Water Quality:

Physical, Chemical and Biological parameters

Physical parameters of Water Quality

Physical quality of water is primarily determined by five parameters
namely, Turbidity, Temperature, Color, Taste and Odor.

1. Turbidity:
Suspended particles in water tend to scatter and absorb light rays making
it appear murky or turbid, this effect is called turbidity. Clay, silt, tiny
fragments of organic matter and microscopic organisms are some of the
substances that cause turbidity.
Turbidity can be accounted to human activities and pollution.

Turbidity is very important for drinking water quality as microorganisms can

house within the spaces in the suspended particles and can shield them
from disinfection process like UV filtration.
It is also unacceptable due to aesthetic reasons.

It is measured in terms of clarity of a water sample when compared to a

standardized suspension of silica. The interference caused to the passage
of light caused by a suspension of 1 mg/L of silica is equal to 1 TU.

E.g. a water sample that offers similar murkiness as a 10 mg/L suspension of

silica is said to have a turbidity of 10 TU (Turbidity Unit)
Range of turbidity:
TU < 5 : Turbidity is not noticeable to the normal eye
TU>5 : Turbidity is noticeable
TU>25 for surface water (lakes): Clean appearing water body
TU>100: Muddy water
TU<1: Water produced in modern water treatment plants
Ground water has comparatively very less turbidity when compared to
surface water.
Turbidity is usually measured using nephelometer or a Jackson candle
turbidimeter
Excessive turbidity on surface water bodies can limit penetration of sunlight
and thus impacting photosynthesis of microscopic plants or algae. This can
effect the ecological balance of these waterbodies.

2. Temperature:
The flora and fauna in waterbodies can only flourish under certain
conditions of temperature. Most species can adopt to moderate
changes in temperature. Generally, a change in temperature of about
5C can significantly alter the balance and health of an aquatic
environment.
An increase in temperature causes more harm than drop in temperature
of waterbodies and hence discharge from power plants are harmful to
natural waterbodies.
This occurs as the solubility of oxygen in water decreases with increase of
temperature. Organisms thriving on dissolved oxygen are directly
affected (their metabolism rates are also increased due to increased
temperature, thus requiring more oxygen).

3. Color, taste and odor:

These are parameters which primarily hold aesthetic importance for the
users. User perception of safe water is considerably affected if it has
color, bad taste and odor.
Color is usually caused by dissolved colloidal particles primarily from
decaying organic content (yellow to brown).
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a common source of odor in water, this is
acquired from contact with decaying organic material.
Taste can be attributed to dissolved salts or chemicals in water. Taste
and odor are very subjective parameters and depend on the threshold
of the person conducting the test.

Chemical parameters of Water Quality

Water quality due to organic or inorganic chemicals can be affected.
In drinking water these may lead to public health issues, in surface
water it may lead to environmental impacts, in wastewater it may
affect economics of treatment.
The key elements of water quality that needs to be comprehended are
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
i. Dissolved Oxygen:
Dissolved oxygen serves as the lifeline to aquatic life. Higher the DO
content better is the quality of water.
Oxygen is sparingly soluble in water ~ 9 ppm or 9 mg/L. As due to the
low availability of DO, there is always a competition amongst different
aquatic organism for DO (particularly bacteria). If organic content in
water is high, bacteria will quickly digest it thus consuming more DO.
As discussed before, solubility of oxygen is sensitive to the temperature
of the water.

DO has no direct impact on public health but water having low DO

levels would taste flat. DO also contributes to rusting of metal pipes
during transmission.
DO is extensively used in aerobic treatment of wastewater.

ii. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Microorganisms like bacteria use organic material for food. They oxidize
them to derive energy and in turn converting them to CO2 and H2O. To
carry out this process they utilize the DO present in the waterbody.
As DO is used up it needs to be replenished to maintain the same
environmental condition, this need for oxygen is called BOD.
Instead of identifying each type of organic waste, BOD is used as an
indirect means to assess total amount of biodegradable organic
content in the water.
More organic content thus translates to higher BOD exerted by the
microbes (indicating at a stronger sewage in wastewater treatment).

The amount of oxygen needed to completely stabilize all the

biodegradable organics in a given volume of water is called Ultimate
BOD (BODL) expressed in mg/L.
BOD is a function of time, it has been represented by the graph shown
below.

Initially at time t=0, BOD is also zero. As time passes BOD value rises and
ultimately BODL is achieved where all the organic content is
decomposed.

