International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)

Volume 6, Issue 10, Oct 2015, pp. 77-96, Article ID: IJCIET_06_10_007
Available online at
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=6&IType=10
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
IAEME Publication

IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING ON

ENVIRONMENT - A REVIEW
A. Kalimuthu
Country Director, Water for People, New Delhi and Research Scholar,
Faculty of Agriculture and Animal husbandry, Gandhigram Rural Institute
(Deemed University), Gandhigram, Dindigul, TN, India
Dr. T. T. Ranganathan
Professor, Faculty of Agriculture and Animal husbandry
Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed University),
Gandhigram, Dindigul, TN, India
ABSTRACT
Earths environment is very sensitive and dynamic. Generation of
greenhouse gases more than what the nature can bear results in global
warming (climate change). A comprehensive review of impact of global
warming on the environment is presented. It will be helpful for researchers
and planners. Review stresses the urgency to check and control the
greenhouse gases emission to save the biosphere in the earth planet.
Key words: Global Warming, Climate Change, Environmental Impact
Cite this Article: A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan. Impacts of Global
Warming on Environment-A Review. International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 6(10), 2015, pp. 77-96.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=6&IType=10

1. INTRODUCTION
Global warming indicates an average increase in the earths temperature, which in
turn results in climate change. Average temperature of earth is about 590F (150C).
During the last century, the average temperature has risen by about 10F. By 2100, it is
believed that the temperature rise would be between 2.5 and 100F. Rise in temperature
will cause dramatic changes such as rise in sea level, changes in rainfall patterns, wide
range of impacts on plants, wildlife and humans.

1.1 Green house gases and green house effect

The trapping of energy from the sun by certain gases in atmosphere leading to rise in
earths temperature is termed as green house effect. Gases such as water vapour,
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane act as the trap. These gases absorb and

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

77

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

reflect infra-red waves radiated by earth. By doing so, these gases conserve heat on
the earth crust as in green house.
Greenhouse effect has both advantage and disadvantage like a knife with two
edges. Certain minimum green house effect is required to keep environment suitable
for living. If it does not exist, earth would be cooled, and ice would cover the earth
from pole to pole. But, if it is concentrated, it could make the earth warmer than
usual. Even a little extra warming may cause problems for human, plants and animals.

1.2. Greenhouse gases

In the environment, greenhouse gases occur either i) naturally or ii) from human
activities. The most abundant greenhouse gas is Carbon dioxide and is derived from
the emission from volcanic eruption, respiration of animals, burning and decay of
organic matter such as plants. Photosynthesis by plants and ocean absorb carbon
dioxide. Human activities like burning of fossil fuel, solid wastes, wood and wood
products, driving vehicles and generating electricity increase the release of carbon
dioxide. Deforestation reduced the absorption of carbon dioxide by Photosynthesis.
Human activities have caused release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere much faster
than absorption by natural processes. In 1750, carbon dioxide concentration was 281
molecules per million molecules of air (parts per million, ppm). Today atmospheric
carbon dioxide concentrations are 368 ppm. Increase is 31% (Mariappan, 2014)
Methane traps 20 times more heat than carbon dioxide. It is emitted during the
production and transport of coal, natural gases and oil. It is also emitted from rotting
organic waste in sand fills, by the cows as a by product of digestion. Since 1750, the
amount of methane in the atmosphere has more than doubled.
Nitrous oxide traps 300 times more heat than carbon dioxide. Burning fossil fuel
and ploughing farm release nitrous oxide. Since 1750, its level increased by 17%.
Hydrocarbons formed from the manufacture of foams, coolants such as
chlorofluorocarbons used in refrigerators. 1n 2000, scientists discovered a new
greenhouse gas called trifluoromethyl sulpur penta fluoride. It can trap more
effectively than all other greenhouse gases (Mariappan, 2014).

2. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON VARIOUS SECTORS

The impacts of climate change can be classified into six key sectors such as
Agriculture, Health, Water Resource, Forest, Coastal Ecosystem and Biodiversity.
The expected types of issues in each sector are listed in Table 1.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

78

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

Table 1 Major Sectors and Climate Change Issues
Impacts due to climate change on
Type of Issues
High demand of water for irrigation and
Agriculture
inadequacy
Low crop yield and food security
Fresh water depletion, drought and
unavailability
Water Resource
Water quality deterioration
Increased conflicts for water
Weather related mortality and morbidity
Health
Infectious diseases
Reparatory Illness due to air quality
Change in forest composition
Forest
Shift in geographic range of forests
Forest health and productivity
Erosion of beaches
Coastal System
Inundate coastal lands
Higher cost to protect coastal communities
Biodiversity (Species and Natural
Shift in ecological zones
Areas)
Loss of habitat and species
Source: Presentation made by Mr. Atiq in Plan Asia Meet in Bangkok (2010)

2.1. Agriculture sector

Agriculture is the backbone of majority of the rural households and attached urban
population in developing countries like India. Hence, preparing the agricultural sector
to adapt to the negative effects of climate variabilities may be necessary to ensure
food security for the country and to protect the livelihood of rural households.
Adaptation to climate change is an effective measure at the farm level, which can
reduce climate vulnerability by making rural households and communities better able
to prepare themselves and their farming to changes and variability in climate,
avoiding projected damages and supporting them in dealing with adverse events
(IPCC, 2001).
Agriculture is inherently sensitive to climate conditions and is one of the most
vulnerable sectors to the risks and impact of global climate change (Parry et al.,
1999). The climatic variables (rainfall, temperature, humidity and evapotranspiration)
and seasonal characteristics play a significant role in the regular agricultural activities.
The agricultural sector is vulnerable to climate change physically and economically.
Due to climate change, agricultural supply will be affected, especially relative prices
of agricultural commodities and consequently reallocation of resources within the
agricultural sector, altering the structure of the economies of numerous countries and
the international trade pattern (Deke et al., 2001).
In developing countries, where production is highly rain dependent and climate
variability and change have been and continue to be the principal source of
fluctuations in global food production (Oseniet al., 2011). The agricultural sector has
several links with other sectors. Globally, agriculture sector is the largest user of
water, so any changes in water availability through precipitation, groundwater storage
and changes in evapotranspiration as the Earths temperature rises, will have
significant effects on water availability for agriculture activities (Hutchinson et al.,
2013). It will also have effects on the potential start of the crop cycle as well as on

