt = sin x dx)


cos 2 x sin xdx =

=
(d)

t n +1
+c
n +1

cos 2 x sin xdx

=
Therefore,

t n dt =

1 3
t +c
3
1
(cos x)3 + c
3

f ( x)
dx
f ( x)

Putting

f (x) = t, we have f ( x) dx = dt

and

f ( x)
dx =
f (x)

dt
= ln | t | + c = ln | f ( x) | + c
t

i.e. the integral of a function in which the numerator is the differential


co-efficient of the denominator, is equal to the logarithm of the denominator
(plus a constant).
For example, applying this result, we have

sin x
dx =
cos x

( sin x)
dx = c ln cos x
cos x

(Since f (x) = cos x, in this case.)


Therefore,

tan x dx = c ln | cos x |

Similarly, you can obtain the following integrals

cot x dx = ln | sin x | + c

127

Calculus : Basic Concepts

sec x dx = ln | (sec x + tan x) | + c

x
cosec x dx = ln tan + c
2

Remember that logarithm of a quantity exists only when the quantity is


positive. Thus, while making use of these formulas, make sure that the
integrand to be integrated is positive in the domain under consideration.

(e)

f (a 2 x 2 ) dx

Under this category we now give some results obtained by putting


x = a t (and hence dx = a dt) and using some standard integrals.
Now,

dx

a +x
2

a2 x2

d
1
1

dt (tan t ) = 1 + t 2

x
= sin 1 + c
a

d
1

1
dt (sin t ) =
1 + t2

dx
x2 a2

dx

1
x
tan 1 + c
a
a

dx

a2 + x2

1
x
sec 1 + c
a
a

x + a2 + x2
+c
= ln

1
=
(sec
t
)
dt

2
t t + 1

d
ln = (t + 1 + t 2 = 1
dt
1+ t 2

We usually use all these integrals given under (a) (e) directly whenever
required without actually proving them. Sometimes it may happen that two
or more substitutions have to be used in succession. We now illustrate this
point with the help of the following example.
Example 3.6

Calculate
(i)

(ii)

2x
1 + x2

dx

sin 3 x cos 2 x dx

Solution

(i)

2x
1 + x2

dx

Put

1 + x2 = t

Then

2 x dx = dt

2x
1+ x

dx =

1
dt
t

= ln t + c
128

= ln (1 + x2) + c

(ii)

sin 3 x cos 2 x dx =

sin 2 x cos 2 x sin x dx

cos 2 x (1 cos 2 x) sin x dx

Put

cos x = t

Then

sin x dx = dt

Integral Calculus

sin 3 x cos 2 x dx =

t 2 (1 t 2 ) dt

(t 2 t 4 ) dt

t3 t5
= +c
5
3
=

t5 t3

+c
5
3

( cos x) 5 ( cos x) 3

+c
5
3

So far we have developed the method of integration by substitution, by turning the chain
rule into an integration formula. Let us do the same for the product rule. We know that
the derivative of the product of two functions f (x) and g (x) is given by
d
[ f ( x) g ( x)] = g ( x) f ( x) + f ( x) g ( x) ,
dx
where the dashes denote differentiation w. r. t. x. Corresponding to this formula, we have
a rule called integration by parts.

3.4.2

Integration by Parts

Let us now discuss the method of integration by parts in detail. We begin by taking two
functions f (x) and g (x). Let G (x) be an antiderivative of g (x), that is,

g ( x) dx = G ( x) or G ( x) = g ( x)

Then, by the product rule for differentiation, we have


d
[ f ( x) G ( x)] = f ( x) G ( x) + f ( x) G ( x) = f ( x) g ( x) + f ( x) G ( x)
dx

Integrating both sides, we get


f ( x) G ( x) =

f ( x) g ( x) dx +

f ( x) G ( x) dx

f ( x) G ( x) dx

or

f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x) G ( x)

Thus,

f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x)

g ( x) dx

f ( x) {

g ( x) dx} dx . . . (3.1)

The integration done by using the Eq. (3.1) is called integration by parts. In other words,
it can be stated as follows :
The integral of the product of two functions
= first function integral of the second function

integral of (differential coefficient of the first integral of the


second).

