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1.
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Concrete is the most important building material, due to its ability to be moulded to
take up the shapes required for the various structural forms.
and fire resistant.
strength in tension
strength in compression
strength in shear
durability
fire resistance
Concrete
poor
good
fair
good
good
Steel
good
good, but slender bars will buckle
good
corrodes if unprotected
poor suffers rapid loss of strength a high
temperatures
It can be see from this list that the materials are more or less complementary.
The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements:
Beams
Slab
Columns
Wall
Bases and foundations
Composite Action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength;
therefore, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are not designed to resist any
tensile forces, while all tensile forces are designed to be carried by reinforcement,
which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials. If the
bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there
will not be a composite action.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed
that there is perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the
strain in the adjacent concrete.
Figure 1.1
Composite action
Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending
and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the
compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
1.4 Stress-Strain Relations
1.4.1 Concrete
As the load is
applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and
the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material.
linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material. The ultimate
strain for most structural concrete tends to be a constant value of approximately
0.0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete.
1.4.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in which a cylinder
is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then
cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial bedding in and minor
stress redistribution in the concrete under load. Load is then reapplied and the
behaviour will then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified
stress is taken as the value for EC.
Figure 1.3
fcu,28
(N/mm2)
Typical
Mean
25
19 31
25
30
20 32
26
40
22 34
28
50
60
24 36
26 38
30
32
Figure 1.4
Fig.1.4 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled mild steel & high yield
steel, and (b) cold worked high yield steel. The hot rolled bars have definite yield
point, but the cold worked bar does not have a definite yield point. The specified
strength used in design is based on the yield stress for hot rolled mild steel and high
yield steel, whereas for cold worked high yield steel, the strength is based on a
specified proof stress. A 0.2% proof stress is defined in fig.1.4.
1.5 Durability
Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should
required little maintenance.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
C7
C10
Plain concrete
C15
C20
C25
C30
C40
Specified Characteristic
Strength (N/mm)
250
460
(6), 8, 10 & 12
485
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
Limiting values for nominal cover are given in the following Table 1.3. Note that the
water-to-cement ratio and minimum cement content are specified.
Good
workmanship is required to ensure that the steel is property placed and that the
specified cover is obtained.
Conditions of exposure
Mild
Moderate
25
20
35
20
30
Severe
40
Very severe
Extreme
Maximum free water-to-cement ratio
Minimum cement content (kg/m)
Lowest grade of concrete
--
--
50
--
0.65
275
C30
0.6
300
C35
0.55
325
C40
Table 1.3 Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to meet durability requirements
Beams
Floors
Ribs
Column
Hour
SS
SS
SS
1.0
1.5
2.0
20
20
40
20
20
30
20
25
35
20
20
25
20
35
45
20
20
35
20
20
25
Fire
Min. beam
Rib
Min. floor
Column width
Min. wall
full exposed
b
thickness
0.4% < p < 1%
200
250
300
120
140
160
resistance
(hour)
thickness
h
1.0
1.5
2.0
200
200
200
125
125
125
95
110
125
Dimensions mm
p = area of steel relative to concrete
Figure 1.5
2.
Introduction
The design of an engineering structure must ensure that
i)
ii)
During the normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not
detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure.
Design Methods
Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have
been developed and they are:
i)
The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are
divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses, which are usually
within the elastic range. e.g. actual strength = 460N/mm2, applying F.O.S. = 2
using 230N/mm2 for design.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method
but it does have some serious inconsistencies. Because it is based on an
elastic stress distribution, it is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material
such as concrete.
ii)
The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor
of safety. e.g. actual load = 20kN, applying F.O.S. = 2 using 40kN for
design.
In load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in
the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the
material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the
material.
iii)
The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial factors
of safety and also divides the materials ultimate strength by further partial
factors of safety.
The limit state of design overcomes many of the disadvantages of the above
two methods.
Limit States
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not
become unfit for its intended use that is, that it will not reach a limit state.
The two principal types of limit state are the Ultimate Limit State and the
Serviceability Limit State.
i)
b)
Cracking local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.
c)
e)
f)
g)
10
Characteristic Strength
It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be
approximately normal, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of
sample results would be of the form shown in the Fig.2.1 The characteristic strength is
taken as that value below which it is unlikely that more than 5% of the results will fall.
This is given by
fk = fm 1.64s
where fk = characteristic strength, fm = mean strength, s = standard deviation.
Characteristic Loads
Ideally, it should be possible to assess loads statistically, that
Characteristic Load = mean load 1.64 Standard Deviations
These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90% of values
will lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5% will exceed the upper
limit and not more than 5% will fall below the lower limit.
* In Hong Kong, design loads should be obtained from the Building (Construction)
Regulations.
11
ii)
Limit state
Concrete
Steel
Ultimate
Flexure
Shear
Bond
1.5
1.25
1.4
1.15
1.15
Serviceability
1.0
1.0
12
ii)
iii)
iv)
These are taken into account in design by applying a partial factor safety (f ) on
loading, so that,
Design Load = Characteristic Load x (f )
The partial factor of safety (to BS8110) is as shown below.
Ultimate
Load Combination
Concrete Imposed
(G)
(Q)
1.4
1.6
(or 1.0) (or 0.0)
Serviceability All
Earth &
Water
Wind
(Q)
(W)
(GQW)
1.4
1.0
1.4
(or 1.0)
1.4
1.4
1.0
Wind
(+ Earth & Water)
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.0
*It should be noted that the Partial Factors of Safety for Loadings in local code ( Code
of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete ) uses a different for LL and DL.
13
3.
Dead load includes the weight of the structure, and all architectural components such
as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings.
ii)
iii)
Fig. 3.1 shows the arrangement of vertical loading for multi-span continuous beam to
cause (i) maximum sagging moment in alternate spans and (ii) maximum moment at
support A.
*BS8110 & HK Code of Practice allow the ultimate design moments at the supports
to be calculated from one loading condition with all spans fully loaded.
14
Figure 3.1
Frame Analysis
Braced Frame
A braced frame is where the sway deflection is reduced substantially by the
presence of cross bracing, shear wall or core wall.
Sub-frame analysis
All columns and beam spanning between joints which allow rotation take the
full stiffness. Beams having one end fixed take a reduced stiffness of 50% to
allow for the remote end of the beam is fixed against rotation. (see fig.3.2)
The structure will be subjected to the following loading cases:i)
ii)
15
Unbraced Frame
An unbraced frame is where the sway due to the imposition of horizontal loading is
not limited (except the inherent stiffness of the columns and beams) and the
beam-column connection is required to resist the moment induced by sway.
Sub-frame analysis
Only the two frames shown in fig. 3.2b can be considered, i.e. the sub-frame (viii) and
the sub-frame (ix). The sub-frame (ix) is analysed by using 1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk and
1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk. The sub-frame (viii) is analysed by using 1.2 Wk. The most
critical loading case for the structural members is obtained by comparing the
results of the two loading cases.
i)
ii)
1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk
1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
The sub-frame (viii) is analysed under the loading of and is carried out by assuming
point of contraflexure at the mid-spans of all beams and mid-storey heights for all
columns.
16
Fig. 3.2 Basic frame with typical subframes for both the braced and unbraced case.
17
4.