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

79

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

the length of the crop cycle. In addition, agriculture competes intensely for water
with the tourism, industrial and residential sectors. The availability of water resource
will be the deciding factors, for allocation of water to the agricultural sector and also
the public sector allocation of water based on perceived importance of water to each
sector in the country. The utmost rainfall variability is considered to be an important
cause of drought. The recurrent drought and its severity accelerate to increase the
vulnerability and poverty (Rakibet al., 2014).
The climate change is extremely affecting and altering the distribution, quality of
natural resources and the related livelihoods of the people. Due to change in climate,
the demand for drinking water and for irrigation is increasing and it also increases
competition and conflict among the rural, urban and the industrial users. This may
lead to sustainability crises for requirement of food, fodder and fuel wood. Change in
temperature and rainfall pattern may also alter the distribution of disease vectors
carrying malaria, dengue, diarrhoea, bird flu etc. as well as rodents and other pest
problems (Anita et al., 2012).
More and more, anthropogenic activities are having adverse impacts on the
Earths climate (Hutchinson et al., 2013). As a result, all countries are now trying to
take joint actions to define ways to reducing the negative impacts as well as preparing
local communities to adapt in order to cope with, or even benefit from the projected
climate change.
The review of existing climate change related study results indicates that the
effects of climate change will not be uniform across the globe (Gbetibouoet al., 2005).
Developed countries will be less affected by climate change whereas the developing
countries are the most affected from the negative consequences of global warming
and the effects of climate change are predicted to be greater, although they have
contributed relatively little to the cause of global warming.
In the changing climate scenarios, the climate risk assessment to the agricultural
ecosystems holds the key to understand future food security situations. The existing
practices of climate risk assessment are quite broad. There is a greater need for area
and crop specific assessment and these in depth assessments will help to define an
actionable framework for developing adaptation strategies at local levels.
The agricultural land is relatively more fragile and requires replenishment of
nutrients lost through crop production. This loss of nutrients from the topsoil is
compensated through animal residues (Raina et al., 2011). Also, it is evident that the
farmers using improved seeds, fertilizer, mechanization and irrigation in years with
favorable rainfall gain a good agriculture return. The improved adaptation techniques
include improved seeds like hybrid and open pollinated varieties, timely planting,
proper spacing, timely weeding and harvesting. Varying site factors like altitude,
slope direction, temperature, humidity, rainfall, availability of irrigation and distance
from the snowline or plains are the driving force for the diversification of agriculture
into various farming situations (Raina et al., 2011), the adaptation techniques should
take care of all these factors to gain a better result.
The choice of adaptation methods by farmers depends on various social, economic
and environmental factors. The study in the field of climate change coping
mechanism indicate that farmers awareness, investment in new heat tolerant
varieties, crop insurance, social awareness and protection programs may be some
important aspects of the adaptation to climate change (Schlenkeret al., 2010). It is
also important to have correct and apt knowledge about the type and extent of
adaptation methods being practiced by farmers and assessing the need for further
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

80

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

advances in existing adaptation practices. Hence, understanding how farmers perceive

changes in climate and what factors shape their adaptive behavior, especially with
respect to various agro-ecological zones in India will be a great contribution for the
agriculture sector in the country.

2.2. Water Resources

In general, the availability of fresh water in a region (in terms of surface, sub-surface,
ground water and glaciers) is above 1700 cu.m/ capita / annum is considered as
Satisfactory Level and the level falls between 1000 to 1700 cu.m/ capita/ annum is
considered as Stressed Stage and less than 1000 cu.m/ capita/ annum is considered
as Water Scarcity Region. The available data around fresh water in India indicates
that the availability is drastically going down (Figure 1). The data shows that during
1955s per capita availability of fresh water was around 5277 m3 per annum and in the
year 2000, the available scared resource has come down to 2200 m3 per annum. The
projection is that the availability will go below 1000 m3 per annum per capita in 25
years, it means, India is heading towards water scarcity.

Source: Central Water Commission (2014)

Figure 1 Availability of renewable fresh water in India

Though it is difficult to state the exact percentage, there is a significant

contribution of climate change for the changes in fresh water availability in the
country. Ever increase population growth and improved standard of living demands
high quantum of fresh water for consumption, whereas the fresh water level is keep
going down, this mismatch would result conflicts.
The fresh water demand for Agriculture sector to ensure food security for the
growing population and also demand from the Industrial sector is also further
aggravate the situation. The data on fresh water utilization indicates that nearly 90%
of the available resources are being consumed by Agriculture sector, 6 % by the
Industries and the remaining 4% is by the Domestic sector including for drinking
(Figure 2).