Derivation :
The rate at which organics are utilized by microorganisms is dependent
on the amount of organics present in water i.e.

dLt
kLt
dt
Where,
Lt = Oxygen equivalent of the organics at time t (in mg/L)
k = Reaction constant (in d-1)

L0 represents the total oxygen equivalent

at time 0,

dLt
kdt
Lt
Lt

dLt
L Lt k 0 dt
0
Lt
ln
kt
L0
Lt L0e

k t

The oxygen equivalent is not a matter of

prime importance. However, the amount
of oxygen consumed by the organics i.e.
the BODt can be calculated from Lt.
The difference between L0 and Lt would
give us the amount of oxygen consumed

yt L0 Lt
yt L0 L0ekt
yt L0 (1 ekt )
Where yt represents BODt of the water.

Thus L0 is the ultimate BOD. yt approaches L0 asymptotically. This can

be represented as:
BODt = BODL (1- e-kt)
Q. A sample of sewage from a town is found to have a BOD of 218
mg/L after 5 days. Find the ultimate BOD of the sample was collected.
Assume k=0.1/d.

It is generally seen that 2/3rd of the BODL is usually exerted in the first 5
days of decomposition. For practical purposes 5 day BOD or BOD5 is
used. Thus BOD5 is an indicator of the amount of oxygen used up by
microorganism in 5 days at a given temperature (ideally 20 C).
Very clean waterbodies have BOD5 of 1 mg/L due to presence of
organic material like leaves and animal waste.
A waterbody having BOD5 of 10 mg/L indicates presence of sewage
pollution.

In a sample being tested in a BOD bottle (300 mL), dilution method is

used for testing the DO levels at the beginning and after 5 days of
culture. The 5 day BOD of the sample can be calculated as:
BOD5 = (DO0 DO5)300/V

Where,
DO0 = initial DO at t=0
DO5 = DO after 5 days
V = Volume of sample, mL
Q. A 6 mL sample of sewage was collected from an urban area and
diluted to 300 mL using distilled water. The diluted solution was put in a
BOD bottle and the DO after 5 days was found to be 0.8 mg/L.
The initial DO was 12.5 mg/L. Calculate the ultimate BOD of the
sewage.

iii. Nitrification
With time the BOD curve approaches the ultimate BOD level and gets
saturated, this BOD level is also known as the ultimate carbonaceous
BOD because the microorganism primarily thrive on carbon based
organic material present in water.

After depletion of the carbon based organics another group of

microorganism become active and start acting on nitrogen based
substances like ammonia in the wastewater.
This process is called nitrification and leads to conversion of ammonia to
ionic forms of nitrogen in the water (i.e. nitrites and nitrates).
During this process nitrifying bacteria also consume DO leading to
further depletion of water quality.
Most STPs only treat carbonaceous BOD but nitrogenous BOD can also
affect aquatic life.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

iv. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Conventional BOD tests can only recognize organics that are
biodegradable and acts as food for microbes. They cannot detect
slowly biodegradable or non biodegradable substances.
The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a parameter of water quality
which measures all organics including non biodegradable substances.
It is a chemical test using a strong oxidizing agent (e.g. potassium
dichromate), sulphuric acid, and heat. The results are obtained in 2
hours.
COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample.
However, it is difficult to predict BOD values from COD values.

v. Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or suspension. These can be
distinguished by passing a water sample through a glass fiber filter. By
definition, suspended particles are retained at the top of the filter,
whereas the dissolved particles pass through the filter with the water.

The filtered portion can be separated and placed in a dish to enhance

evaporation, the residue leftover on the evaporating dish is called the
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
TDS = (A B)1000/C
Where
A = weight of dish plus residue (mg)
B = weight of empty dish (mg)
C = Volume of sample filtered (mL)

Dissolved solids create taste issues in drinking water. Hardness corrosion

or aesthetic can also be evident if TDS concentration is high.
The solids retained on the filter are known as Total Suspended Solids
(TSS).

TSS can be computed using the same equation as used for calculating
TDS.
Settleable solids are coarser fraction of suspended solids that readily
settle due to gravity. Settleable solids are routinely tested for in
wastewater treatment plants.
Volatile solids are organic substances that are inflammatory in nature
(can be burned in a furnace at around 550C). The concentration of
volatile solids indicate at the organic load of biological treatment units.

vi. Hardness of water

Hardness is the property of highly mineralized water (i.e. high

concentration of TDS). They scale deposits in pipes and do not for lather
with soap.
Hardness has higher economic issues than health issues. Calcium and
magnesium ions are mostly responsible for hardness in natural occurring
water.
These minerals enter waterbody due to prolong exposure of water to
rocks and minerals. In general ground water is harder than surface
water.

Hardness is express as mg per liter of calcium carbonate. Water with

more than 300 mg/L of hardness is considered as hard whereas, water
with 75 mg/L of hardness is considered as soft.
vii. Chlorides and chlorine residual
Chloride ions in water do not have health issues but high concentration
can make water salty in taste. Sea water have salt levels of around
30,000 mg/L.
Chlorides occur naturally in ground water but very high concentration
indicate at pollution (500 mg/L or more).
Chlorine does not occur naturally in water, it is the most common
disinfectant used in water purification. The leftover chlorine from
disinfection forms a dilute aqueous solution which is not harmful to
humans.