The stresses and strains are related by the material properties, including the
ii)
iii)
The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads
for static equilibrium.
Stress-Strain Relations
Concrete
Figure 4.1 Short term design stress-strain curve for normal-weight concrete
18
The ultimate
0.67 fcu
1.5
Where 0.67 allows the difference between the bending strength and cube crushing
strength of concrete and m = 1.5 is the usual partial safety factor.
Steel Reinforcement
Fig. 4.2 shows a typical short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement.
behaviour of steel is identical in tension and compression.
The
fy
Stress = Es s
Design Yield Strain y =
fy
) / Es
ii)
iii)
The following Fig. 4.3 shown the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and
the resultant stain diagram, together with three types of stress distribution in the
concrete.
i)
The triangular stress distribution applies to the serviceability limit state. (SLS)
ii)
iii)
st = cc = (
and sc = cc = (
dx
x
x d
x
)
)
Where d and d are the effective depth & the depth of comp. reinf. Respectively
20
dx
By rearranging (1),
x =
1+
st
cc
1+
st = 0.636 d
cc
21
Figure 4.4
= Fcc
z = Fst
z, z lever arm
= 0.45bs z fcu
= 0.45b 2(d z)z fcu
= 0.9 fcu b(d z)z
Also
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Fst = (fy / m)
As =
with m = 1.15
As
M
0.87 fy z
22
The lever arm z can be found by using formula, table or design chart as shown below.
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Formula
K = M/bd2fcu
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
la = z/d
0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Table
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with
moment redistribution applied.
The upper limit of the lever-arm curve, z = 0.95d, is specified by BS8110.
The
lower limit of z = 0.775d is when the depth of neutral axis x = d/2, which is the
maximum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced section in order to
provide a ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure.
With
z = 0.775d,
When M > 0.156 fcu bd, the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of
resistance of the concrete. compression reinforcement is required.
Z = d s/2
= d 0.9 x/2
= d 0.9 0.5d/2
= 0.775d
Moment Redistribution
24
The moment derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the
assumption that plastic hinges have formed at the sections with largest moments.
The formulation of plastic hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of
the tension reinforcement. To ensure large strains in the tension steel, the code of
practice restricts the depth of neutral axis.
X (b - 0.4)d
Where d = effective depth
b =
and
z = d- s/2
= d 0.9(b - 0.4)d/2
Mc
bd2 fcu
Let
Mc
= K
bd2 fcu
K = 0.402(b - 0.4)-0.18(b - 0.4)
when M > Kbdfcu , then compression steel is required such that
As =
(K K) fcu bd2
0.87 fy (d d)
K fcu bd2
+ As
0.87 fy z
Table 4.1 shows the various design factors associated with the moment redistribution.
If the value of d/d for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the compression
and As =
25
steel will not be yielded and the compressive stress shall be taken as fsc = Essc.
Redistribution
x/d
z/d
d/d
0.9
0.5
0.775
0.156
0.215
(per cent)
10
15
20
0.85
0.8
0.45
0.4
0.797
0.82
0.144
0.132
0.193
0.172
25
30
0.75
0.7
0.35
0.3
0.842
0.865
0.119
0.104
0.150
0.129
26
5.
fy = 250 N/mm
fy = 450 N/mm
100As / Ac
0.8
0.45
100As /bwh
0.32
0.18
(2) b W / b 0.4
100As /bwh
0.24
0.13
(1) T-beam
100As /bwh
0.48
0.26
(2) L-beam
100As /bwh
0.36
0.20
100As /Ac
0.24
0.13
100Asc /Acc
0.4
0.4
100Asc /Ac
0.4
0.4
100Asc /bht
0.4
0.4
100Asc /bwh
0.2
0.2
100Asc /Ac
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.15
Tension reinforcement
Sections subjected mainly to pure tension
Sections subjected to flexure
(a) Flanged beams, web in tension:
beams (provided over full effective flange width near top 100Asc /htl
surface to resist horizontal shear)
27
Anchorage Bond
The reinforcing bar subject to tension shown in Fig. 5.1 must be firmly anchored if it
not be pulled out of the concrete
2
4
fs
L =
fs
4fbu
= ( L ) fbu
0.87 fy
4 fbu
Bars in tension
Plain bars
Type 1 : deformed bars
Type 2 : deformed bars
Fabric
anchorage length L can be written as:
0.28
0.40
0.50
0.65
L = KA
Bars in compression
0.35
0.50
0.53
0.81
28
Table 5.3
Ultimate anchorage bond lengths and lap lengths as multiples of bar size
Reinforcement
Grade 250
plain
Grade 460
Plain
Deformed
Deformed Fabric
type 1
type 2
39
72
51
41
31
55
101
71
57
44
78
143
101
81
62
Compression anchorage
32
58
41
32
25
39
72
51
40
31
36
66
46
37
29
50
92
64
52
40
71
131
92
74
57
Compression anchorage
29
53
37
29
23
36
66
46
37
29
33
61
43
34
27
46
85
60
48
37
66
121
85
68
53
Compression anchorage
27
49
34
27
21
33
61
43
34
27
31
57
40
32
25
43
80
56
45
35
62
113
80
64
49
Compression anchorage
25
46
32
26
20
31
57
40
32
25
NOTE, The values are rounded up to the whole number and the length derived from these values may
differ slightly from those calculated directly for each bar or wire size.
29
Figure 5.2
Lapping of Reinforcement
Rules for lapping are:i)
ii)
The laps should be staggered and be away from sections with high stresses.
Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage length,
but in certain conditions, it should be increased.
a) At top section and with min. cover < 2 (Multiply by 1.4)
b) At corners where min. cover to either face < 2 or clear distance between
adjacent laps < 75 mm or 6. (Multiply by 1.4)
c) Where both (a) and (b) apply. (Multiply by 2.0)
iii)
iv)
Shear
Shear reinforcement can be in the form of stirrups and inclined bars.
However,
inclined bars are less frequently used in construction today, due to difficult in actual
construction work.
Stirrups
Fig. 5.4 shows an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement forms the
bottom chord, the stirrups are the vertical members and the concrete acts as the
diagonal and top chord compression member.
=
sv
0.87 fyv
Taken the shear resistance of concrete into account,
Asv
sv
b(v vc)
0.87 fyv
where vc is the ultimate shear stress that can be resisted by the concrete.
of vc is given in table 5.3
The values
150
175
200
225
250
300
>400
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
0.15
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.25
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.50
0.67
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.50
0.75
0.77
0.73
0.71
0.68
0.66
0.65
0.62
0.57
1.00
0.84
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.73
0.71
0.68
0.63
1.50
0.97
0.92
0.89
0.86
0.83
0.81
0.78
0.72
2.00
1.06
1.02
0.98
0.95
0.92
0.89
0.86
0.80
3.00
1.22
1.16
1.12
1.08
1.05
1.02
0.98
0.91
400/d
For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm, the values in the table may be
multiplied by (fcu/25) 1/3. The value of fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
The values of Vc increases for shallow members and those with larger percentages of
tensile reinforcement.
32
Average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8(fcu) or 5 N/mm.
33
The preliminary analysis need only provide the max. moments and shears in order to
ascertain reasonable dimensions.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Breath (b)
Effective depth (d)
Overall depth (h)
The strength of a beam is affected more by its depth than its breath.
breath may be 1/3 1/2 of the depth.