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

81

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

Source: DDWS (2008)

Figure 2 Fresh water usage in India

There are many research / studies going on in India and aboard around the ground
water depletion, as per the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)
Satellites data of NASA, at an average rate of 4 cm a year is being depleted in northwestern India, this works out to be 18 cu.km of water a year. Over a period of 6 years
of study indicates that the depletion was 109 cu.km
The lowering of ground water level force the community/farmers to go for deeper
aquifer to meet their fresh water needs for drinking and agriculture. The farmers
spent a huge sum to find a deep source and while go for deep aquifer, they encounter
many water quality issues as well. Presence of excess chemicals /minerals higher
than the prescribed limit by World Health Organization (WHO) /Government make
the water unfit for drinking and use for agriculture. The WHO data shows that over
exploitation of ground water necessitate to go for deeper aquifers, result a major water
quality issues such as Arsenic, Fluoride etc., over 13 million people in 4 states in
India are at risk due to arsenic contamination and 66 million people in 17 states in
India are at risk due to Fluoride contamination. The table 2 lists various water quality
issues prevailing in India.
Table 2 Water quality issues in India
Water Quality Problem
Fluoride
Arsenic
Iron
Nitrate

Brackishness

Remarks
The population at risk is estimated to be around 66 million
in 17 states
The population at risk is estimated to be more than 13 million in 4
states
Around 1.5 lacks habitations spread over 16 states in the country are
found to be affected
Nitrate is emerging as a major problem in the States of
Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar
Pradesh
A major problem in parts of the States of Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

82

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

2.3. Temperature and Precipitation

The figure 3 indicates that there is considerable increase in the mean temperature,
particularly in the last few decades. There are considerable impacts due to rise in the
mean temperature, especially on the water related aspects. For example, increase in
temperature results more evaporation loss in the water stored in the pond/ tank/
reservoir, thus affects the prolong availability of water for irrigation. Rise in
temperature result demands more water for crop production and also for human
consumption.

Source: AR4, IPCC (2007)

Figure 3 Projected global mean temperature rise

The rise in temperature and precipitation will result in many outbreaks of diseases.
Also, increate in temperature will force the living organism to shift or move and also
extinct. The figure 4 depicts the increase and decrease Annual Mean Temperature
across the country for a period of 60 years from 1951 to 2010.

Source: Indian Meteorological Department (2013)

Figure 4 Annual mean temperature trend in India for 1951 - 2010

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

83

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

Figures 5 and 6 clearly indicate that the number of hot and rainy days will go up
in various regions globally and it would lead to many issues to the human being. It is
essential to validate these changes in temperature and rainy days projection for local
level to work out an area specific mitigation and coping strategy. There should
detailed strategies to facilitate the vulnerable communities and marginal farmers to
adapt to the changes such as increased number or hot days or number of heavy rainy
days to cope with the change in climate conditions. The 60 years annual rainfall trend
(1951-2010) given the map by IMD indicates that there is an increase and decrease of
rainfall trend across the country and a few locations the trend the very significant at
95%.

Source: AR4, IPCC (2007)

Figure 5 Projected numbers of hot days due to climate change

Figure 6 Projected numbers of rainy days due to climate change

Also, analysis of for the past 100 years average rainfall data of India, especially
three and five years moving average reveals that there is mild shift the quantum of

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

84

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

rainfall received and in the one decade, the data is almost equal to average annual
rainfall and number of rainy years over the average is reducing compared to the past
(Figure 8). The data from 1916 to 1964 and 1965 to 2000 indicates that number of
rainy year over the national average is reduced in the later segment. It is a clear
indication that there is change in the rainfall patter in India. The same is confirmed
the analysis and annual rainfall trend released by IMD for a period of 60 years from
1951 to 2010.
100 Years Rainfall and Moving Average Trend
1600
1400

Rainfall in mm

1200
1000

800
600
400
200

1901
1904
1907
1910
1913
1916
1919
1922
1925
1928
1931
1934
1937
1940
1943
1946
1949
1952
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000

Annual Rainfall

Annual Average Rainfall

3 Years Moving Average

5 years moving Average

Source: Indian Meteorological Department (2012)

Figure 7 Average annual rainfall moving average of India

Source: Indian Meteorological Department (2013)

Figure 8 Annual rainfall trend for 1951 - 2010

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

85

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

2.4. Health
The change in climate threatens health and well-being of human being in multiple
ways, including through more extreme weather events, wildfires and decreased air
quality, diseases transmitted by insects, food and water. Climate change impacts on
human health can be divided into direct and indirect effects. The extreme events such
as droughts, flood, heat waves, wind storms, might case direct health issues and
indirect effects may arise from the disruption of natural systems, causing infectious
disease, malnutrition, food and water borne illness, and increased air pollution.
Increases in heat waves will increase the number of deaths and illnesses occurring
from heat stress, heatstroke, cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. Increases in
temperature and rainfall are expected to contribute to increased outbreaks of cholera,
diarrhoea, salmonella, campylobacter, enteric infections, and rotavirus.
Climate change would aggravate over the next few decades include heat stress,
vector borne diseases (such as malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever); extreme
weather events; air pollution; communicable diseases (such as HIV/AIDS, TB and
cholera) and non-communicable diseases (such as cardio-vascular and respiratory
diseases). Climate change could also have deleterious effects on mental and
occupational health, and its adverse impacts would be worsened by food insecurity,
hunger and malnutrition.
Sea level rise is already putting low-lying coastal populations at risk, and intense
rainfall events are projected to increase with climate change. This increases the risk of
flooding, which can introduce chemicals, pesticides, and heavy metals into water
systems and increase the risk of water-borne disease outbreak. Droughts, which are
expected to become more common, can destroy crops and grazing land, reduce the
quantity and quality of water resources, and increase risk of fire.
As per IPCC report, these impacts of climate change on human health and social
wellbeing are varied and occur through many different pathways. Among the key
risks are:

Death, injury, ill-health or disrupted livelihoods in low-lying coastal zones and island
states
Breakdown of infrastructure networks and critical services such as electricity, water
supply, and health and emergency services
Higher mortality and morbidity during periods of extreme heat and
Food insecurity and the breakdown of food systems, particularly for poorer
populations.

