Académique Documents
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Integral Calculus
Structure
3.1
Introduction
Objectives
3.2
Antiderivatives
3.3
Basic Definitions
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
Methods of Integration
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.5
Standard Integrals
Algebra of Integrals
Integration by Substitution
Integration by Parts
3.6
3.7
3.8
Definite Integrals
3.9
Area Function
First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
Evaluation of a Definite Integral by Substitution
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall introduce the notions of antiderivatives, indefinite integral and
various methods and techniques of integration. The unit will also cover definite integrals
which can be evaluated using these methods.
We have seen in Unit 2 that one of the problems which motivated the concept of a
derivative was a geometrical one that of finding a tangent to a curve at a point. The
concept of integration was also similarly motivated by a geometrical problem that of
finding the areas of plane regions enclosed by curves. Some recently discovered Egyptian
manuscripts reveal that the formulas for finding the areas of triangles and rectangles were
known even in 1800 BC. Using these formulas, one could also find the area of any figure
bounded by straight line segments. But no method for finding the area of figures bounded
by curves had evolved till much later.
In the third century BC, Archimedes was successful in rigorously proving the formula for
the area of a circle. His solution contained the seeds of the present day integral calculus.
But it was only later, in the seventeenth century, that Newton and Leibniz were able to
generalize. Archimedes method and also to establish the link between differential and
integral calculus. The definition of the definite integral of a function, which we shall give
119
in this unit, was first given by Riemann in 1854. We will also acquaint you with various
application of integration.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
3.2 ANTIDERIVATIVES
In Unit 1, we have been occupied with the problem of finding the derivative of a given
function. Some of the important applications of the calculus lead to the inverse problem,
namely, given the derivative of a function, is it possible to find the function? This
process is called antidifferentiation and the result of antidifferentiation is called an
antiderivative. The importance of the antiderivative results partly from the fact that
scientific laws often specify the rates of change of quantities. The quantities themselves
are then found by antidifferentiation.
To get started, suppose we are given that f (x) = 9, can we find f (x)? It is easy to see that
one such function f is given by f (x) = 9x, since the derivative of 9x is 9.
Before making any definite decision, consider the functions
9 x + 4, 9 x 10, 9 x + 3
Each of these functions has 9 as its derivative. Thus, not only can f (x) be 9x, but it can
also be 9 x + 4 or 9 x 10, 9 x + 3 . Not enough information is given to help us
determine which is the correct answer.
Let us look at each of these possible functions a bit more carefully. We notice that each
of these functions differs from another only by a constant. Therefore, we can say that if
f (x) = 9, then f (x) must be of the form f (x) = 9x + c, where c is a constant. We call
9x + c the antiderivative of 9.
More generally, we have the following definition.
Definition
If F1 and F2 are two antiderivatives of the same function, then F1 and F2 differ
by a constant, that is
Integral Calculus
F1 ( x ) = F2 ( x ) + c
Remark
From above Theorem, it follows that we can find all the antiderivatives of a given
function, once we know one antiderivative of it. For instance, in the above
example, since one antiderivative of 9 is 9x, all antiderivative of 9 have the form
9x + c, where c is a constant. Let us do one example.
Example 3.1
Find all the antiderivatives of 4x.
Solution
We have to look for a function F such that F (x) = 4 x . Now, an antiderivative of
4x is 2x2. Thus, by Theorem 1, all antiderivatives of 4x are given by 2x2 + c, where
c is a constant.
SAQ 1
Find all the antiderivatives of each of the following function
(i)
f (x) = 10x
(ii)
f (x) = 11x10
(iii)
f (x) = 5x
We call it the indefinite integral or just the integral of f. Thus, if F (x) is an antiderivative
of f (x), then we can write
f (x) dx = F (x) + c .
Here c is called the constant of integration. The function f (x) is called the integrand,
f (x) dx is called the element of integration and the symbol stands for the integral sign.
The indefinite integral
by constant. It is not a definite number; it is not even a definite function. We say that the
indefinite integral is unique up to an arbitrary constant.
Thus, having defined an indefinite integral, let us get acquainted with the various
techniques for evaluating integrals.