The residual chlorine ensures good sanitary conditions in the water

distribution system (around 0.2 mg/L). However, chlorine can form toxic
compounds with precursors (naturally occurring organic substance in
water - vegetation). THMs (trihalomethanes) are identified carcinogens.

viii. Acidity, alkalinity and pH

High levels of acidity or alkalinity indicates industrial or chemical
pollution in waterbodies. However, these traits can also be seen
naturally due contact of minerals with waterbody. Aquatic organisms
can sustain within a pH of 6 to 9.5.
The pH of natural waterbodies are important as they affect the
decisions during water purification. Acidity or alkalinity has to treated
suitably before distribution for domestic or industrial usage.
Excessive acidity renders sour taste, whereas excessive alkalinity makes
water bitter. Naturally acidic or alkaline waterbodies have resistance to
sudden change in pH. The intrinsic acidity or alkalinity of such
waterbodies act as buffers to sudden change in its pH.

Biological parameters of Water Quality

The presence or absence of living organisms in water is one of the most
important indicators of its quality. In natural surface waterbodies
presence of fish, insects etc. acts as an indicator of the ecological
balance in the waterbody. Diversity is a key indicator of ecological
balance which again points at a pristine, unpolluted system.
Absence of diversity and over abundance of a particular species
indicate at imbalance which usually arises from pollution. Thus Species
Diversity Index is calculated for such ecosystems.

A. Microorganisms
These organisms play an important role in maintaining the balance of
an aquatic ecosystem. Most microorganisms are beneficial and act as
decomposers in the food chain.
The most common microorganism present in waterbodies are bacteria,
algae, protozoa, and viruses.

i. Bacteria
There are two types of bacteria depending on
their metabolism mechanism aerobic and
anaerobic. These are essentially single celled
plants which decompose organic or inorganic
materials for food.
Bacteria can also be classified based on the type
of food they consume autotrophic (ones that
depend on inorganic compounds, e.g. nitrifying
bacteria) and heterotrophic (ones that depend
on complex organic substances, e.g. coliform)
Bacteria are typically around 2 m in size and
occur in three basic shapes rod shaped
(bacillus), spherical (coccus) and spiral shaped
(spirellus).

Majority of bacteria thrive best in moist, warm

climate (<35C; mesophilic). They multiply rapidly
and create colonies which can be detected by
laboratory tests.

ii. Algae
These are microscopic plants which have
photosynthetic pigments. They are autotrophic
organisms that thrive on inorganic matter. It
converts inorganic matter to organic form by
photosynthesis.
Free floating algae are also known as
phytoplankton (over 90% atmospheric oxygen is
created by salt water or marine phytoplankton
using photosynthesis)

Algae plays important role in eutrophication of

lakes. They are also important for treatment of
wastewater or sewage in stabilization pond.
From drinking water perspective, algae produce
odor and render unpleasant taste in water. It
needs to be filtered out. Some species if found in
water and consumed can lead to mortality or
morbidity in animals and human population.

iii. Protozoa
They are single celled, simplest of animal species
and consume bacteria, algae or organic matter
for food. They in turn serve as food for higher
animals. They are part of natural waterbodies
and are of importance in biological wastewater
treatment.
Amoeba is a common protozoa. Many types of
protozoa are harmful for human health and can
cause intestinal disease (Entamoeba histolytica).

Protozoa can withstand chlorination and are

difficult to remove from water. They are
commonly referred to as parasites or pathogens
in drinking waters.

iv. Viruses
They are extremely small pathogens that can
pass through most filters designed for bacteria.
They are incapable of independent metabolism
or reproduction (debate of their being inanimate
objects is prevalent). They invade host cells to
derive nutrition and also reproduce.
They cause host of diseases like chicken pox,
rabies,
yellow
fever,
polio,
influenza,
gastroenteritis, common cold etc.
B. Indicator organisms
One of the most important attribute of good
quality water is that it should be devoid of any
pathogen or disease causing organisms
bacteria, viruses, algae, protozoa or parasitic
worms
Surface waterbodies can be infected with such
pathogens if exposed to sewage.

B. Indicator organisms
A group of bacteria known as coliforms (E. coli) are a very good
indicator of pollution of water due to sewage.
These bacteria are not pathogenic in nature and are present in human
intestinal tracts, and pass out along with body waste.
A test for total coliforms (all strains of coliform available in nature) is
conducted during water treatment, presence of fecal coliform (present
in the intestine of warm blooded animals) confirms contamination due to
sewage.

Drinking water should be devoid of all types of coliforms.

The ratio of fecal coliform bacteria to fecal streptococci bacteria (more
predominant in animal intestine) is computed and if the value of the ratio
is more than 2, it indicates pollution from human excreta.