Some the above mentioned extreme weather related health issues can be
summarized in table 6.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

86

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

Table 6 Diseases projection due to climate change
Floods and storms

Drought

Increased or decreased vector (e.g. Changes in abundance of

mosquito) abundance (e.g. if
vectors that breeds in dried up
breeding sites are washed away).
river beds.
Increased risk of respiratory and
Food shortage
diarrhoeal diseases.
Illness
Drowning
Malnutrition
Injuries
Increased risk of infections
Health effects associated with
Death (starvation)
population displacement.
Health impacts associated with
Impacts on Food supply
population displacement
Mental Health Impacts
Source: www.sanbi.org/climatechangefactsheet(2013)

Fire
Burns and smoke
inhalation
Soil erosion and increased
risks of land slides
Increased mortality and
morbidity
Increased risk of hospital
and emergency
admissions

2.5. Forest
Forests play a critical role in maintaining a varied range of delicate relationships with
nature and its ecosystems. Forests are highly sensitive to climate change. Climate is
one of the most important determinants of vegetation patterns globally and thus
climate change can significantly alter the distribution, structure and ecology of
forests. Forest type distribution, carbon stocks or emissions and climate change are
interlinked processes. Impacts on the wellbeing of forests likely to be caused by
climate change will therefore have a dramatic effect. According to the latest
projections by UNEP (2015), changes in climate will mean that by 2050 the worlds
ecosystems, including its all-important forests, will be releasing more carbon than
they are capable of absorbing. Increase in temperatures might force many living
organisms to migrate to cooler areas, while new organisms arrive. Such movements
involve all species, including plants. Various studies have noted that a number of bird,
tree, scrub and herb species have migrated by an average of six kilometres every ten
years, or have sought higher altitudes of between one and four metres (Parmesan et
al.,2003).
The present environmental situation is heavily inuenced by climate change and it
could lead to a massive destruction of forests and the extinction of countless species.
For example, modeling focusing on the Amazon region has indicated that 43 per cent
of 193 representative plant species could become non-viable by the year 2095 due to
the fact that changes in climate will have fundamentally altered the composition of
species habitats (UNEP/Miles et al. 2004).
Changes in the growth and regeneration capacity of many tree species can be
possible, even a mild increases of as little as 1C in mean annual air temperature.
This mild increase in air temperature can significantly alter the function and
composition of forests and also possibly can cause forest cover to disappear
completely. Since the forest is water dependent, either the extreme drought or water
logging will force the forest cover decline. The changes in the temperature and
rainfall might influence the change in soil water availability; as a result tropical
forests existence and survival become an issue. Decreases in soil moisture may
accelerate forest loss in many areas where water availability is already marginal. In
other areas, increasing precipitation may be more than adequate to meet increased
evaporative demand and may even lead to erosion.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

87

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

Forests are particularly sensitive to climate change, because the long life-span of
trees does not allow for rapid adaptation to environmental changes. Adaptation
measures for forestry need to be planned well in advance of expected changes in
growing conditions because the forests regenerated today will have to cope with the
future climate conditions of at least several decades, often even more than 100 years
(Marcus et al.,2008).

2.6. Coastal Area

Worldwide, the human activities are transforming natural ecosystems. Certain
ecosystem types are being lost, while completely new ones are emerging in their place
(Ellis et al., 2008). Emerging or novel ecosystems have two key characteristics
(Hobbs et al., 2006): (1) they contain new combinations of species, which can change
how the ecosystem functions and (2) they result from human activities but
nevertheless can persist without continued intervention by humans. Novel ecosystems
often differ considerably from either wild or intensively managed systems, for
example in fishery production, shoreline erosion control and maintenance of water
quality.
Gradual changes in environmental conditions such as water temperature do not
necessarily produce gradual responses in the ecosystem - a small change can cross a
tipping point, producing a sudden or large shift in the system. Such non-linear
responses to a stressor can occur either because (1) the change pushes a key species
over a threshold in its physiological tolerances or (2) the stressor affects species
differently and disrupts the complex interactions among them. Such complex
relationships in ecosystems mean that a change is often difficult to reverse once it has
occurred. A classic example involves submerged vegetation. Loss of sea grasses due
to nutrient pollution destabilizes the underlying sediment and allows it to be mixed up
into the water column. This suspended sediment in turn reduces light and interferes
with reestablishment of grasses, even if nutrient loading is reduced well below its
original level (Schefferet al.,2001).
The review of IPCC document on Coastal system and low lying areas indicates
that Coasts are highly vulnerable to extreme events, such as storms. Annually, about
120 million people are exposed to tropical cyclone hazards, which killed 250,000
people from 1980 to 2000. Through the 20th century, global rise of sea level
contributed to increased coastal inundation, erosion and ecosystem losses, but with
considerable local and regional variation due to other factors. Anticipated climate
related changes include:

An accelerated rise in sea level of up to 0.6 m or more by 2100 (Fig.1.9)

A further rise in sea surface temperatures by up to 3C. Increases in sea surface
temperature of about 1 to 3C are projected to result in more frequent coral bleaching
events and widespread mortality, unless there is thermal adaptation or acclimatization
by corals
An intensification of tropical and extra-tropical cyclones; larger extreme waves and
storm surges and
Altered precipitation/run-off and ocean acidification.

Degradation of coastal ecosystems, especially wetlands and coral reefs, has

serious implications for the wellbeing of societies dependent on the coastal
ecosystems for goods and services. Increased flooding and the degradation of
freshwater, fisheries and other resources could impact hundreds of millions of people,
and socio-economic costs on coasts will escalate as a result of climate change.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

88

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

Source: AR4, IPCC (2007)

Figure 9 Expected global mean sea level raise

As per EPA, one of the most obvious effects of climate change on human made
structures is sea level rise, which causes destruction through erosion and the intrusion
of salt water into the water table. According to the IPCC (2001) and (Church et al.,
2001), it is very likely that warming will contribute signicantly to future sea level
rise, through thermal expansion of sea water and widespread loss of land ice. Human
habitat could be affected signicantly, as nearly 20 per cent of the worlds population
lives within 30 km of the sea, and approximately 40 per cent live within 100 km of the
coast (Cohen et al., 1997 and Gommeset al., 1998). As indicated by Nurse et al.
(2001), low-lying coastal regions and islands in particular are the most vulnerable to
rising seas. The problem may be even more severe in the future as coastal populations
worldwide expand. The major effects of a rise in sea level are the loss of land due to
inundation and erosion, increased ooding during storm surges and rainstorms, and
the intrusion of saltwater into aquifers, estuaries and wetlands (Tituset al., 1993).
Coastal ecosystems are of vital socio-economic and ecological importance to humans.
A 1997 study estimated the total value of ecosystem services provided by coastal
marine habitats to be in excess of 14 trillion U.S. dollars per year: over 40% of the
worlds total (Robert et al., (1997). Therefore, understanding the future of coastal
ecosystems has major implications for human society.