121
3.3.1
Standard Integrals
We give below some elementary standard integrals which can be obtained directly from
our knowledge of derivatives.
Table 3.1
Sl. No.
Function
Integral
xn
x n +1
+ c, n 1
n +1
sin x
cos x + c
cos x
sin x + c
sec2 x
tan x + c
cosec x
cot x + c
sec x tan x
sec x + c
cosec x cot x
cosec x + c
sin 1 x + c or cos 1 x + c
1 x2
tan 1 x + c or cot 1 x + c
1
1+ x
10
sec 1 x + c or cosec 1 x + c
1
x
x2 1
11
1
x
ln | x | + c
12
ex
ex + c
13
ax
ax
+c
ln | a |
Now let us see how to evaluate some functions which are linear combination of the
functions listed in Table 3.1.
3.3.2
Algebra of Integrals
You are familiar with the rule for differential of sum of functions, which says
d
d
d
[a f (x) + b g (x)] = a [ f (x)] + b [ g (x)]
dx
dx
dx
There is a similar rule for integration :
Rule 1
[a f (x) + b g (x)] dx = a
f (x) dx + b
g (x) dx
Theorem 2
If f is an integrable function, then so is K f (x) and
K f ( x ) dx = K
f ( x ) dx , where K is a constant.
122
Proof
Let
Integral Calculus
f (x) dx = F (x) + c
Then by definition,
d
[ F (x) + c] = f (x)
dx
d
[ K {F (x) + c}] = K f (x)
dx
K f (x) dx = K [ F (x) + c] = K
f (x) dx
Theorem 3
If f and g are two integrable functions, then f + g is integrable, and we have
[ f ( x ) + g ( x )] dx = f ( x ) dx +
g ( x ) dx .
Proof
Let
Then
d
[{F (x) + c} + {G (x) + c1}] = f (x) + g (x)
dx
Thus,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c,
g (x) dx = G (x) + c1
f (x) dx +
g (x) dx
Rule (1) may be extended to include a finite number of functions, that is, we can
write
Rule 2
f1 (x) dx + K 2
f 2 (x) dx + . . . + K n
f n (x) dx
We can make use of Rule (2) to evaluate certain integrals which are not listed in
Table 3.1.
Example 3.2
Let us evaluate
( 2 + 4 x + 3 sin x + 4e x ) dx
=2
dx + 4
x dx + 3
sin x dx + 4
e x dx
= 2 x + 2 x 2 3 cos x + 4e x + c
Example 3.3
Thus,
(1 x) 2
x
(1 x) 2
x
dx
dx
123
1 2x + x2
3
x2
= 2x
3
2
dx
1
2
dx
2x
4x 2 +
1
2
dx +
x 2 dx
2 2
x +c
3
SAQ 2
Write down the integrals of the following using Table 3.1 and Rule 2
5
2
(i)
(a) x8
(ii)
(a) x 2 x 1
(b)
(iii)
(a) e x + e x + 4
(iv)
(a)
(v)
(a) ax + bx + cx + d
(vi)
(a)
(b) x
2
1 x2
3
5
x
(b)
1
x
(c) 4x 2
(d) 9
3 x
(c) x
x
(c) 4 sec h 2 x + e x 8 x
2x2 + 5
x2 + 1
sin 4 x + cos 4 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
(b) x
x
(b) (2 + x) (3
x)
Integration by substitution,
(ii)
Integration by parts.
f ( x) dx in terms of
The method of integration by parts enables one to express the given integral of a product
of two functions in terms of another, whose integration may be simpler.
3.4.1
Integral Calculus
Integration by Substitution
f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx
. . . (1)
Since
d
f [ g ( x)] = f [ g ( x)] g ( x) (by Chain rule)
dx
f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx = f [ g ( x)] + c
Then
g ( x) =
i.e.
g ( x) dx = dt
Hence
f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx = f (t) dt
f [ g ( x)] g ( x) dx =
f (t) dt
= f (t) + c
= f [ g ( x)] + c
Let us now illustrate this technique with examples.
Example 3.4
Find
(x 2 + 1) 3 2 x dx
Solution
t = x2 + 1
Let
dt = 2 x dx
Therefore,
(x 2 + 1) 3 2 x dx
t4
1
+ c = ( x 2 + 1) 4 + c , since t = x 2 + 1 .