129

Calculus : Basic Concepts

We now illustrate this method through some examples.


Example 3.7

Integrate x ex with respect to x.


Solution

We use integration by parts.


Step 1
Take

f ( x) = x and g ( x) = e x .

Then

f ( x) = 1 and

e x dx = e x

Step 2
By formula (3.1) we have

or

x e x dx = x e x

x e x dx = x e x e x + c

1 . e x dx + c

Sometimes we need to integrate by parts more than once. We now illustrate it through the
following example.
Example 3.8

Find

x 2 cos x dx

x 2 cos x dx = x 2

Solution

cos x dx

= x 2 sin x 2

2x {

cos x dx} dx

x sin x dx + c1

. . . (3.2)

where c1 is a constant of integration.


Integrating

x sin x dx , again by parts, we get

x sin x dx = x

sin x dx

= x cos x +

1.{

sin x dx} dx

cos x dx

= x cos x + sin x + c2

. . . (3.3)

where c2 being the constant of integration. From Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3), we get

x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sin x 2 ( x cos x + sin x + c2 ) + c1 ,

= x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x 2 sin x + c ,


where we have written c for c1 2c2.
We now consider some examples of integrals which occur quite frequently and can be
integrated by parts.
Example 3.9

Find
130

e ax cos bx dx

Integral Calculus

Solution

Step 1
Choose f (x) = e ax and g ( x) = cos bx ; then integrating by parts gives

e ax cos bx dx = e ax

sin bx

ae ax

sin bx
dx + c1
b

. . . (3.4)

Step 2
Integrating

e ax sin bx dx by parts again, we get

e ax sin bx dx = e ax
=

( cos bx)

1 ax
a
e cos bx +
b
b

ae ax

( cos bx)
dx + c2
b

e ax cos bx dx + c2

Note that the second term on the right hand side is nothing but a constant
multiple of the given integral.
Step 3
Substituting the value of

e ax cos bx dx = e ax

= e ax

e ax sin bx dx , in Eq. (3.4), we have

sin bx a

b
b

a
1 ax
b e cos bx + b

a
a2
sin bx
+ 2 e ax cos bx 2
b
b
b
c3 = c1

where

e ax cos bx dx + c2 + c1

e ax cos bx dx + c3

. . . (3.5)

a
c2
b

Step 4
Transposing the last term from the right of Eq. (3.5) to left, we get
2

1 + a

b 2

e ax cos bx dx =

1 ax
a
e sin bx + 2 e ax cos bx + c3
b
b

a2
Dividing by 1 + 2 , we finally get

where c =

e ax cos bx dx =
c3

a + b2
2

e ax
a2 + b2

(b sin bx + a cos bx) + c ,

, as the required integral.

Similarly, the integral of the type

e ax sin bx dx can be obtained.

And now some exercises for you.

SAQ 3
(a)

Evaluate the following integrals :


(i)

dx
9 x 12 x + 8
2

131

Calculus : Basic Concepts

(iii)

(iv)

e +1

(v)

cot x
dx
ln sin x

(vi)

e 1

(vii)

(e + e x ) 2

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

(xi)
(b)

x + x2 + 1
4

(tan x) 5 sec 2 x dx
dx
x

1
x

dx

dx
x

x sec 2 x 2 dx

(sin 1 x) 2
1 x2

dx

(1 + ln x) 3
dx
x

(cosec 2 x)
dx
(1 + cot x)

Evaluate
(i)

x 2 ln x dx

(ii)

x cosec 2 x dx

(iii)

e 3 x cos 4 x dx

(iv)

sin 1 x dx

(v)

x tan 1 x dx

(vi)

(vii)