2.7. Biodiversity
Biological diversity deals with the degree of natures variety in the biosphere.
Biological diversity or biodiversity, encompasses the variety of all life on earth.
Biodiversity manifests itself at three levels: Species diversity which refers to the
numbers and kinds of living organisms. Genetic diversity refers to genetic variation
within species and ecosystem diversity which denotes the variety of habitats,
biological communities and ecological processes (MoE&F, GoI). During the last
century, population growth, market pressures and new technological development in
agriculture have influenced the pattern of agricultural development tending towards
agriculture intensification, (i.e. increasing scales of monoculture production, intensive
mechanical tillage, irrigation and the use of synthetic fertilizer, pest control agents and
a restricted diversity of crop and livestock varieties), often leading to natural
resources degradation. Biodiversity losses can be attributed to the resource demands

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

89

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

of our rapidly growing human population. In modern times, the human population has
increased from about one billion in 1900 to almost six billion today. Like other living
beings, we use natural resources to survive, but we are far more resourceful and
destructive to other life-forms than any species previously known.
Climate change, on account of a buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
leading to global warming, poses significant threat to biodiversity, ecosystems, and
the goods and services they provide. There are indications that the projected changes
in temperature and CO2 concentration may alter growth, reproduction and hostpathogen relationships in both plants and animals.
The multiple components of climate change are anticipated to affect all the levels
of biodiversity. A study of 9650 inter specic systems, including pollinators and
parasites, suggested that around 6300 species could disappear following the extinction
of their associated species (Kohet al., 2004). In addition, for many species, the
primary impact of climate change may be mediated through effects on synchrony with
species food and habitat requirements. Climate change has led to phenological shifts
in owering plants and insect pollinators, causing mismatches between plant and
pollinator populations that lead to the extinctions of both the plant and the pollinator
with expected consequences on the structure of plantpollinator networks (Rafferty, et
al., 2010).
Review of IPCC report on climate change and biodiversity reveals that at Global
level, the human activities have caused and continue to cause a loss in biodiversity
through land use, soil and water pollution, degradation/desertification, air pollution,
habitat fragmentation, exploitation of species and introduction of non- native species
etc. Increase in land and ocean surface temperature, changes in the spatial and
temporal patterns of precipitation, rise in sea level etc. are affecting the timing of
reproduction of animals and plants, migration of animals, length of growing season,
species distribution and the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks. Also, climate
change is projected to affect individual organisms, population, species distributions,
and ecosystem composition and function both directly and indirectly. Varies climate
related changes will disturb and increase the rate of species loss and create
opportunities for the establishment of new species. The impact of sea level rise on
coastal ecosystem will vary regionally and will depend on the erosion processes from
the sea and depositional processes from the land. Hence, climate change impacts on
the biodiversity are expected to be huge.

3. SUMMARY
It is evident that impacts of climate change are cutting across all major sectors,
especially agriculture, water resource, health, forest, coastal ecosystem and
biodiversity. Also, the review of existing climate change related studies, literature,
future projection, mitigation, adaptive techniques are indicating that the existing facts
and figures are still limited and these learning cannot be applied universally, in order
to plan a realistic adaptive measures to cope with the changing climate, location and
issue based in depth studies are essential. Also, it is very clear that out of all sectors,
agriculture going to be affected very severally, especially preparing small and
marginal farmers to undertake a realistic adaptive measure is very critical in order to
keep them active in the business of agriculture to ensure food security of the global
population.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

90

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

Two major ways are there to control global warming.

Carbon sequestration (keeping the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere).

Reduce production of greenhouse gases (Alternate sources of energy).

REFERENCES
[1]

[2]
[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

Abid. M., et al., (2015), Farmers perceptions of and adaptation strategies to

climate change and their determinants. Earth System. Dynamics (2015), Earth
Syst. Dynam., 6, 225243, 2015.
Anita Kumari., P Kaushal, JK Dubey., and DK Sharma,(2012)., An Impact Study
on Climate Change. International Journal of Farm Sciences 2(2) :95-101, 2012
Anita Kumar., P.Kaushal.,J.K.Dubey., and D.K.Sharma., (2012)., Climate
Change an impact study in Himachal Pradesh. International Journal of Farm
Sciences 2(2):95-101, 2012.
AproniusMbilinyi, Georgina Ole Saibul, Vivian Kazi, (2013), Climate Change to
Small Scale Farmers; Voices of Farmers in Village Communities in Tanzania.
The Economic and Social Research Foundation.
Asha latha K V., MunisamyGopinath, and A. R. S. Bhat, (2012), Impact of
Climate Change on Rainfed Agriculture in India: A Case Study of Dharwad.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 3, No. 4.
Anselm A. Enete., Anthony N. Onyekuru., Ignatius I. Madu., Elizabeth A.
Onwubuya., Josephat C. Mojekwu., and Fidelis Eze. (2011), Indigenous
Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change: Study of Southeast Nigeria. African
Technology Policy Studies Network. P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi
Kenya
AtiqKainan Ahmed., (2010), Climate Change and Anticipated Impacts in Asian
Countries. Presention made in Plan Asia regional water and environmental
sanitation network meeting, Bangkok, 25 January, 2010
Anonymous, Climate Change Impact on Agricultural Production and Adaptation
Strategies: Farmers Perception and Experiences. USAID Project, Improved
Modeling of Household Food Security Decision Making and Investments Given
Climate Change Uncertainty Associate Award AIDOAA-LA-11-00010 under
Food Security III, CDG-A-00-02-00021-00
Brian Joyce., Sebastian Vicua., Larry Dale., John Dracup., Michael Hanemann.,
David Purkey, and David Yates., (2006).,Climate Change Impacts on Water for
Agriculture in California ; A case study in the Sacramento Valley. California
Climate Change Center, California.
Celine Bellard., Cleo Bertelsmeier., Paul Leadley., WilfriedThuiller., and Franck
Courchamp., (2012).,Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity.
Ecology Letters, (2012).doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x.
Confalonieri, R., M. Donatelli., S. Bregaglio., F.N. Tubiello., and E. Fernandes.,
(2012), Agro-ecological Zones Simulator (AZS): A component based, openaccess, transparent platform for climate change Crop productivity impact
assessment in Latin America. International Environmental Modelling and
Software Society, International Congress on Environmental Modelling and
Software Managing Resources of a Limited Planet, Sixth Biennial Meeting,
Leipzig, Germany.
Central Water Commission., (2014)., Water Management Challenges and
Capacity Building needs., This was presented in a national workshop by Mr.
Navin Kumar, Director, Central Water Commission on 22nd January 2014

