Sample chapter from

BSAVA Manual of

Exotic Pets
5th edition

Edited by Anna Meredith and Cathy Johnson-Delaney

BSAVA 2010

www.bsava.com

Chapter 21 Invertebrates

21
Invertebrates
Romain Pizzi
Introduction
Pet invertebrates are occasionally presented to vet
erinary surgeons and can be an interesting change
from the more routine cases seen in exotic animal
practice. While over 1 million invertebrate species
have currently been described, most sources esti
mate the true number is likely to be between 6 and 10
million, and some estimate that it may be as high as
80 million. Despite this large number of species, only
a handful are ever presented to veterinary surgeons
dealing with exotic pets. This chapter will concentrate
on a small number of common terrestrial species, and
will aim to provide practical and useful information as
a starting point for pet invertebrates. For a more com
prehensive review of invertebrate medicine readers
are referred to Lewbart (2006). Commonly kept spe
cies include Giant African land snails, land hermit
crabs, tarantulas and scorpions (Figure 21.1).

Giant African land snails

There are over 200 species of Achatinidae in sub

Saharan Africa. Giant African land (GAL) snails are
among the most commonly and easily kept pet
invertebrates. Owners may be unaware that there are
several common species, which can have different
husbandry requirements.
The most common pet species is the East African
GAL snail (Achatinafulica;Figure 21.1a)from Kenya
and Tanzania. These have become an introduced agri
cultural pest and are hence illegal in some countries.
Adults average 10 cm in length, although individuals
may be as long as 20 cm. Dextral (righthanded) shells

(a)
21.1

(b)

are most common. The snails reach adult size within

about 6 months and live approximately 5 years.
The largest species is A. achatina, the West
African or Tiger snail, also called the giant Ghana
snail. These are not as common as A.fulica, but are
prized for their large size and striped appearance.

Land hermit crabs

The two most commonly kept semiterrestrial land

hermit crabs are the Caribbean or purple claw hermit
crab (Coenobitaclypeaus) and the Ecuadorian hermit
crab (C. compressus). These decapod crustaceans
live up to 15 years in captivity, with occasional reports
of individuals living past 20 years of age.

Spiders

There are approximately 900 species of Theraphosi

dae (tarantula) spider, with more than 100 species
available in the pet trade from time to time. Specialist
keepers may also keep more unusual araneomorph
species such as Argiope or Nephila orb web spiders
free in a room, as they remain in their webs.
Some of the most commonly kept theraphosids
include the terrestrial Mexican redknee tarantula
(Brachypelma smithi; Figure 21.1b), Chilean rose
tarantula (Grammostola rosea), Goliath birdeater
(Theraphosablondi)and curly hair tarantula(Brachypelmaalbopilosum),as well as arboreal species such
as the pinktoe tarantula (Avicularia avicularia) from
the Americas, and the Asian ornamental tarantulas
(Poecilotheria spp.). Terrestrial African baboon spi
ders (e.g. Ceratogyrus, Pterinochilus, Hysterocrates)
are less popular but are kept, despite their more

(c)

Somecommonlykeptinvertebrates.(a) GALsnail.(b) Mexicanredkneetarantula.(c) Imperialscorpion.

(a,bCourtesyofDLWilliams.)

373

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
aggressive nature. Brachypelma species, including
B. smithi (Mexican redknee tarantula), are currently
listed in Appendix II of CITES, which has increased
their financial value. Serious hobbyists may keep sev
eral hundred or even thousand spiders belonging to a
large number of species.
There is an unfortunate tendency among pet shops
and traders to make up imaginative names for taran
tulas, so reliance should never be placed on common
names, and owners may not be aware what species
they in fact possess. There have been a large number
of taxonomic revisions that further complicate litera
ture searches. For example: the Mexican redknee and
other Brachypelma species were previously referred
to as Euthalus spp.; the Chilean rose (Grammostola
rosea, previously Phrixotrichus spatulata, previously
Grammostola spatulata) is often still referred to by its
previous names in current publications.
Adult female spiders can be extraordinarily longlived; reports vary from 612 years in some African
theraphosids to over 30 years in some New World
terrestrial tarantulas, such as Brachypelma spp. Only
females are long-lived, with males having a terminal
instar once they moult to maturity. For this reason
females are more desirable as pets.