A suitable
ii)
iii)
The span-effective depth ratio for span 10m should be within the basic
values given below.
Cantilever Beam
Simply Supported Beam
Continuous Beam
7
20
26
The basic span-effective depth ratio shall be modified according to M/bd and
the service stress in the tension reinforcement.
34
For span greater than 10m, the basic ratios shall be multiplied by 10/span.
iv)
Simply supported beam:- the smaller of the distance between the centre of
bearings, or the clear distance between support plus the effective depth.
Continuous beam:- the distance between the centre of supports.
Cantilever beam:- the length to the face of the support plus 1/2 effective depth,
or the distance to the center of the support if the beam is continuous.
Design for Bending
35
Figure 6.2
Calculate K = M/bdfcu
Determine the lever-arm, z, by from formula, table or the design chart below.
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Formula
K = M/bd2fcu
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
la = z/d
0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Table
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with moment redistribution
applied.
iii)
iv)
v)
As /bh
As /bh
4.0%
0.24%
0.13%
36
Figure 6.3
Solution:
K = M/bdfcu assuming Y32 steel to be used, d = 600 30 12 32/2
= 542 mm
K = 250 106 / (300 5422 45)
= 0.063 < 0.156 compression steel is not required
by formula, lever arm, la = 0.5 +(0.25 - K/0.9)
= 0.5 +(0.25 -0.063/0.9)
= 0.942 < 0.95 use 0.942
la = z/d
z = 0.942 542 mm = 500.9 mm
Calculating the required tension reinforcement,
M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 250 106 / (0.87 460 500.9) = 1247 mm2
Provide 2Y32 bars, area = 1608 mm (As% = 0.99%) > 0.13% & < 4%
the section is satisfy for resisting the applied moment
Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beam
*
ii)
0.87 fy z
+ As
and z = 0.775d
If d/d > 0.2, the stress in compression steel should be determined by the
stress-strain relationship.
Figure 6.4
38
iv)
calculate fsc = Es sc
Calculate the area of compression steel by
As =
v)
(K - K) fcu bd
fsc (d-d)
As =
K fcu bd
0.87 fy z
+ As
fsu
0.87 fy
The links should pass round the corner bars and each alternative bar.
The link size 1/4 of the size of largest compression bar.
C)
D)
Solution:
K = M/bdfcu K = 160 106 / (230 3302 30)
= 0.22 > 0.156 compression steel is required
d/d = 50/330 = 0.15 < 0.2
39
fcu = 0.87 fy
By formula, required compression steel
M 0.156 fcu bd
As =
= 427 mm2
0.156 fcu bd
0.87 fy z
+ As
+ 427
= 1572 mm2
Provide 2Y20 bars for As, area = 628 mm and 2Y32 bars for As, area = 1610 mm.
Checking of As%,
100As
bh
100As
bh
100 628
230 390
100 1610
230 390
= 0.70
= 1.79
40
As the moment reduction factor b = 0.7, the limiting depth of the neutral axis is
x = (b 0.4)d
= (0.7 0.4) 540 = 162 mm
K = M/bd fcu
= 370 106/(300 5402 30)
= 0.141
K = 0.402 (b 0.4) 0.18 (b 0.4)
= 0.104
K > K therefore compression steel is required
therefore fsc < 0.87 fy
(1)
(2)
0.0035 (x d)
X
0.0035 (162 100)
162
= 0.00134
(3)
Compression steel As =
=
(4)
Tension Steel As =
As =
(K - K) fcu bd
fsc (d-d)
(0.141 0.104) 30 300 5402
K fcu bd
fsu
0.87 fy z
0.87 fy
0.104 30 300 5402
+ 823
268
41
0.87 460
Provide 2Y25 bars for As, area = 982 mm and 2Y32 & 1Y25 bars for As area = 2101
mm, which also meet the requirements of the code for steel areas..
T-Beam and L-Beam
Fig. 6.7 shows a T-beam and an L-beam. Where the beams are resisting sagging
moment, part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the members may be
designed as a T-beam or L-beam.
*
With hogging moment, the slab will be in tension and assumed to be crack,
the beam must be designed as a rectangular section of width bw and overall
depth h.
Figure 6.7
T-section, the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the web + 1/5 of
the distance between point of zero moment.
ii)
L-section, the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the web +
1/10 of the distance between point of zero moment.
As a simple rule, the distance between the points of zero moment may be
taken as 0.7 times the effective span for a continuous beam.
When the N.A. falls within the flange, design the T-beam or L-beam as an
equivalent rectangular section of breath bf.
Transverse reinforcement should be placed across the top flange with an area
42
ii)
If d z < hf /2, the stress block falls within the flanged depth, and the design is
proceeded as for a rectangular section.
iii)
In every flexural member every bar should be extend beyond the theoretical cut-off
point for a distance equal to greater of :i)
ii)
12
The bars extend a full anchorage bond length beyond the theoretical cut-off
point.
At the physical cut-off point, the shear capacity is at least twice the actual
shear force.
v)
At the physical cut-off point, the actual bending moment is not more than half
the moment at theoretical cut-off point.
For example:-
Figure 6.8
43
AB is the greater of d or 12
AB equals the full anchorage bond length.
ii)
Max. spacing Sv of stirrup should not exceed 0.75d longitudinally along the
span.
iii)
At right angles to the span, the spacing of the vertical legs should not exceed d,
and all tension bars should be within 150 mm of a vertical leg.
The choice of steel type is often governed by the fact that mild steel may be
bent to a smaller radius than high-yield steel. This is important in narrow
members to allow correct positioning of the tension reinforcement.
The size and spacing of the stirrups is given by the following equation.
Asv
Sv
Where
b(v-vc)
0.87fyv
If v is less than vc nominal links must still be provided unless the beam is a very minor
one and
vc
v<
2
The nominal links should be provided such that
Asv
0.4b
=
Sv
0.87fyv
Example 6.4
Shear reinforcement is to be designed for the one span beam of example as shown in
figures 6.10. The characteristic strength of the mild steel links in fyv = 250 N/mm.
(a) Check maximum shear stress
Total load on span F = wu span
= 75.2 x 6.0
= 451 kN
At face of support
45
shear stress
v=
vs
bd
214 103
300 550
= Vs - wu d
= 214 75.2 0.55 = 173 kN
46
Sv
2 78.5
220
= 0.71
Sv
0.4b
0.87fyv
0.4 300
0.87 250
= 0.55
Sv
2 78.5
280
= 0.56
Vn =
Asv
0.87 fyv + bvc
Sv
)d
s=
Vs - Vn
214 - 159
Wu
75.2
= 0.73 metres from the face of the support
There is a section at which the shear resistance of the concrete plus the nominal
stirrups equals the shear force form the envelope diagram. At this section, the
stirrups necessary to resist shear can stop and replaced by the nominal stirrups.
The shear resistance Vn of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups is given by
47
Vn = (0.4 + Vc )bd
Determine As and Asv to resist the bending moments and shear forces.
ii)
vt =
hmin
hmax
Torsional moment
The smaller dimension of the beam section.