4
4
t 3 dt
Example 3.5
Find
x 3 e x dx .
Solution
t = x4
Let
Then
dt = 4 x 3 dx
Therefore,
x 3 e x dx =
1
4
4 x 3 e x dx
1
4
e t dt
125
1 t
e +c
4
1 x4
e + c , since t = x4
typical form and the integral can be obtained easily by the method of substitution.
Various forms of integral can be obtained easily by the method of substitution.
Various forms of integrals considered are as follows :
(a)
f (ax + b ) dx
To integrate
Therefore
a dx = dt or dx =
1
dt
a
Thus
1
a
f (ax + b) dx =
f (t) dt
which can be evaluated, once the right hand side is known, for example, to
1
find
cos (ax + b) dx , we put ax + b = t and a dx = dt or dx = dt .
a
Then
cos (ax + b) dx =
1
a
or
cos (ax + b) dx =
1
sin (ax + b) + c
a
cos t dt =
1
sin t + c
a
(ax + b) n dx =
1
1
dx = ln (ax + b) + c
ax + b
a
e ax + b dx =
sec 2 (ax + b) dx =
1 ax + b
e
+c
a
1
tan (ax + b) + c etc.
a
You can make direct use of the above results in solving exercises.
(b)
f ( x n ) x n 1 dx
To integrate f ( x n ) x n 1 , we let x n = t .
126
Then
nx n 1 dx = dt
and
f ( x n ) x n 1 dx =
1
n
f (t) dt
which can be found out once the right hand side is known.
Integral Calculus
1
dt .
3
Then,
(c)
x 2 sin x 3 dx =
1
3
sin t dt
1
cos t + c
3
1
cos x 3 + c
3
{ f ( x )}n f ( x) dx , n 1
{f ( x)}n f ( x) dx =
=
For example,
{f ( x)}n + 1
+c
n +1
=
(d)
t n +1
+c
n +1
=
Therefore,
t n dt =
1 3
t +c
3
1
(cos x)3 + c
3
f ( x)
dx
f ( x)
Putting
f (x) = t, we have f ( x) dx = dt
and
f ( x)
dx =
f (x)
dt
= ln | t | + c = ln | f ( x) | + c
t
sin x
dx =
cos x
( sin x)
dx = c ln cos x
cos x
tan x dx = c ln | cos x |
cot x dx = ln | sin x | + c
127
x
cosec x dx = ln tan + c
2
(e)
f (a 2 x 2 ) dx
dx
a +x
2
a2 x2
d
1
1
dt (tan t ) = 1 + t 2
x
= sin 1 + c
a
d
1
1
dt (sin t ) =
1 + t2
dx
x2 a2
dx
1
x
tan 1 + c
a
a
dx
a2 + x2
1
x
sec 1 + c
a
a
x + a2 + x2
+c
= ln
1
=
(sec
t
)
dt
2
t t + 1
d
ln = (t + 1 + t 2 = 1
dt
1+ t 2
We usually use all these integrals given under (a) (e) directly whenever
required without actually proving them. Sometimes it may happen that two
or more substitutions have to be used in succession. We now illustrate this
point with the help of the following example.
Example 3.6
Calculate
(i)
(ii)
2x
1 + x2
dx
sin 3 x cos 2 x dx
Solution
(i)
2x
1 + x2
dx
Put
1 + x2 = t
Then
2 x dx = dt
2x
1+ x
dx =
1
dt
t
= ln t + c
128
= ln (1 + x2) + c
(ii)
sin 3 x cos 2 x dx =
Put
cos x = t
Then
sin x dx = dt
Integral Calculus
sin 3 x cos 2 x dx =
t 2 (1 t 2 ) dt
(t 2 t 4 ) dt
t3 t5
= +c
5
3
=
t5 t3
+c
5
3
( cos x) 5 ( cos x) 3
+c
5
3
So far we have developed the method of integration by substitution, by turning the chain
rule into an integration formula. Let us do the same for the product rule. We know that
the derivative of the product of two functions f (x) and g (x) is given by
d
[ f ( x) g ( x)] = g ( x) f ( x) + f ( x) g ( x) ,
dx
where the dashes denote differentiation w. r. t. x. Corresponding to this formula, we have
a rule called integration by parts.