132

x dx

(ii)

x sin 1 x
(1 x 2 )
x ex
(1 + x 2 )

dx

dx

3.5 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Integral Calculus

We know, by now, that it is easy to integrate any polynomial function, that is, a function
f given by f ( x) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + . . . + a0 . In this section, we shall see how a
rational function can be integrated.
Definition

Q ( x)
, where
P ( x)
Q (x) and P (x) are polynomials. It is defined for all x for which P (x) 0. If the
degree of Q (x) is less than the degree of P (x), we say that R (x) is a proper
rational function. Otherwise, it is called an improper rational function.
A function R is called a rational function if it is given by R ( x) =

Thus f ( x) =

x +1
x2 + x + 2

is a proper rational function, and g ( x) =

x3 + x + 5
is an
x2

improper one. But g (x) can also be written as g ( x) = ( x 2 + 3x + 6) +

17
(by long
x2

division).
Here we have expressed g (x), which is an improper rational function, as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper rational function. This can be done for any improper rational
function.

3.5.1

Some Simple Rational Functions

Now we shall consider some simple types of proper rational functions, like
1
1
xm
,
and 2
. We shall illustrate the method of integrating these
k
x a (x b)
ax + bx + c
functions through some examples.
Example 3.10

Consider the function f ( x) =

1
(x + 2) 4

Solution

To integrate this function we shall use the method of substitution.


du
= 1 , and we can write
dx
1
1
u3
du
=
+c=
+ c.
4
3
3 (x + 2) 3
u

Thus, if we put u = x + 2 or

1
(x + 2) 4

dx =

Example 3.11

Consider the function f ( x) =

2x + 3
x 4x + 5
2

Solution

This has a quadratic polynomial in the denominator. Now


2x + 3
2x 4
7
dx =
dx +
dx .
2
2
2
x 4x + 5
x 4x + 5
x 4x + 5

Perhaps you are wondering why we have split the integral into two parts.
The reason for this break-up is that now the integrand in the first integral on the
g (x)
g (x)
dx = ln | g ( x) | + c .
; and we know that
right is of the form
g (x)
g (x)

133

Calculus : Basic Concepts

Thus

2x 4

dx = ln | x 2 4 x + 5| + c1 .

x 4x + 5
2

To evaluate the second integral on the right, we write

dx =

x 4x + 5
2

1
(x 4 x + 4) + 1
2

dx =

1
(x 2) 2 + 1

dx .

du
= 1 and
dx
1
du = tan 1 u + c2 = tan 1 ( x 2) + c2
2
u +1

Now, if we put u = x 2,
1

x 4x + 5
2

This implies,

3.5.2

dx =

2x + 3
x 4x + 5
2

dx = ln | x 2 4 x + 5 | + 7 tan 1 (x 2) + c .

Partial Fraction Decomposition

You must have studied the factorisation of polynomials. For example, we know that

x 2 5 x + 6 = ( x 2) ( x 3)
Here (x 2) and (x 3) are two linear factors of x 2 5 x + 6 .
You must have also come across polynomial like x 2 + x + 1 , which cannot be factorised
into real factors. Thus, it is not always possible to factorise a given polynomial into linear
factors. But any polynomial can, in principle, be factorised into linear and quadratic
factors. We shall not prove this statement here. It is a consequence of the fundamental
theorem of algebra. The actual factorization of a polynomial may not be very easy to
carry out. But, whenever we can factorise the denominator of a proper rational function,
we can integrate it by employing the method of partial fractions. The following examples
will illustrate this method.
Example 3.12

Let us evaluate

5x 1

dx .

x2 1

Solution

Here the integrand

5x 1
x2 1

is a proper rational function.

Its denominator x 2 1 can be factored into linear factors as :


x 2 1 = ( x 1) ( x + 1)
This suggests that we can write the decomposition of

5x 1
x2 1

as :
5x 1
x 1
2

5x 1
A
B
=
+
(x 1) ( x + 1) (x 1) (x + 1)

If we multiply both sides by ( x 1) ( x + 1) , we get


5 x 1 = A ( x + 1) + B ( x 1) .
That is
134

5 x 1 = ( A + B) x + ( A B)

into partial fraction

By equalling the coefficients of x, we get A + B = 5. Equating the constant terms


on both sides, we get A B = 1.