The larger dimension of the beam section.
iii)
If vt > vtmin , in Table 6.1, then torsional reinforcement required. Refer to Table
6.2 for the reinforcement requirements with a combination of torsion and shear
stress v.
iv)
v + vt vtu (refer to Table 6.1), where v is the shear stress due to shear force.
Also, for sections with yl < 550mm
vt (
vtu y1
550
T
0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
vi)
As =
Where
Asv
sv
Asv
sv
fyv
fy
(x1 + y1)
Figure 6.11
Torsion example
Concrete grade
yl min
vtu
25
30
40
or more
0.33
4.00
0.37
4.38
0.40
5.00
49
vt < vt min
vt > vt min
v vc + 0.4
v > vc + 0.4
Table 6.2
and
Asv
sv
= 0.79
(2)
vt =
vt =
2T
2
min
(hmax hmin/3)
2 10 106
2
(3)
is required.
(4)
v=
= 0.56 N/mm2
V
bd
160 103
300 450
= 1.19 N/mm2
Therefore
v + vs = 1.19 + 0.56 = 1.75 N/mm2
vut from table 6.1 = 4.38 N/mm2, therefore
50
vtu y1
550
4.38 400
550
= 3.5
Asv
sv
=
=
T
0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
10.0 106
0.8 240 440 0.87 250
= 0.55
Therefore
Total
Asv
sv
= 1.57
(6)
As =
=
Asv
sv
0.55
fyv
fy
250
460
(x1 + y1)
Therefore
Total steel area 1100 + 203 = 1303 mm2
Provide the longitudinal steel shown in figure 6.11.
(7)
51
Flanged
(bw > 0.3b)
7
20
26
5.6
16.0
20.8
Cantilever
Simply supported
Continuous
Table 6.3 Basic span-effective depth ratios
The basic ratios given in table 6.3 are modified in particular cases according to
(a) The service stress in the tension steel and the value of M/bd in table 6.4,
(b) The area of compression steel as in table 6.5
Reinforcement
service
(N/mm)
stress
(fy = 250)
(fy = 460)
100
150
156
200
250
288
300
M/bd
0.50
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.90
1.68
1.60
0.75
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.95
1.70
1.50
1.44
1.0
2.0
1.98
1.96
1.76
1.55
1.38
1.33
1.5
1.86
1.69
1.66
1.51
1.34
1.21
1.16
2.0
1.63
1.49
1.47
1.35
1.20
1.09
1.06
3.0
1.36
1.25
1.24
1.14
1.04
0.95
0.93
4.0
1.19
1.11
1.10
1.02
0.94
0.87
0.85
5.0
1.08
1.01
1.00
0.94
0.87
0.82
0.80
6.0
1.01
0.94
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.78
0.76
2.0
120
( 0.9 + bd )
2
where M is design ultimate moment at the center of the span or, for a cantilever, at the support
NOTE 2. The design service stress in the tension reinforcement in a member may be estimated
from the equation:
fs =
5 fy As, require
8 As, provided
NOTE 3. For a continuous beam, if the percentage of redistribution is not known but the design
ultimate moment at mid-span is obviously the same as or greater than the elastic
ultimate moment, the stress, fs, in this table may be taken as fy.
Table 6.4
52
100 As prov
bd
Factor
0.00
0.15
0.25
1.00
1.05
1.08
0.35
0.50
1.10
1.14
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
1.20
1.25
1.33
1.40
1.45
1.50
NOTE 1. The values in this table are derived from the following
equation:
Modification factor for compression reinforcement =
1 +
/( 3 +
) 1.5
53
thus, from table 6.4 for fy = 460 N/mm, modification factor = 0.89.
Compression reinforcement modification factor:
100As
100 402
= 2.2
=
bd
300 600
thus from table 6.5, modification factor = 1.07
Hence, modified span-effective depth ratio is equal to
21.7 0.89 1.07 = 20.7
Span-effective depth ratio provided =
12 103
600
= 20
Which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are likely to
be satisfied.
6.11 Worked Examples
Example 6.6 Design of a simply supported L-beam in footbridge
(a) Specification
The section through a simply supported reinforced concrete footbridge of 7 m
span shown in Fig.6.12. The imposed load is 5 kN/m2 and the materials to be
used are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement. Design the L-beams
that support the bridge. Concrete weights 2400 kg/m and the weight of the
handrails are 16 kg/m per side.
The imposed load carried by one L-beam is 0.8 5 = 4 kN/m. The design load
(1.4 4.3) + (1.6 4) = 12.42 kN/m
The ultimate moment at the center of the beam is
54
55
Fig.6.12
Section through footbridge; (b) design load; (c) shear force diagram; (d) bending
moment diagram.
56
Figure 6.13 (a) Beam section; (b) beam support; (c) beam elevation.
K =
76.1 106
= 0.027
800 3402 30
z = 340 [0.5 + (0.25 0.027/0.9)]
= 329.5 mm
> 0.95d using 0.95d = 0.95 340 = 323 mm
As =
76.1 106
0.87 460 323
= 589 mm2
Provide 4Y16 mm, As = 804 mm. Using the simplified rules for curtailment of bars,
2 bars are cut off as shown in Fig. 6.13(c) at 0.08L of the span from each end.
57
The enhancement of shear strength near the support using the simplified
approach is taken into account in the design of shear.
stress at the support is
v =
43.5 103
300 340
= 0.64 N/mm2
= 271.9
0.4 200
58
The anchorage of the bars at the supports must comply with BS8110: Part 1,
clause 3.12.9.4. The bars are to be anchored 12 bar diameters past the center of
the support. This will be provided by a 90 bend with an internal radius of three
bar diameters.
(N/mm )
to be provided
be provided
See note 1
the beam
0.5 vc < v < ( vc + 0.4 )
length of beam
(see note 2)
5 N/mm2
59
(f)
Deflection check
The deflection of the beam is checked using the rules given in table 6.4 & 6.5
(BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.6).
web width
effective flange width
bw
b
200
800
76.1 106
800 3402
= 0.82
5 460 589
8 804
= 210.6N/mm2
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
0.55 +
477 210.6
120 ( 0.9 + 0.82 )
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with As.prov = 226
mm according to Table 6.5 is
100 As, prov
bd
100 226
800 340
= 0.083
60
Specification
A rectangular beam is 300 mm wide by 450 mm effective depth with inset to the
compression steel of 55 mm. The beam is simply supported and spans 8 m.
The dead load including an allowance for self-weight is 20 kN/m and the
imposed load is 11 kN/m.
Loads and shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.14.
design load = ( 1.4 20 ) + (1.6 11 ) = 45.6 kN/m
ultimate moment = 45.6 82 / 8 = 364.8 kN
(c)
Figure 6.14
(a) Design Loading; (b) ultimate shear force diagram; (c) ultimate bending
61
moment diagram.