Scorpions

The most commonly kept pet scorpion is the imperial

or emperor scorpion (Pandinus imperator; Figure
21.1c), which originates from North Africa. One of
the largest scorpion species, adults commonly reach
over 20 cm in length. Despite their impressive
appearance imperial scorpions have weak venom
and are relatively timid and reclusive in nature,
hence their popularity as pets. Individuals can live
up to 8 years in captivity. Exhibits often include an
ultraviolet (UV) light source to demonstrate their
blue-green fluorescence; only adults have cuticles
that fluoresce.

Biology
Sexing

Some pet invertebrates show sexual dimorphism, e.g.

male Macleays spectres (Extatosoma tiaratum) have
wings while the females do not. Many insects have
distinct differences, such as an ovipositor or genital
claspers.
Adult males of many of the common pet tarantula
species, such as Chilean rose tarantulas, have hooked
spurs on the tibial section of the first pair of legs,
which are used to secure the females fangs during
mating (Figure 21.2), and can be used to differentiate
adult males. Subadult tarantulas can be sexed by
microscopic examination of the epygial region of shed
cuticle for presence or absence of spermathecae.

Husbandry
Invertebrates are poikilothermic and hence highly
dependent on environmental factors, such as tem
perature range and humidity, for normal physiological

374

Chilean rose
tarantulas mating.
The male catches
the females fangs
with tibial hooks on
the first pair of his
legs and
inseminates her with
sperm stored in the
distal pedipalps.
( Zoological
Medicine Ltd.)
21.2

functioning. Infectious and non-infectious diseases

are often a reflection of underlying environmental
deficits, and some health problems will resolve simply
with husbandry changes, while more severe condi
tions will not respond to attempts at veterinary treat
ment unless the captive environment is optimized. Pet
invertebrates are commonly kept by herpetologists
and may therefore be treated by veterinary surgeons
more accustomed to treating reptiles; for this reason
several erroneous husbandry requirements based on
herpetology have been reported in the literature.

Housing
General considerations
Land hermit crabs are gregarious and can be
kept in large tanks if sufficient space and spare
shells of various sizes are provided to prevent
fighting and shell stealing.
Tarantulas need to be housed individually, or they
will predate each other.
Imperial scorpions can be kept communally,
especially if youngsters are reared together or
kept with their parents. Scorpions raised in
isolation are more likely to try and predate each
other, particularly if overcrowded or food is scarce.
Size
Size is an important consideration. If enclosures are
too small, Indian stick insects (Carausius morostus)
and some other phasmids will suffer from dysecdysis,
and so enclosures should be at least twice their
maximum body length in size in all dimensions.
In contrast, provision of overly large enclosures
can be a problem in large terrestrial tarantulas such
as the Goliath birdeater. An awkward fall from as little
as 30 cm can cause fatal opisthosoma trauma in
heavy-bodied individuals. Flat tanks under 30 cm in
height are therefore advisable. Mesh-top tanks are
not preferred for terrestrial tarantulas as they have
fine hooks on their feet, which may become stuck in
the mesh and lead to injury or limb autotomy. Arboreal
species, such as Indian ornamental (Poecilotheria