Integral Calculus

Solving these two equations in A and B, we get A = 2 and B = 3.


5x 1

Thus,

x 1
2

2
3
+
x 1 x +1

Integrating both sides of this equation, we obtain


5x 1

x 1
2

dx =

2
dx +
x 1

3
dx
x +1

= 2 ln | x 1| + 3 ln | x + 1| + c
Let us go to our next example now.
Example 3.13

Evaluate

dx .

x 3x + 2
3

Solution

Take a look at the denominator of the integrand in

x 3x + 2
3

dx .

It factors into ( x 1) 2 ( x + 2) . The linear factor (x 1) is repeated twice in the


decomposition of x 3 3 x + 2 . In this case, we write
x
x 3x + 2
3

A
B
C
+
+
x + 2 x 1 (x 1) 2

From this point, we proceed as before to find A, B and C. We get

x = A (x 1) 2 + B (x + 2) (x 1) + C (x + 2)
We put x = 1, and x = 2, and get C =

1
2
and A = . Then to find B, let us put
3
9

any other convenient value, say x = 0.


This gives us

0 = A 2B + 2C

or

0=

This implies B =

2
9

Thus

x
x 3x + 2
3

2
2
2B +
9
3

dx =
=
=

2
9

1
2
dx +
9
x+2

1
1
dx +
3
x 1

1
(x 1) 2

dx

2
2
1 1
ln | x + 2 | + ln | x 1|
+c
9
9
3 (x 1)

2
x 1
1
ln

+c
9
x+2
3 (x 1)

In our next example, we shall consider the case when the denominator of the integrand
contains an irreducible quadratic factors (i.e. a quadratic factor which cannot be further
factored into linear factors).
Example 3.14

135

Calculus : Basic Concepts

6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4

Evaluate

We factorise

x 4 2 x 3 + x 2 2 x as x ( x 2) ( x 2 + 1) .

x 4 2 x3 + x 2 2 x

6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4

Then we write

x 2x + x 2x
4

dx

A
B
Cx + D
+
+ 2
x ( x 2)
x +1

Thus
6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4 = A ( x 2) ( x 2 + 1) + B x ( x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D) x ( x 2)
Next, we substitute x = 0, and x = 2, to get A = 2 and B = 1. Then we put
x = 1 and x = 1 (some convenient values) to get C = 3 and D = 1.

Thus,

6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4

dx = 2

1
dx +
x

= 2 ln | x | + ln | x 2 | +

3
2

= 2 ln | x | + ln | x 2 | +

3
ln | x 2 + 1| tan 1 x + c
2

x 2x + x 2x
4

2x
x +1
2

1
dx +
x2

dx

3x 1

x2 + 1

dx

dx
x +1
2

Thus, you see, once we decompose integrand, which is a proper rational function, into
partial fractions, then the given integral can be written as the sum of some integrals of the
type discussed in previous examples.
All the functions which we integrated till now were proper rational functions. Now we
shall take up an example of an improper rational function.
Example 3.15

Let us evaluate

x3 + 2x

dx .

x2 x 2

Solution

Since the integrand is an improper rational function, we shall first write it as the
sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.
x3 + 2 x

Now

x x2
2

Therefore,

Hence

= ( x + 1) +

x3 + 2 x
x x2
2

x3 + 2 x
x2 x 2

dx =

Evaluate
(i)

136

x
x 2x 3
2

dx

x x2

dx =

(x + 1) dx +

x dx +

5x + 2
x x2

dx + 4

dx

dx
+
x2

x2
+ x + 4 ln | x 2 | + ln | x + 1| + c
2

Try to do the following exercises now.