The area of
= 508 mm2
182.4 103
300 462.5
= 1.31 N/mm2
161.4 103
300 462.5
= 161.4 kN
= 1.16 N/mm2
100 1472
300 462.5
= 1.06
62
The design shear strength from the formula in BS8110: Part 1, Table 3.9. is
vc = 0.79 ( 1.06 )1/3 ( 30/25 )1/3 / 1.25
= 0.68 N/mm2
Provide R10 (two-leg vertical) links, Asv = 157 mm.
sv =
= 237.1 mm
= 284.6 mm
The spacing is not to exceed 0.75d = 346.8 mm. This distance x from the
support where minimum links only are required is determined. In this case v =
vc. The design shear strength where As = 2945 mm2 is
100 As / bd = 2.18
vc = 0.87 N/mm2
For the distance x, it is found by solving the equation
0.87 300 450 / 10 = 182.4 45.6x
x = 1.42m
Space links at 200 mm centres for 2 m from each support and then at 250 mm
centres over the center 4 m. Note that the top layer of three 25 mm diameter bars
continues for 780 mm greater than d past the section when v = vc
(e)
Deflection check
The basic span-effective depth ratio from Table 6.3 is 20 for a simply supported
rectangular beam
Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M
364.8 106
=
= 6.0
bd2
300 4502
63
5 460 2631.2
8 2945
= 256.9 N/mm2
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
0.55 +
477 256.9
120 ( 0.9 + 6.0 )
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with As.prov = 628
mm according to Table 6.5 is
100 As, prov
bd
100 628
300 450
= 0.46
64
Figure 6.15 (a) Section at centre; (b) end section; (c) part side elevation.
In the
transverse direction, the beams are at 4.0 m centres with a 180 mm thick slab, as
shown in figure 6.17.
The live load qk on the beam is 50 kN/m and the dead load gk, including self weight is
85 kN/m.
Characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm, fy = 460 N/mm for the
longitudinal steel fyv and 250 N/mm for the links. For a mild exposure the
minimum concrete cover is to be 25 mm.
For each span
Ultimate load wu = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) kN/metre
(1.4 85 + 1.6 50) = 199 kN/metre
65
Figure 6.16 Continuous beam with ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients
0.7 5000
5
= 1000 mm
therefore
M
bd2 fcu
448 106
1000 6002 30
= 0.041
547 106
300 5802 30
= 352 mm2
+ As
0.87 fy z
0.156 30 300 5802
=
= 1525 mm2
67
Shear
(a) Check maximum shear stress
Maximum shear at face of support is
Vs = 0.6F wu support width / 2
= 0.6 995 199 0.15 = 567 kN
v=
Vs
bd
567 103
300 580
b ( v vc )
0.87 fyv
= = 1.32
68
s=
Vd - Vn
wu
+d=
299 199
199
+ 0.6 = 1.1 m
69
= 2.60 N/mm2
300 580
100 Asv
100 3080
=
= 1.77
bd
300 580
v=
70
7.
SLAB
Types of Slab
Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry
uniformly distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over
supports. Slabs can be classified according to the method of support as follows:
i)
ii)
iii)
Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.
One Way Spanning Solid Slabs
Idealization for Design
a)
Figure 7.1
71
Effective Span
The effective spans for one-way slabs are:i)
Simply supported slabs:- the smaller of the centres of bearings or the
ii)
b)
clear span + d.
Continuous slabs:- centres of supports.
Arrangement of Loads
The code states that the slab should be designed to resist the most
unfavourable arrangement of loads. However, it is possible to design for a
single-load case of max. design load on all spans. This is permitted subject
to the following conditions:
i)
ii)
iii)
c)
The area of each bay, i.e. the building width column spacing > 30m.
The ratio of Qk to Gk 1.25
Qk 5 kN/m (excluding partition)
The code states that if the analysis is carried out for a single-load case of all spans
loaded, the support moment except at the supports of cantilevers should be
reduced by 20%. This gives an increase in span moment.
redistribution is to be carried out).
d)
(No further
BS8110 states that where the spans of the slab are approx. equal, the moment and
shears for design may be taken from Table 7.1. This table allows for 20%
redistribution.
Table 7.1
slabs
Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one way spanning
Outer
support
Middle of
end span
First interior
support
Middle of
interior span
Interior
supports
Moment
0.086 FL
0.086 FL
0.063 FL
- 0.063 FL
Shear
0.4F
0.6F
0.5F
Note: F is the total design ultimate load on the span and L is the effective span
72
Main Reinforcement
The min. area of main reinf. is:For rectangular sections and solid slabs:Mild Steel, fy = 250 N/mm2,
100 As
= 0.24
Ac
100 As
= 0.13
Ac
b)
Distribution Steel
The distribution steel runs at right angles to the main moment steel and serves
the purpose of tying the slab together. The area of distribution steel is the
same as the min. area for main reinforcement in (a).
c)
d)
Cover
The amount of cover required for durability and fire protection is taken from
Table 1.3 and 1.4 (Table 3.4 and 3.5 of BS8110).
73
Figure 7.2 (a) Simply Supported Span; (b) Cantilever; (c) Continuous Span
Shear
Under normal loads shear stresses are not critical and shear reinforcement is
not required. Shear reinforcement is provided in heavily loaded thick slabs
but should not be used in slabs less than 200 mm thick.
In design, the average shear stress v is given by
74
v = V/bd
The design procedures for slab is essentially the same as that for beams.
However, in the design of slab in shear, the following points should be noted.
i) v should not exceed 0.8fcu or 5 N/mm whichever is less.
ii) if v < vc , then no shear reinforcement is required.
iii) if vc < v (vc + 0.4), then provide min. links as :Asv
Sv
0.4b
0.87fyv
b(v-vc)
0.87fyv
Deflection
In slab design, deflections are usually controlled by limiting the span/effective
depth ratio.
iii)
iv)
Crack Control
To control cracking in slabs, max. values for clear spacing between bars are set
out in BS8110, Cl.3.12.11.2.7. The clause states that in no case should the
clear spacing exceed the lesser of three times the effective depth or 750 mm.
75
Example 7.1
The slab shown in figure 7.3 is to be designed to carry a live load of 3.0 kN/m plus
floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 kN/m. The characteristic material strengths
are fcu = 30 N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm. Basic span-effective depth ratio = 20.
(1)
Span
20 modification factor, m.f.
4500
225
=
20 m.f.
m.f.
76
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.34 = 26.8
= 4500 / 170 = 26.5
Bending Reinforcement
K =
M
bd2 fcu
32.7 106
1000 1702 30
= 0.038
M
0.87 fy z
77
Shear
At the face of the support
Shear, V =
Shear stress, v =
100 As
bd
58.1
2
V
bd
1000 170
100 523
1000 170
) = 27.6 kN
= 0.31
from table 5.4 vc = 0.55 N/mm and since v < vc no further shear checks or
reinforcement are required
Distribution Steel
0.13 bh
100
0.13 1000 200
100
= 260 mm2/m
Provide Y10 at 300 mm centers (As = 261 mm2/m)
2)
The second part of this example illustrates how a smaller depth of slab is
adequate provided it is reinforced so that there is a low service stress in the steel
and therefore a high modification factor for the span-effective depth ratio. Try
a thickness of slab h = 170mm and d = 140mm
Self-weight of slab = 0.17 24 = 4.08 kN/m
total dead load
= 5.08 kN/m
ultimate load
= (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 5.08 + 1.6 3.0) 4.5 = 53.6 kN
Bending
M = 53.6
K =
M
bd2 fcu
4.5
8
=
= 30.2 kNm
30.2 106
1000 1402 30
= 0.051
78
M
0.87 fy z
8 As, provided
b
1
5 250 1055
=
= 146 N/mm2
1
8 1130
(477 fs)
Modification factor = 0.55 +
M
120 0.9 + bd2
(477 146)
= 0.55 +
30.2 106
120
= 1.7 2.0
Therefore
limiting
actual
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.7 = 34
= 4500 / 140 = 32.1
79
Figure 7.4
Simply supported one panel slabs where the corners can lift away from the
supports.