3.4.2
Integration by Parts
Let us now discuss the method of integration by parts in detail. We begin by taking two
functions f (x) and g (x). Let G (x) be an antiderivative of g (x), that is,
g ( x) dx = G ( x) or G ( x) = g ( x)
f ( x) g ( x) dx +
f ( x) G ( x) dx
f ( x) G ( x) dx
or
f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x) G ( x)
Thus,
f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x)
g ( x) dx
f ( x) {
g ( x) dx} dx . . . (3.1)
The integration done by using the Eq. (3.1) is called integration by parts. In other words,
it can be stated as follows :
The integral of the product of two functions
= first function integral of the second function
129
f ( x) = x and g ( x) = e x .
Then
f ( x) = 1 and
e x dx = e x
Step 2
By formula (3.1) we have
or
x e x dx = x e x
x e x dx = x e x e x + c
1 . e x dx + c
Sometimes we need to integrate by parts more than once. We now illustrate it through the
following example.
Example 3.8
Find
x 2 cos x dx
x 2 cos x dx = x 2
Solution
cos x dx
= x 2 sin x 2
2x {
cos x dx} dx
x sin x dx + c1
. . . (3.2)
x sin x dx = x
sin x dx
= x cos x +
1.{
sin x dx} dx
cos x dx
= x cos x + sin x + c2
. . . (3.3)
where c2 being the constant of integration. From Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3), we get
Find
130
e ax cos bx dx
Integral Calculus
Solution
Step 1
Choose f (x) = e ax and g ( x) = cos bx ; then integrating by parts gives
e ax cos bx dx = e ax
sin bx
ae ax
sin bx
dx + c1
b
. . . (3.4)
Step 2
Integrating
e ax sin bx dx = e ax
=
( cos bx)
1 ax
a
e cos bx +
b
b
ae ax
( cos bx)
dx + c2
b
e ax cos bx dx + c2
Note that the second term on the right hand side is nothing but a constant
multiple of the given integral.
Step 3
Substituting the value of
e ax cos bx dx = e ax
= e ax
sin bx a
b
b
a
1 ax
b e cos bx + b
a
a2
sin bx
+ 2 e ax cos bx 2
b
b
b
c3 = c1
where
e ax cos bx dx + c2 + c1
e ax cos bx dx + c3
. . . (3.5)
a
c2
b
Step 4
Transposing the last term from the right of Eq. (3.5) to left, we get
2
1 + a
b 2
e ax cos bx dx =
1 ax
a
e sin bx + 2 e ax cos bx + c3
b
b
a2
Dividing by 1 + 2 , we finally get
where c =
e ax cos bx dx =
c3
a + b2
2
e ax
a2 + b2
SAQ 3
(a)
dx
9 x 12 x + 8
2
131
(iii)
(iv)
e +1
(v)
cot x
dx
ln sin x
(vi)
e 1
(vii)
(e + e x ) 2
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(b)
x + x2 + 1
4
(tan x) 5 sec 2 x dx
dx
x
1
x
dx
dx
x
x sec 2 x 2 dx
(sin 1 x) 2
1 x2
dx
(1 + ln x) 3
dx
x
(cosec 2 x)
dx
(1 + cot x)
Evaluate
(i)
x 2 ln x dx
(ii)
x cosec 2 x dx
(iii)
e 3 x cos 4 x dx
(iv)
sin 1 x dx
(v)
x tan 1 x dx
(vi)
(vii)
132
x dx
(ii)
x sin 1 x
(1 x 2 )
x ex
(1 + x 2 )
dx
dx
Integral Calculus
We know, by now, that it is easy to integrate any polynomial function, that is, a function
f given by f ( x) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + . . . + a0 . In this section, we shall see how a
rational function can be integrated.
Definition
Q ( x)
, where
P ( x)
Q (x) and P (x) are polynomials. It is defined for all x for which P (x) 0. If the
degree of Q (x) is less than the degree of P (x), we say that R (x) is a proper
rational function. Otherwise, it is called an improper rational function.