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

91

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

CHOICES - The magazine of food, farm and resources issues., (2008)., Effects of
Climate Change on Water Resources : http://www.farmdoc.illinois.edu
/policy/choices/20081/theme/2008-1-04.pdf (last assess on 30th July 2015)
Church, J.A., J.M.Gregory, P.Huybrechts,M.Kuhn,K. Lambeck, M.T.Nhuan,D.
Qin and P.L.Woodworth., (2001).Changes in sea level.Climate Change 2001. The
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J.T. Houghton,Y.
Ding, D.J.Griggs,M.Noguer, P.J. van der Linden and D.Xiaosu, Eds., Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 639-693.
DDWS: Department of Drinking Water Supply, (2009), Rural Drinking Water
Supply Background and Issues. Presented in the national workshop at Scope
Complex., New Delhi on 21st October 2009.
Deressa, T.T., et al, (2009) Global Environ (2009), doi: 10.1016/ j.gloenvcha.
Determinants of farmers choice of adaption methods to climate change in the
Nile Basin of Ethiopia.01.002
Deke,O., G.K.Hoos., C.Kasten., G.Klepper., K.Springer., (2001)., .Economic
Impact of Climate Change: Simulations with a Regionalized Climate-Economy
Model.Kiel Institute of World Economics, Kiel Working Paper No.1065.
Ellis C Erle., and NavinRamankutty., (2008).,Putting People in the Map:
Anthropogenic Biomass of the World. Front Ecol Environ 2008; 6(8): 439447,
doi: 10.1890/070062.
EPA : Environmental Protection Agency., (2007)., Coastal Zones and Sea Level
Rise.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
The
United
Nations.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ effects/ coastal/index.html (last visited
31st July 2015)
Environmental research web.,(2009).,GRACE reveals groundwater depletion in
India (http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/article/news/40091 ) (last
access on 4th August 2015) and GRACE : Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment., (2009)., NASA Satellites Unlock Secret to Northern India's
Vanishing
Water.
(http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/india
water.html) (last access on 4th August 2015).
FAO; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations., (1996), Agro
Ecological Zoning guidelines. FAO Soils Bulletin 76, Soil Resource,
Management and Conservation service.
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (2015), Agro
Ecological Zone. India FAO Wheat Database( http://www.fao.org /ag/agp

/AGPC/doc/field/Wheat/asia/india/indiaagec.htm (last access on 30th July

2015)
[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

Francis Nana Yaw Codjoe., Charles K., Ocansey., Dennis O. Boateng., and
Johnson Ofori., (2013).,Climate Change Awareness and Coping Strategies of
Cocoa Farmers in Rural Ghana. Journal of Biology (2013), Agriculture and
Healthcare, Vol.3, No.11.
Gbetibouo, G.A., and R.M. Hassan., (2005)., Measuring the Economic Impact of
Climate Change on major South African field crops using A Ricardian approach.
Global and Planetary Change 47 (2005) 143 152.
Gbetibouo, G.A., and R.M. Hassan., (2005), Measuring the Economic Impact of
Climate Change on major South African field crops using A Ricardian approach.
Global and Planetary Change 47 (2005) 143 152.
Hobbs Richard J., Salvatore Arico, James Aronson, Jill S. Baron, Peter
Bridgewater, Viki A. Cramer, Paul R. Epstein, John J. Ewel, Carlos A. Klink,
Ariel E. Lugo, David Norton, Dennis Ojima, David M. Richardson, Eric W.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

92

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]
[33]

Sanderson, Fernando Valladares, Montserrat Vil, Regino Zamora and Martin

Zobel., (2006)., Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the
new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography, (Global Ecol.
Biogeogr.) (2006) 15, 17.
Hutchinson Sharon., Charmaine Gomes., Dillon Alleyne., and Willard
Phillips.,(2013)., an assessment of the economic and social impacts of climate
change on the agriculture sector in the Caribbean. United Nations. Printed at
United Nations, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago LC/CAR/L.398
Ishwarya Balasubramanian, and K.S. Kavi Kumar, (2010), Climate Variability
and Agricultural Productivity: Case Study of Rice Yields in Northern India.
Madras School of Economics. Working Paper 54/2010.
IFAD: International Food and Agricultural Development., (2010), Climate
Change
Impacts,
South
Asia,
http://www.ifad.org/events/apr09/
impact/seasia.pdf (last access: 12 July 2014), 2010.
India Environmental Portal., (2015).,Climate Change impacts on Water Resource
in India : Key Sheet 5 (http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in
/files/india-climate-5-water-DEFRA.pdf ) (last Access on 30th July 2015)
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Climate Change, (2001),
Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the
Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2001.
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Climate Change (2001):
The Scientific Basis. http://www.ipcc.ch (Last access on 30th July 2015)
IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change., (2015)., Health Impacts
and Opportunities- A Summary of Discussion of the IPCC Working Group 2
Report
(file:///C:/Users/akalimuthu.WFP/Downloads/Global%20Climate%20and