A one panel slab held down on four sides by integral edge beams (the stiffness
of the edge beam affects the slab design)
Slabs with all edges continuous over supports
A slab with one, two or three edges continuous over support(s) may be simply
supported or held down by integral edge beams.
Simply Supported Slabs
The design of simply supported slabs may be made in accordance with BS8110,
C13.5.3.3. This clause gives the following equations for maximum moment msx and
msy at mid-span on strips of unit width for spans lx and ly respectively, where lx is the
length of shorter span, ly is length of the longer span, n = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk per unit area
and sx, sy are the moment coefficients from Table 7.1 (Table 3.14 of the code)
80
msx =sx n lx ,
msy =sy n lx
Table 7.1 Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at
right-angles, simply-supported on four sides
ly / lx
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.75
2.0
sx
sy
0.062
0.074
0.061
0.084
0.059
0.093
0.055
0.099
0.051
0.104
0.046
0.113
0.037
0.118
0.029
0.062
Example 7.2 Design the Reinforcement for a Simply Supported Slab 220 mm
Thick and spanning in Two Directions
The effective span in each direction is 4.5 m and 6.3 m and the slab supports a live
load of 10 kN/m. The characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm and fy =
460 N/mm.
ly / lx = 6.3 / 4.5 =1.4
From table 7.1 sx = 0.099 and sx = 0.051
self-weight of slab = 220 24 10- = 5.3 kN/m
ultimate load n
= 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 5.3 + 1.6 10.0 = 23.4 kN/m
Bending Short Span
With mild exposure conditions take d = 185 mm
Msx
K =
Msx
bd2 fcu
46.9 106
1000 1852 30
= 0.046
Msx
0.87 fy z
46.9 106
1852
1000
= 1.37
8 As, provided
b
1
5 460 666
=
= 254 N/mm2
1
8 754
(477 fs)
( 0.9 +
bd2
(477 254)
= 1.37 2.0
Therefore
limiting
actual
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.37 = 27.4
= 4500 / 185 = 24.3
K =
Msx
bd2 fcu
24.2 106
1000 1732 30
= 0.027
82
Msx
0.87 fy z
The centre strips and location of maximum moments are shown in Fig. 7.6
83
Figure 7.6
*
*
(a) Centre strips; (b) end support; (c) loads on beams and slab shears
The tension reinforcement can be designed using formulae for rectangular beams.
(i.e. same as one-way spanning slab)
For deflection control, it is necessary to check the span/effective depth ratio of the
shorter span.
84
8.
COLUMN
General requirements for design of columns are treated in BS8110: Part I, Section
3.8.1.
Short column when the ratio lex /h and ley /b are both less than 15 for braced
column and less than 10 for unbraced column.
ii)
Slender column when the ratios are larger than the values give above.
where lex effective column height when bending about x-x axis.
ley effective column height when bending about y-y axis.
Figure 8.1
Cross-section of a column
Design Provision
85
ii)
iii)
Figure 8.2
For pure axial load the ultimate capacity Nuz of a column given in clause 3.8.3.1
of the code is
Nuz = 0.45 fcu Ac + 0.87 fy Asc
Clause 3.8.4.4 gives a further expression for short braced columns supporting an
approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams. These beams must be designed
for uniformly distributed loads and the span must not differ by more than 15% of the
longer span. The ultimate load is given by the expression:
Nuz = 0.35 fcu Ac + 0.67 fy Asc
Example 8.1 Axially loaded short column
A short braced axially loaded column 300mm square in section is reinforced with four
25 mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load the column can carry and the
pitch and diameter of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement.
steel area, Asc = 1936 mm2
87
100 1963
bh
2502
>0.4% & <6% O.K.
Check:
= 3.14
This is satisfactory.
Short columns subjected to axial load and bending about one axis
symmetrical reinforcement
Code Provisions
i)
Cl. 3.8.2.3 states that in column and beam construction in monolithic braced
frames the axial force in column can be calculated assuming the beams are
simply supported. If the arrangement of beam is symmetrical, the column
can be designed for axial load only as in 8.2. The column may also be
designed for axial load and a moment due to the nominal eccentricity given in
(ii).
ii)
No section in a column that the design moment be taken as less than the
ultimate load acting at a minimum eccentricity emin equal to 0.05 times the
overall dimension of the column in the plane of bending, but not more than 20
mm.
iii)
Cl. 3.8.4.2 states that design charts for symmetrical reinforced columns are
given in BSS8110: Part 3.
Bending Plus Axial Load at UL S
Fig. 8.4 represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and stress
distribution for varying positions of neutral axis. The cross-section is subjected to a
moment M and an axial force N.
89
Figure 8.4 Bending plus axial load with varying positions of the neutral axis
(Applied F = Resisting F)
In this equation, Fs will be negative whenever the position of the neutral axis is such
that the reinforcement, As is in tension.
where
The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces
developed within the cross-section. Take moment about the mid-depth of the
90
section.
h
M = Fcc
sc
M = 0.45 fcubs
*
( 2 - 2 ) + F ( 2 - d ) + F ( 2 -d )
s
(2 -2)+f
sc
( 2 - d) + f
As
As
( 2 -d)
In these equations, the steel strains and hence the stresses fsc and fs vary with the
depth of N.A. N/bh and M/bh can be calculated for a specified ratios of
As/bh and x/h so that column design chart can be obtained as in Fig. 8.5.
91
Modes of Failure
The relative magnitude of the moment (M) and axial load (N) govern the modes of
92
failure.
With large effective eccentricity (e = M/N) a tensile failure is likely, but with
Figure 8.6 Bending, plus axial load chart with modes of failure
93
Figure 8.7
42 kN
Total = 2098 kN
Similar arrangements of load will give the axial load in the column at the underside
(u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each floor level and these values of N are shown in table
8.1.
The moments on the column are not large and therefore the following equation may
be used for a preliminary sizing.
95
therefore
k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 2 0.46) 10- = 2.70 10-
and
distribution factor for the column =
kcol
k
0.46
2.70
= 0.17
96
At the 3/F
k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 0.46) 10-
= 2.24 10-
and
column moment, M =
0.46
2.24
The areas of reinforcement in table 8.1 are determined by using the design chart of
figure 8.5.
The
Floor
Column Schedule
(kN)
(kN m)
bh
3rd u.s.
536
83.0
2nd t.s.
774
+536
2nd u.s.
1st t.s.
1st u.s.
Foundation
bh
100 Asc
bh
Asc
(mm)
4.47
1.73
0.4
480
69.0
6.45
1.44
0.4
480
1310
1548
+536
69.0
69.0
10.92
12.9
1.44
1.44
0.4
0.9
480
1080
2084
2098
69.0
34.5
17.37
17.48
1.44
0.72
2.1
1.6
2520
1920
A smaller column section could have been used above the first floor but this would
have involved changes in formwork and also increased areas of reinforcement. For
simplicity in this example no reduction was taken in the total live load although this is
permitted with some structures, as shown by table 9.1.