A function R is called a rational function if it is given by R ( x) =
Thus f ( x) =
x +1
x2 + x + 2
x3 + x + 5
is an
x2
17
(by long
x2
division).
Here we have expressed g (x), which is an improper rational function, as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper rational function. This can be done for any improper rational
function.
3.5.1
Now we shall consider some simple types of proper rational functions, like
1
1
xm
,
and 2
. We shall illustrate the method of integrating these
k
x a (x b)
ax + bx + c
functions through some examples.
Example 3.10
1
(x + 2) 4
Solution
Thus, if we put u = x + 2 or
1
(x + 2) 4
dx =
Example 3.11
2x + 3
x 4x + 5
2
Solution
Perhaps you are wondering why we have split the integral into two parts.
The reason for this break-up is that now the integrand in the first integral on the
g (x)
g (x)
dx = ln | g ( x) | + c .
; and we know that
right is of the form
g (x)
g (x)
133
Thus
2x 4
dx = ln | x 2 4 x + 5| + c1 .
x 4x + 5
2
dx =
x 4x + 5
2
1
(x 4 x + 4) + 1
2
dx =
1
(x 2) 2 + 1
dx .
du
= 1 and
dx
1
du = tan 1 u + c2 = tan 1 ( x 2) + c2
2
u +1
Now, if we put u = x 2,
1
x 4x + 5
2
This implies,
3.5.2
dx =
2x + 3
x 4x + 5
2
dx = ln | x 2 4 x + 5 | + 7 tan 1 (x 2) + c .
You must have studied the factorisation of polynomials. For example, we know that
x 2 5 x + 6 = ( x 2) ( x 3)
Here (x 2) and (x 3) are two linear factors of x 2 5 x + 6 .
You must have also come across polynomial like x 2 + x + 1 , which cannot be factorised
into real factors. Thus, it is not always possible to factorise a given polynomial into linear
factors. But any polynomial can, in principle, be factorised into linear and quadratic
factors. We shall not prove this statement here. It is a consequence of the fundamental
theorem of algebra. The actual factorization of a polynomial may not be very easy to
carry out. But, whenever we can factorise the denominator of a proper rational function,
we can integrate it by employing the method of partial fractions. The following examples
will illustrate this method.
Example 3.12
Let us evaluate
5x 1
dx .
x2 1
Solution
5x 1
x2 1
5x 1
x2 1
as :
5x 1
x 1
2
5x 1
A
B
=
+
(x 1) ( x + 1) (x 1) (x + 1)
5 x 1 = ( A + B) x + ( A B)
Integral Calculus
Thus,
x 1
2
2
3
+
x 1 x +1
x 1
2
dx =
2
dx +
x 1
3
dx
x +1
= 2 ln | x 1| + 3 ln | x + 1| + c
Let us go to our next example now.
Example 3.13
Evaluate
dx .
x 3x + 2
3
Solution
x 3x + 2
3
dx .
A
B
C
+
+
x + 2 x 1 (x 1) 2
x = A (x 1) 2 + B (x + 2) (x 1) + C (x + 2)
We put x = 1, and x = 2, and get C =
1
2
and A = . Then to find B, let us put
3
9
0 = A 2B + 2C
or
0=
This implies B =
2
9
Thus
x
x 3x + 2
3
2
2
2B +
9
3
dx =
=
=
2
9
1
2
dx +
9
x+2
1
1
dx +
3
x 1
1
(x 1) 2
dx
2
2
1 1
ln | x + 2 | + ln | x 1|
+c
9
9
3 (x 1)
2
x 1
1
ln
+c
9
x+2
3 (x 1)
In our next example, we shall consider the case when the denominator of the integrand
contains an irreducible quadratic factors (i.e. a quadratic factor which cannot be further
factored into linear factors).