%20Health%20Alliance%2020Health%20Impacts%20and%20Opportunities%20(1).pdf ) (Last access

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]
[39]
[40]

on 30th July 2015)

IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change., (2015), coastal system and
low laying areas (https://www.ipcc.ch/ pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4wg2-chapter6.pdf ) (Last access on 31st July 2015).
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change., (2002), Climate Change and
Biodiversity IPCC Technical Paper V. (https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ technicalpapers/climate-changes-biodiversity-en.pdf) (last access on 3rd August 2015).
Joshua S. Okonya., KatjaSyndikus., and Jrgen Kroschel., (2013).,Farmers
Perception of and Coping Strategies to Climate Change: Evidence from Six
Agro-Ecological Zones of Uganda. Journal of Agricultural Science; Vol. 5, No.
8; 2013,ISSN 1916-9752 E-ISSN 1916-9760 Published by Canadian Center of
Science and Education.
Kartikeya Sarabhai., (2015), what are the threats to Biodiversity.
(http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/Radioserials/Threat_to_biodiversity__draft_paper.pdf ) last access on 3rd August 2015.
University Press DOI: 10.1017/ S1355770X04001706 Printed in the United
Kingdom
Koh, et al., (2004).Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis,. Science
305, 1632 (2004); DOI: 10.1126/science.1101101
LeventTezcan.,
Mehmet
Ekmekci.,
OzlemAtilla.,
DilekGurkan.,
OrcunYalcinkaya., OtgonbayarNamkhai., M. EvrenSoylu., SevgiDonma.,

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

93

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

DilekYilmazer., AdilAkyatan., NurettinPelen., FatihTopaloglu., and Ahmet

Irvem.,(2008)., Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources of
Seyhan River Basin. International Research Center For Karst Water ResourcesHacettepe University (UKAM), Ankara
Lian Pin Koh., Robert R. Dunn., Navjot S. Sodhi., Robert K. Colwell., Heather C.
Proctor., and Vincent S. Smith., (2005). Species Coextinctions and the
Biodiversity Crisis. Science, Vol 305, 16321634.
Mark K. Boitt., Charles N. Mundia., and Petri Pellikka.,(2005)., Modelling the
Impacts of Climate Change on Agro-Ecological Zones a Case Study of Taita
Hills, Kenya. Universal Journal of Geoscience 2(6): 172-179, 2014. DOI:
10.13189/ ujg.2014.020602
Marcus Lindner et al., (2008), Impacts of Climate Change on European Forests
and Options for Adaptation. AGRI-2007-G4-06. Report to the European
Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development.
Marcus Lindner, Michael Maroschek , Sigrid Netherer, Antoine Kremer , Anna
Barbati , Jordi Garcia-Gonzalo,, Rupert Seidl , Sylvain Delzon , Piermaria
Corona , MarjaKolstrom , Manfred J. Lexer and Marco Marchetti., (2009).,
Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest
ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 259 (2010) 698709
Makenzi, P., P. Ketiem., P. Omondi., E. Maranga., and C. Wekesa, (2013), Trend
Analysis Of Climate Change And Its Impacts On Crop Productivity In The Lower
Tana River Basin, Kenya. Octa Journal of Environmental Research (2013). 1(4):
237-248.
Miles L., Grainger A., and Phillips O., (2004). The impact of global climate
change on tropical forest biodiversity in Amazonia. Global Ecology and
Biogeography. (2004) 13, 553565
Mohammed Nasir Uddin., Wolfgang Bokelmann., and Jason Scott Entsminger.,
(2014), Factors Affecting Farmers Adaptation Strategies to Environmental
Degradation and Climate Change Effects: A Farm Level Study in Bangladesh.
Climate 2014, 2, 223-241; doi: 10.3390/cli2040223.
MoE&F, GoI: Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India,
(2007).,
National
Biodiversity
Action
Plan.
(http://www.

indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/National_Biodiversity_Action_Plan.pd
f ). Last access on 3rd August 2015.
[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

NASA:
(2005), What's the Difference
Between Weather and
Climate?.http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaan/climate/climate_weather.html. (Last access on 17th August 2015)
Nana Ama Browne Klutse., KwadwoOwusu., David CudjoeAdukpo., Francis
Nkrumah., KwesiQuagraine Alfred Owusu., and William J. Gutowski., (2013).,
Farmers observation on climate change impacts on maize in Ghana.Research
Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management (2013). Vol. 2(12), pp.
394-402.
NEEFP: A National Environmental Education Foundation Program, (2015),
Health & Environment. 4301 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 160. Washington,
DC
20008.
(http://www.neefusa.org/pdf/Climate_Change_and_Health
Fact_Sheet.pdf) (Last access on 30th July 2015)
Oseni, T.O., M.T. Masarirambi., (2011), Effect of Climate Change on Maize (Zea
mays) Production and Food Security in Swaziland. Am-Euro.J. agric. Enviorn.
Sci. 11:385-391
Parmesan C., G.Yohe, (2003)., A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change
impacts across natural systems. Nature, Volume 421, Issue 6918.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

94

editor@iaeme.com

Impacts of Global Warming on Environment - A Review

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]
[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]
[64]

[65]

[66]

Parry, M.L., C.Fischer, M. Livermore., C. Rosenzweig., A. Iglesias., (1999).