97
My
My
h
h
b
b
If
Mx
h
My
b
Mx = Mx +
h
b
My
98
If
Mx
h
<
My
b
My = My +
b
h
Mx
The coefficient is taken from Table 8.2 (Table 3.24 of the Code) as shown below.
Figure 8.10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.00
0.88
0.77
0.65
0.53
0.42
0.30
99
Figure 8.11
Mx
h
My
b
75
(350 70)
80
(350 60)
= 0.268
= 0.333
Mx / h < My / b
therefore increased single axis design moment is
My = My +
b
h
Mx
My = 80 + 0.55
240
75 = 115.4 kNm
280
N/bh = 1200 10 / (300 350) = 11.4
M/bh = 115.4 106 / (350 300) = 3.66
From the design chart of figure 8.5
100 Asc/bh = 2.6
Therefore required Asc = 2730 mm
100
i)
ii)
101
8.3 and 8.4 (Tables 3.21 and 3.22 of the Code) for braced and unbraced columns.
Cl.3.8.1.6.2
(a)
End conditions.
(c)
(d)
0.75
0.80
0.90
0.80
0.85
0.95
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.2
1.3
1.6
2.2
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.8
103
9.
RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are usually required to resist a combination of earth and hydrostatic
loadings.
place without undue movement arising from deflection, overturning and sliding.
Types of Retaining Walls
i)
Gravity Wall
In a gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of concrete in the wall;
ii)
Cantilever Wall
In a cantilever wall, the wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever. Stability is
provided by the weight of structure and earth on an inner base or the weight of
the structure only when the base is constructed externally.
104
Figure 9.1
(ULS)
(SLS)
(ULS + SLS)
Stability Analysis
A retaining wall must be stable in terms of resistance to overturning and sliding under
the action of the loads at ULS.
The critical conditions for stability are when a maximum horizontal force acts with a
minimum vertical load.
Figure 9.2
Resistance to sliding is provided by friction between the underside of the base and the
ground.
*
Resistance provided by the passive earth pressure on the front face of the base
may make some contribution, but since this material is often backfilled against
the face, this resistance cannot be guaranteed and is usually ignored.
1.0 Gk k Hk
(for overturning)
106
&
*
(1.0Gk + 1.0 V k ) k Hk
(for sliding)
When a heel beam is provided the additional passive resistance of the earth must
be included in the above equation.
Figure 9.3
The distribution of bearing pressures lies within the middle third of the base if
M
N
D
6
P1 =
P1 =
& P2 =
N
D
N
D
N
D
M
I
D
2
where I =
D3
12
6M
D2
6M
D2
For the wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal
earth pressure. Design the vertical moment steel for the inner face and check
the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is provided in the horizontal
direction for the inner face and both vertically and horizontally for the outer
face. (Refer to Fig. 9.4)
ii)
The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces of the inner
footing causes tension in the top.
iii)
The net moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face of the
outer footing.
108
Fig. 9.4
109
(a)
Stability
Horizontal force: it is assumed that the coefficient of active pressure Ka = 0.33,
which is a typical value for a granular material. So that the earth pressure is
given by
p = Ka gh
where p is the density of the backfill and h is the depth considered.
base
p = 0.33 2000 10- 9.81 4.9
= 31.7 kN/m
Thus at the
110
37.8 kN
111
(ii) Overturning: taking moments about point A at the edge of the toe at the
ultimate limit state
overturning moment = f Hk h/3 = 1.6 77.7 4.9/3
= 203 kNm
restraining moment = 1.0 (37.8 1.0 + 32.6 1.7 + 194.2 2.3)
= 540 kNm
Thus the criterion for overturing is satisfied.
(b)
Bearing Pressures
From equations in section 9.2.2, the bearing pressures are given by
N
P =
6M
D2
264.6
3.4
6 36.9
3.42
Bending Reinforcement
(i) Wall
Horizontal force = f 0.5 ka pgh
= 1.4 0.5 0.33 2000 10- 9.81 4.5
= 91.8 kN
considering the effective span, the maximum moment is
112
As =
Therefore
M
0.87 fy z
Provide Y20-200
(ii) Base: the bearing pressures are obtained form equations
The critical partial factors of safety are
pressure, p1 =
p2 =
264.6
3.4
6 87.7
= 78 + 45 = 123 kN/m2
3.42
78 45 = 33 kN/m
113
p3 =
Heel: taking moments about the stem centre-line for the vertical loads and
the bearing pressures
M = f2 32.6
2.2
3.4
(91 33)
2.2
2
therefore
As =
126 106
0.87 460 0.95 330
= 1004 mm/m
M = f2 32.6 0.6
0.8
3.4
= 55 kN m
(In fact for this wall the design moment for the toe would be marginally
higher with f2 = 1.4 and f3 = 1.4 throughout)
As =
55 106
0.87 460 0.95 330
= 438 mm/m
The minimum area for this, and for longitudinal distribution steel which is
also required in the wall and the base is
As = 0.13 1000 400 = 520 mm/m
Thus provide Y12-200 mm bottom and distribution steel.
114
Also steel should be provided in the compression face of the wall in order
to prevent cracking say, Y10-200 each way.
Bending reinforcement is required in the heel beam to resist the moment
due to the passive earth pressure.
in the form of closed links.
115
Fig. 10.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Also, the subscripts 1 and 2 in the symbols refer respectively to the bottom and the top
faces of the beam. Thus, in Fig. 10.1, f1 is the prestress at the bottom fibres, and f2
that at the top fibres. Similarly, Z1 and Z2 are the elastic section moduli referred to
the bottom and the top fibres respectively; i.e. Z1 = I/1 and Z2 = I/2, where I is the
second moment of area of the cross-section about a horizontal axis through the
116
centroil G.
In practice, the prestressing force (P in Fig 10.1-1 (a)) is usually applied by means of
tendons, which may be:
(a) 7-wire strands of typical characteristic strength fpu of 1770 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(b) cold-drawn wires of typical fpu 1570 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(c) high-tensile alloy bars of typical fpu N/mm2 (BS 4486)
Note that both BS5896 and BS4486 use the term characteristic breaking load, the
breaking load being the tensile strength times the cross-sectional area. However, in
BS8110 it use the term characteristics strength (fpu ).
Stresses in service: elastic theory
In contrast to the design of reinforced concrete members, the design of Class 1 and
Class 2 prestressed concrete members is generally governed by the stress criteria in
service or at transfer, rather than by their ultimate strengths, though the latter must be
checked. Hence the elastic theory is very relevant in prestressed concrete design.
Designs are normally based on the conditions in service, but the stresses at transfer
(not discussed in the course) must be checked.
Consider the simply supported beam in Fig. 10.1. Suppose the prestressing force in
the tendon is P at transfer. When the beam is in service, the prestressing force will
be less than P, because of loss of prestress. In the meantime it is sufficient to note
that under service condition the effective prestressing force will be
Pc = P
Fig. 10.2
Equation 10.1
117
where P is the prestressing force at transfer, andis the loss ratio, = 0.8 being a
typical value.