Example 3.14
135
6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4
Evaluate
We factorise
x 4 2 x 3 + x 2 2 x as x ( x 2) ( x 2 + 1) .
x 4 2 x3 + x 2 2 x
6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4
Then we write
x 2x + x 2x
4
dx
A
B
Cx + D
+
+ 2
x ( x 2)
x +1
Thus
6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4 = A ( x 2) ( x 2 + 1) + B x ( x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D) x ( x 2)
Next, we substitute x = 0, and x = 2, to get A = 2 and B = 1. Then we put
x = 1 and x = 1 (some convenient values) to get C = 3 and D = 1.
Thus,
6 x 3 11x 2 + 5 x 4
dx = 2
1
dx +
x
= 2 ln | x | + ln | x 2 | +
3
2
= 2 ln | x | + ln | x 2 | +
3
ln | x 2 + 1| tan 1 x + c
2
x 2x + x 2x
4
2x
x +1
2
1
dx +
x2
dx
3x 1
x2 + 1
dx
dx
x +1
2
Thus, you see, once we decompose integrand, which is a proper rational function, into
partial fractions, then the given integral can be written as the sum of some integrals of the
type discussed in previous examples.
All the functions which we integrated till now were proper rational functions. Now we
shall take up an example of an improper rational function.
Example 3.15
Let us evaluate
x3 + 2x
dx .
x2 x 2
Solution
Since the integrand is an improper rational function, we shall first write it as the
sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.
x3 + 2 x
Now
x x2
2
Therefore,
Hence
= ( x + 1) +
x3 + 2 x
x x2
2
x3 + 2 x
x2 x 2
dx =
Evaluate
(i)
136
x
x 2x 3
2
dx
x x2
dx =
(x + 1) dx +
x dx +
5x + 2
x x2
dx + 4
dx
dx
+
x2
x2
+ x + 4 ln | x 2 | + ln | x + 1| + c
2
SAQ 4
5x + 2
2
dx
x +1
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
3x 13
Integral Calculus
x 2 + 3x 10
dx
6 x 2 + 22 x 23
( 2 x 1) ( x 2 + x 6)
x2 + x 1
dx
(x 1) ( x 2 x + 1)
x2
x2 a2
dx
x2 + 4
dx
x2 + 2x + 3
dx
Let us evaluate
2 x1 / 2 + 3 x1 / 3
1 + x1/ 3
dx
Solution
=6
2 x1 / 2 + 3x1 / 3
2t 8 + 3t 7
1 + x1/ 3
1+ t
dx =
dt = 6
2t 3 + 3t 2
1 + t2
6 t 5 dt
6
3t 2
5
4
3
2
2t + 3t 2t 3t + 2t + 3t 2
dt
1 + t 2
1
2
3
2
3
3
2
= 6 t 7 + t 6 t 5 t 4 + t 3 + t 2 2t ln (1 + t 2 ) + 2 tan 1 t + c
7
2
5
4
3
2
2
137
12 7 / 6
12
9
x + 3x x 5 / 6 x 2 / 3 + 4 x1 / 2 + 9 x1 / 3 12 x1 / 6 9 ln |1+ x1 / 3 | + 12 tan 1 ( x1/ 6 ) + c
7
5
2
(i)
x 2 a 2 dx ,
(ii)
x 2 + a 2 dx
(iii)
a 2 x 2 dx ,
(iv)
ax 2 + bx + c dx
(v)
( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
Let I =
x 2 a 2 dx
I=x
x2 a2
=x
x2 a2
=x
x2 a2
=x
x2 a2
=x
x2 a2 I
x.
1
.
2
2x
x2
dx
x2 a2
x2 a2
dx
x2 a2 + a2
x2 a2
dx
x 2 a 2 dx a 2
a2
log x +
dx
x a2
2
x 2 a 2 + c
2I = x
x2 a2
a2
log x +
x 2 a 2 + c
I=
x
2
x2 a2
a2
2
c
x 2 a 2 + c1 , where c1 =
log x +
Similarly
a2
log x +
x 2 + a 2 + c , and
x 2 + a 2 dx =
1
x
2
(iii)
a 2 x 2 dx =
a2
x
1
x a2 x2 +
sin 1 + c
a
2
2
(iv)
ax 2 + bx + c dx
(ii)
x2 + a2 +
b
c
ax 2 + bx + c = a x 2 + x +
a
a
138
c
b
b 2
= a x +
+ 2
2a
a 4a
Integral Calculus
b
c
b2
= t, 2 = k 2
2a
a 4a
x+
Put
Then the integral is reduced to any of the forms (i), (ii) or (iii).