Climate change and world food security.Aa new assessment. Global
Environmental Change 9, S51S67.
Pierre Mukheibier., (2007).,The impact of climate change on small municipal
water resource management -The case of Bredasdorp, South Africa, Energy
Research Centre, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch 7700,
South Africa.
Raina, R.K., and M. N. Koul.,(2011)., Impact of climatic change on agroecological zones of the Suru-Zanskar valley, Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir),
India. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment Vol. 3(13), pp. 424-440,
12 November, 2011.
Raina, R.K., and M.N.Koul., (2011), Impact of climatic change on agroecological zones of the Suru-Zanskar valley, Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir),
India. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment Vol. 3(13), pp. 424-440.
Rafferty, N.E., and A.R.Ives, (2010), Effects of experimental shifts in owering
phenology on plant pollinator interactions. Ecol. Lett., 14, 6974.
Rathore, L.S., S D Attri.,and A K Jaswal.,(2013)., State Level Climate Change
Trends in India. Meteorological Monograph No. ESSO/IMD /EMRC/02/2013;
Meteorological Department in India, Earth System Science Organization,
Government of India.
Ranbir Singh Rana., R.M. Bhagat., VaibhavKalia., Harbans Lal., and Vijayshri
Sen., (2013)., Indigenous Perceptions of Climate Change vis--vis Mountain
Agricultural Activities in Himachal Pradesh, India. India Journal of Traditional
Knowledge (2013)., Vol. 12 (4), October 2013, pp 596-604.
Rakib. M.A.., Md.AtiurRahman, M.S.Akter and Mohammad.A,.H.Bhuiyan.,
(2014). A study on Climate change: farmers perception and agricultural
activities.
Roger Sedjo., and Brent Sohngen., (1998), Impacts of Climate Change on
Forests. April 1998; Revised May 1998 RFF Climate Issue Brief #9, Second
Edition. 1616 P Street NW Washington, DC 20036.
Robert Costanzaet al., (1997)., The Value of the Worlds Ecosystem Services and
Natural Capital. 387 NATURE 253, 259.
Sacchidananda Mukherjee, Debashis Chakraborty and SatadruSikdar.,
(2014).,Three Decades of Human Development across Indian States: Inclusive
Growth or Perpetual Disparity?.
Working Paper No. 2014-139. National
Institute of Public Finance and Policy New Delhi.
Scheffer Marten., Steve Carpenter, Jonathan A.Foley., Carl Folke., and Brian
Walker., (2001), Catastrophic Shifts in Ecosystem. Macmillan Magazine
Limited.NATURE.Vol 413.
SANBI: CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN HEALTH., (2013)., Climate and
Impacts Factsheet Series, Factsheet 5 of 7; ( http://www.sanbi.org /sites/

default/files/
documents/documents/ltas-factsheetclimate-change-andhuman-health2013.pdf ) (last access on 30th July 2015)
[67]

[68]

Saeendran, S.A., K. K. Singh., L. S. Rathore., S. V.Singh., and S. K. Sinha.,

(2000)., Effects of Climate Change on Rice Production in the Tropical Humid
Climate of Kerala. Climatic Change (2000), 44, Kluwer Academic Publishers:
495514.
Sanjay K Srivastava., H C Meena Rani., S Bandyopadhyay., V S Hegde., and V
Jayaraman.,(2009).,Climate Risk Assessment of Rice Ecosystems in India. Journal
of South Asia Disaster Studies Vol. 2 No. 1.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

95

editor@iaeme.com

A. Kalimuthu and Dr. T. T. Ranganathan

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]
[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]
[77]
[78]

[79]
[80]

Schlenker, W., and D.B. Lobell., (2010), Roburst Negative Impacts of Climate
Change on African Agriculture, Environm .Res .Lett, 5,014010, doi: 10.1088/
1748-9326/5/1/014010,2010.
Sharon Hutchinson., Charmaine Gomes., Dillon Alleyne, and Willard Phillips.,
(2013), An assessment of the economic and social impacts of climate change on
the agriculture sector in the Caribbean. United Nations. Printed at United
Nations, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago LC/CAR/L.398.
ThulaniDube, and Keith Phiri, (2013)., Rural Livelihoods under Stress: The
Impact of Climate Change on Livelihoods in South Western Zimbabwe. American
International Journal of Contemporary Research (2013).5(3). 11-25
Mariappan, P, 2014, Training material on water sustainability, TWAD Board,
Trichy.
Manjunatha M.C, Basavarajappa H.T and Jeevan L. Climate Change And Its
Impact on Groundwater Table Fluctuation In Precambrian Terrain of Chitradurga
District, Karnataka, India Using Geomatics Application. International Journal of
Civil Engineering and Technology, 6(3), 2015, pp. 83 - 96.
UNEP: United Nations Environment Program, (2015), Climate change and its
impact on forests - will forests migrate? ; http://www.unep.org/ vitalforest/
Report/VFG-11-Climate-change-and-its-impact-on-forests.pdf (last Access
on 31st July 2015)
Wei Shiuen Ng and Robert Mendelsohn., (2005), The impact of sea level rise on
Singapore. Environment and Development Economics 10: 201215 C 2005
Cambridge

www.climatechange.gov.au
http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/original/AUST_climatechan
ge_mean.pdf ;last access on 4th August 2015.
A. Rizk, A. Aldeberky and N. Guirguis. Comparison between Natural Cross and
Hybrid Ventilation for Hot Climate by Using CFD. International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 5(2), 2014, pp. 71 - 80.
Dr. A. Valliammai, Climate Change in India Issues and Challenges,
International Journal of Management (IJM), 6(1), 2015, pp. 427 - 434.
Selvapandian, Professor. K.P. Ramachandran and Dr. Neeraja. Feasibility of
Using Insulated Concrete Forms in Hot and Humid Climate. International
Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 5(1), 2014, pp. 66 - 72.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

96

editor@iaeme.com