For clarity, Fig. 10.1(b) is redrawn in Fig. 10.2.
for the typical section:
f1 =
f2 =
Pe
A
Pe
A
Pe es
Z1
Pe es
Z1
Equation 10.2
Equation 10.3
f1
f1
f2 +
Mimax + Md
Z1
Mimin + Md
Z1
Mimax + Md
Z2
famin
Equation 10.4
famax
Equation 10.5
famax
Equation 10.6
118
f2
Mimin + Md
Z2
Equation 10.7
famin
where famax is the maximum allowable stress in the concrete and fimax the minimum
allowable stress, the sign convention being, as usual, positive for compression;
BS8110 gives the values in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, which include allowance for the
partial safety factor.
Table 10.1
Compressive stresses in concrete for the serviceability limit states (BS8110 : Clause
4.3.4.2)
0.25 fcu
Nature of loading
Table 10.2
Flexural tensile stresses for Class 2 members: serviceability limit state of cracking
(BS8110 : Clause 4.3.4.3)
30
40
50
60
Pre-tensioned members
Post-tensioned members
2.1
2.9
2.3
3.2
2.6
3.5
2.8
Note:
(a)
(b)
Table 10.2 gives the allowable stresses in tension and hence a negative sign should be used when
assigning these stress values to famin.
(c)
Designers usually limit the tensile stresses under service conditions to less than the limiting
values in Table 10.2. For example, for a post-tensioned member of fcu = 50 N/mm, famin may well
be taken as, say, 2N/mm instead of 2.6N/mm2 as permitted by BS8110.
119
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.3 shows the stresses in a prestressed beam section. The line O1a1b1
represents level 1, i.e. the beam-soffit; the line O2a2b2 represents level 2, i.e. the beam
top. Line CGD is the stress distribution due to Pe; therefore O1D1 is the prestress f1
and O2C is f2 . Line HGJ is the stress distribution due to Pe + Mimin + Md and EGF that
due to Pe + Mimax + Md. The application of a sagging moment rotates the
stress-distribution line clockwise about G. O1O2 is the ordinate for zero stress;
similarly a1a2 and b1b2 are the ordinates for the stresses famin and famax respectively. It
should be noted that:
(a) Equation 10.4 represents the condition that point F must not pass beyond the line
a1a2 .
(b) Equation 10.5 represents the condition that point J must not pass beyond the line
b1b2 .
(c) Similarly, Equation 10.6 and Equation 10.7 represent the conditions that E and H
must not lie outside the region a2b2 .
(d) Under service condition, the maximum change of stress at the bottom fibres is
M1/Z1, when Mr is the range of imposed moments Mimax - Mimin.
(e) Similarly, the maximum change of service stress at the top fibres is Mr/Z2.
(f) Therefore the minimum Zs to be provided must satisfy the conditions:
Mimax - Mimin
Z1
Equation 10.8
Z
f
-f
2
amax
amin
which makes Equations 10.4 and 10.5 (or Equations 10.6 and 10.7) identities.
Referring to Fig.10.3 for such a case the points F and J (or H and E) fall on a1
and b1 (or a2 and b2 ) respectively.
(i)
The minimum f1
required is that at which point F coincides with point a1; the minimum f2 required
is that at which H coincides with a2. Similarly, the maximum permissible f1 is that
which makes J coincide with b1, and the maximum permissible f2 makes E
coincide with b2. In other words, the minimum required pre-stresses are those
that make Equations 10.4 and 10.7 identities:
Mimax + Md
Z1
Mimin + Md
Z2
Equation 10.9
Equation 10.10
Similarly the maximum permissible prestresses are those that make Equations
10.5 and 10.6 identities:
(j)
Mimin + Md
Z1
Mimax + Md
Z2
Equation 10.11
Equation 10.12
fep =
Pe
A
Equation 10.13
f1 and f2 ; hence, from Equation 10.13, the required minimum prestressing force
Pemin is that which gives the minimum f1 and f2 . From Equations 10.2 and 10.3,
Pe =
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
Z1 + Z2
Equation 10.14
121
es =
( f1 + f2 ) Z1Z2
Equation 10.15
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
To obtain Pemin , and the es to be used with Pemin , it is only necessary to insert in
these equations the minimum f1 and f2 . Substituting Equations 10.9 and 10.10
into Equations 10.14 and 10.15.
Pemin =
[ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Equation 10.16
Z1 + Z2
Z2Mimax + Z1Mimin + ( Z1 + Z2 ) Md
es
=
(for Pemin)
[ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Equation 10.17
Example 10.1
A Class 1 pre-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The
characteristic imposed load Qk is a 100 kN force at midspan. The concrete
characteristic strength is 50 N/mm and the unit weight of concrete is 23 kN/m.
(a) Determine the minimum required sectional moduli for the service condition.
(b) If the section adopted is of area 120 000 mm and exactly the minimum required
moduli, determine the effective prestressing force Pe required under service
conditon and the tendon eccentricity es at midspan.
Solution
For Class 1 members, famin = 0. From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 50 = 16.5 N/mm
design imposed load for the service condition = 1.0 Qk = 100 kN
Therefore
Mimax = 100 10 = 250 kNm;
Mimin = 0
(a) From Equation 10.8,
minimum required Z =
250 106 - 0
16.5 - 0
(b) Adopted section : A = 120 000 mm; Z1 =Z2 = 15.15 106 mm3.
122
120 103
23 = 2.76 kN/m
106
Md = 2.76 102 = 34.5 kNm
Since exactly the minimum required Zs have been used, Equations 10.4 to 10.7
become identities, as explained in statement (h) above. Equations 10.4 and
10.5 will give the same value for f1 ; similarly Equations 10.6 and 10.7 will give
the same f2 . Use say, Equations 10.4 and 10.6:
f1 -
f2 +
=0
Substituting into Equations 10.14 and 10.15 (or Equations 10.2 and 10.3 ),
Pe = 990 kN
es = 161 mm
Example 10.2
A Class 2 post-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The
characteristic imposed load consists of a single 100 kN force at midspan. The
characteristic concreter strength is 50 N/mm and the unit weight of concrete is
23 N/ m3. The beam is of uniform section having the following properties: area A =
120 000 mm, Z1 (bottom) = 19.0 106 mm3, Z2 (top) = 21.7 106 mm3. Determine
for the service condition:
(a)
(b)
the minimum effective prestressing force required (Pemin ) and the corresponding
midspan tendon eccentricity (es );
the maximum effective prestressing force (Pemax ) that may safely be used, and
the midspan tendon eccentricity (es ) for this force.
Solution
From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 50 = 16.5 N/mm
From Table 10.2,
123
Mimin = 0
and
Md = 34.5 kNm
124
(a)
19.0 10
0 + 34.5 106
21.7 106
= 12.42 N/mm2
= -4.14 N/mm2
Substituting into Equations 10.14 and 10.15 (or Equations 10.2 and 10.3 ),
Pemin = 431 kN
es = 390 mm
Alternatively, Pemin and es can be obtained directly from Equations 10.16 and
10.17 without first calculating f1 and f2
(b)
0 + 34.5 106
6
19.0 10
= 18.32 N/mm2
= 3.39 N/mm2
Substituting into Equations 10.14 and 10.15 (or Equations 10.2 and 10.3 ),
Pemax = 1243 kN
es = 122 mm
125