(v)
( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
px + q = A (ax 2 + bx + c) + B
dx
= A (2ax + b) + B
2aA = p, Ab + B = q
i.e.
(2ax + b) ax 2 + bx + c dx + B
ax 2 + bx + c dx
= A I1 + B I 2
I1 =
(2ax + b) ax 2 + bx + c dx
Put ax 2 + bx + c = t
(2ax + b) dx = dt
I1 =
i.e.
Similarly, I 2 =
2
(ax 2 + bx + c) 3 / 2 + c2
3
in (iv).
(v) can be determined.
Example 3.17
Evaluate
4 x 2 dx .
Solution
4 x 2 dx =
=
2 2 x 2 dx
x
1
x 4 x 2 + 2 sin 1 + c .
2
2
Example 3.18
Evaluate
x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx
x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =
Solution
Put
x + 1 = t, then dx = dt
x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =
(x + 1) 2 + 4 dx
t 2 + 4 dt =
t 2 + 2 2 dt
1
1
t t 2 + 4 + . 4 log t + t 2 + 4 + c
2
2
1
( x + 1)
2
x 2 + 2 x + 5 + 2 log ( x + 1) +
x2 + 2x + 5 + c
139
Example 3.19
Evaluate
x 1 + x x 2 dx
Solution
x = A (1 + x x 2 ) + B
dx
Let
= A (1 2 x) + B
A=
Thus
1
1
,B=
2
2
1
2
x 1 + x x 2 dx =
1
2
I1 =
1 + x x2 = t
Then
(1 2 x) dx = dt
I1 =
(1 2 x) 1 + x x 2 dx
1 + x x 2 dx
1
1
I1 + I 2
2
2
(1 2 x) 1 + x x 2 dx
Put
1
t2
2
dt = t 2 + c1
3
3
2
(1 + x x 2 ) 2 + c1
3
I2 =
x
I2 =
5
1
x dx
4
2
1
= t, then dx = dt
2
Put
Hence
1 + x x 2 dx =
. . . (1)
5
t 2 dt
4
1
t
2
5
1 5
2t
t 2 + . sin 1
+ c2
4
2 4
5
1
5
2x 1
+ c2
(2 x 1) 1 + x x 2 + sin 1
4
8
5
x 1 + x x 2 dx
3
1
1
5
2x 1
= (1 + x x 2 ) 2 + (2 x 1) 1 + x x 2 +
+c
sin 1
3
8
16
5
140
Integral Calculus
SAQ 5
Integrate the following functions :
(i)
x2 + 4x + 6
(ii)
( x + 1) 2 x 2 + 3
(iii)
1 + 3x x 2
dt
x 1 1 + t2
= sec 2 . =
2 2
2
dx
i.e.
dx =
2dt
1 + t2
sin x =
2t
1 + t2
, cos x =
1 t2
1 + t2
2 tan
as sin x =
x
2
1 + tan 2
x
2
x
2.
cos x =
2 x
1 + tan
2
1 tan 2
and
Example 3.20
Evaluate
1 + sin x
dx
sin x (1 + cos x)
Solution
Let
Then
tan
x
= t,
2
1 + sin x
dx =
sin x (1 + cos x)
1+
2t
1 + t2
2t
1 + t2
2 dt
1 t2 1 + t2
1 +
2
1 + t
141
=2
1 + t 2 + 2t
2t [1 + t 2 + 1 t 2 ]
1 + t 2 + 2t
1
dt =
t
2
dt
1
t + t + 2 dt
1
2
1
2
t2
+ 2 t + c
log | t | +
2
1
x
1
x
x
log | tan | + tan 2 + tan + c
2
2
4
2
2
SAQ 6
Integrate the following :
(i)
1
5 + 4 sin x
(ii)
1
2 + cos
(iii)
1
1 + sin x + cos x
3.8.1
Let f be a continuous function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Assume that all the
values taken by the function are non-negative, i.e. the graph of the function is a curve
above the x-axis.
142
Figure 3.1