SAQ 4

5x + 2
2

dx
x +1

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

3x 13

Integral Calculus

x 2 + 3x 10

dx

6 x 2 + 22 x 23

( 2 x 1) ( x 2 + x 6)
x2 + x 1

dx

(x 1) ( x 2 x + 1)
x2

x2 a2

dx

x2 + 4

dx

x2 + 2x + 3

dx

3.6 INTEGRATION OF IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS


The task of integrating functions gets tougher if the given function is an irrational one,
Q ( x)
. In this section, we shall give you some tips for
that is, it is not of the form
P ( x)
evaluating some particular types of irrational functions. In most cases, our endeavour will
be to arrive at a rational function through an appropriate substitution. This rational
function can then be easily evaluated by using the techniques developed in Section 3.5.
Integration of Functions Containing only Fractional Powers of x

In this case, we put x = tn, where n is the lowest common multiple


(l. c. m.) of the denominators of powers of x. This substitution reduces the function
to a rational function of t.
Look at the following example.
Example 3.16

Let us evaluate

2 x1 / 2 + 3 x1 / 3

1 + x1/ 3

dx

Solution

We put x = t6, as 6 is the l. c. m. of 2 and 3. We get

=6

2 x1 / 2 + 3x1 / 3

2t 8 + 3t 7

1 + x1/ 3

1+ t

dx =

dt = 6

2t 3 + 3t 2
1 + t2

6 t 5 dt

6
3t 2
5
4
3
2
2t + 3t 2t 3t + 2t + 3t 2
dt
1 + t 2

1
2
3
2
3
3
2

= 6 t 7 + t 6 t 5 t 4 + t 3 + t 2 2t ln (1 + t 2 ) + 2 tan 1 t + c
7
2
5
4
3
2
2

137

Calculus : Basic Concepts

12 7 / 6
12
9
x + 3x x 5 / 6 x 2 / 3 + 4 x1 / 2 + 9 x1 / 3 12 x1 / 6 9 ln |1+ x1 / 3 | + 12 tan 1 ( x1/ 6 ) + c
7
5
2

Integrals of the Types

(i)

x 2 a 2 dx ,

(ii)

x 2 + a 2 dx

(iii)

a 2 x 2 dx ,

(iv)

ax 2 + bx + c dx

(v)

( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx

Now, let us evaluate the above integrals.


(i)

Let I =

x 2 a 2 dx

Integrating by parts taking 1 as the second function, we have

I=x

x2 a2

=x

x2 a2

=x

x2 a2

=x

x2 a2

=x

x2 a2 I

x.

1
.
2

2x

x2

dx

x2 a2

x2 a2

dx

x2 a2 + a2
x2 a2

dx

x 2 a 2 dx a 2
a2
log x +

dx
x a2
2

x 2 a 2 + c

2I = x

x2 a2

a2
log x +

x 2 a 2 + c

I=

x
2

x2 a2

a2
2

c
x 2 a 2 + c1 , where c1 =

log x +

Similarly
a2
log x +

x 2 + a 2 + c , and

x 2 + a 2 dx =

1
x
2

(iii)

a 2 x 2 dx =

a2
x
1
x a2 x2 +
sin 1 + c
a
2
2

(iv)

ax 2 + bx + c dx

(ii)

x2 + a2 +

b
c

ax 2 + bx + c = a x 2 + x +
a
a

138

c
b
b 2
= a x +
+ 2
2a

a 4a

Integral Calculus

b
c
b2
= t, 2 = k 2
2a
a 4a

x+

Put

Then the integral is reduced to any of the forms (i), (ii) or (iii).
(v)

( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx

Choose constants A and B such that


d

px + q = A (ax 2 + bx + c) + B
dx

= A (2ax + b) + B

2aA = p, Ab + B = q

i.e.

Thus the integral is reduced to


A

(2ax + b) ax 2 + bx + c dx + B

ax 2 + bx + c dx

= A I1 + B I 2
I1 =

(2ax + b) ax 2 + bx + c dx

Put ax 2 + bx + c = t
(2ax + b) dx = dt
I1 =

i.e.

Similarly, I 2 =

2
(ax 2 + bx + c) 3 / 2 + c2
3

ax 2 + bx + c dx which can be worked out as

in (iv).
(v) can be determined.
Example 3.17

Evaluate

4 x 2 dx .

Solution

4 x 2 dx =
=

2 2 x 2 dx

x
1
x 4 x 2 + 2 sin 1 + c .
2
2

Example 3.18

Evaluate

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =

Solution

Put

x + 1 = t, then dx = dt

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =

(x + 1) 2 + 4 dx

t 2 + 4 dt =

t 2 + 2 2 dt

1
1
t t 2 + 4 + . 4 log t + t 2 + 4 + c

2
2

1
( x + 1)
2

x 2 + 2 x + 5 + 2 log ( x + 1) +

x2 + 2x + 5 + c

139

Calculus : Basic Concepts

Example 3.19

Evaluate

x 1 + x x 2 dx

Solution

x = A (1 + x x 2 ) + B
dx

Let

= A (1 2 x) + B

A=

Thus

1
1
,B=
2
2
1
2

x 1 + x x 2 dx =

1
2

I1 =

1 + x x2 = t

Then

(1 2 x) dx = dt

I1 =

(1 2 x) 1 + x x 2 dx

1 + x x 2 dx

1
1
I1 + I 2
2
2

(1 2 x) 1 + x x 2 dx

Put

1
t2

2
dt = t 2 + c1
3
3

2
(1 + x x 2 ) 2 + c1
3

I2 =
x

I2 =

5
1
x dx
4
2

1
= t, then dx = dt
2

Put

Hence

1 + x x 2 dx =

. . . (1)

5
t 2 dt
4

1
t
2

5
1 5
2t
t 2 + . sin 1
+ c2
4
2 4
5

1
5
2x 1
+ c2
(2 x 1) 1 + x x 2 + sin 1
4
8
5

x 1 + x x 2 dx
3

1
1
5
2x 1
= (1 + x x 2 ) 2 + (2 x 1) 1 + x x 2 +
+c
sin 1
3
8
16
5
140

Integral Calculus

SAQ 5
Integrate the following functions :
(i)

x2 + 4x + 6

(ii)

( x + 1) 2 x 2 + 3

(iii)

1 + 3x x 2

3.7 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC


FUNCTIONS
If the integrand is a rational function of sin x or cos x or both, it can be reduced to a
x
rational function by substituting t = tan .
2
Then

dt
x 1 1 + t2
= sec 2 . =
2 2
2
dx

i.e.

dx =

2dt
1 + t2

sin x =

2t
1 + t2

, cos x =

1 t2
1 + t2

2 tan

as sin x =

x
2

1 + tan 2

x
2

x
2.
cos x =
2 x
1 + tan
2
1 tan 2

and

Example 3.20

Evaluate

1 + sin x
dx
sin x (1 + cos x)

Solution

Let

Then

tan

x
= t,
2

1 + sin x
dx =
sin x (1 + cos x)

1+

2t
1 + t2

2t
1 + t2

2 dt

1 t2 1 + t2
1 +
2
1 + t

141

Calculus : Basic Concepts

=2

1 + t 2 + 2t

2t [1 + t 2 + 1 t 2 ]
1 + t 2 + 2t
1
dt =
t
2

dt
1

t + t + 2 dt

1
2

1
2

t2
+ 2 t + c
log | t | +
2

1
x
1
x
x
log | tan | + tan 2 + tan + c
2
2
4
2
2

SAQ 6
Integrate the following :
(i)

1
5 + 4 sin x

(ii)

1
2 + cos

(iii)

1
1 + sin x + cos x

3.8 DEFINITE INTEGRALS


We have studied indefinite integrals so far. Now, we define a definite integral and see
how it can be used to find the area under certain curves.

3.8.1

Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum

Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Assume that all the
values taken by the function are non-negative, i.e. the graph of the function is a curve
above the x-axis.

142

Figure 3.1

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