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
regalis) and pink-toe tarantulas, can be provided with
high but narrow enclosures.
Lighting
A fallacy to be found in some literature is that scorpions
or other arthropods need a source of UV light. Adult
scorpions fluoresce blue-green under UV lighting, but
UV light is not actually needed for any normal
physiological process. Scorpions are nocturnal, and
tarantulas are photophobic, and excessive lighting
may just lead to stress and anorexia.
Heating
In many arthropods temperature stability appears to
be more important than the provision of a precise
temperature gradient. Many specimens can be safely
kept at fairly cool temperatures once accustomed to
these, but sudden temperature drops from a heated
environment to that same lower temperature can
cause mortalities due to cold stress. On post-mortem
histology these specimens may show pathology of
structures such as the Malphigian tubules.
Additional heating is required in colder climates,
but unfortunately there is little precise information on
optimum temperatures for most common terrestrial
pet invertebrate species. A minimum/maximum ther
mometer is useful for monitoring environmental tem
perature stability. Small heat mats beneath part of the
enclosures are often best, as some species are photo
phobic or nocturnal. The heat mat should not be inside
the enclosure as some species will instinctively burrow
into the substrate if too warm. Temperatures in the
range of 2030C for tarantulas are recommended by
most authors for normal growth and ecdysis rates, and
in practical terms mean that room temperatures are
sufficient in many localities without additional heating.
Humidity and water provision
Arthropods need lower humidity than gastropods.
High humidity also means enclosures need much
more frequent cleaning to prevent food residue rotting
and causing proliferation of Gram-negative bacteria
that may cause disease.
GAL snails, particularly A. achatina, will aestivate
by sealing themselves into the shell with a dried
mucus film if conditions are too hot, or if humidity is
insufficient. Light misting is helpful for all species, and
especially important for A. achatina.
While some literature recommends misting taran
tulas daily, this is not advisable. Tarantulas locate prey
by detecting air current movements via their highly
innervated and sensitive hairs. Blowing on these
hairs, or misting, causes irritation and stress. Humidity
is better provided by moistening the substrate, provid
ing a water bowl and reducing enclosure ventilation
for species requiring higher humidity. The common
Brachypelma species and Chilean rose tarantulas do
well at relatively low humidity and so are low mainte
nance in terms of husbandry and cleaning.
Water is best offered to arthropods such as spiders
and insects in a shallow dish. A ramp or small pebble
will also allow prey insects such as crickets to escape
rather than drowning and rotting in the dish. Wet
cottonwool balls are not recommended as they quickly

become soiled and can harbour heavy Gram-negative

bacterial growth. Fibres can also become entangled
on limbs.
Substrate and hides
Sufficiently deep sand should be provided for hermit
crabs to burrow into for ecdysis. Occasionally an
individual will moult on the surface; a simple separator
made from a ring of a plastic bottle can be a useful
barrier to prevent injury from other crabs without
risking damage by handling and moving the moulting
crab itself.
Retreats and hides should be provided in most
arthropod enclosures. Imperial scorpions, despite
their appearance, are reclusive in nature due to their
weak venom. This species hides in burrows in termite
mounds when not hunting and it is important to
provide hides to limit stress. If a captive scorpion is
frequently raising its tail in threat displays, this may
indicate environmental stress due to lack of a hide,
ground vibrations, or bright lighting.

Diet
Snails
Herbivores such as GAL snails should be offered a
variety of fresh leafy vegetables, which should be
thoroughly washed to ensure no pesticides are fed
inadvertently. Shelled gastropod molluscs such as
GAL snails need a dietary source of calcium, easily
provided by cuttlefish bone; otherwise they will rasp
other snails shells with the radula to obtain the
calcium they need for continued shell growth.
GAL snails do not readily accept powdered calcium
on their food.
Arthropods
Tarantulas are normally fed live invertebrates such
as crickets and locusts, depending on their size.
Anorexic spiders may be tempted with waxworms.
Some tarantulas will accept small pieces of raw meat
or chicken, or whole killed vertebrates such as mice,
and although breeders may claim faster growth rates
with these diets, an entirely invertebrate-based diet is
perfectly adequate.
Scorpions will accept freshly killed prey, although
they prefer live invertebrates, and two or more
scorpions may feed collaboratively on the same prey
item. Imperial scorpions are reported to prey mainly
on termites in the wild, and in captivity are commonly
fed crickets, cockroaches and mealworms. These
scorpions are often fed killed small mice in captivity,
but these are not part of their natural diet in the wild.
Invertebrates as food items
When crickets and locusts are used as food items, it
is important to provide them with food and water for
48 hours before being offerred as food. If starved,
they will rapidly metabolize their adipose bodies and
will then hold little nutritional value for the tarantula or
scorpion consuming them. Provision of dry bran is not
sufficient, as these insects will also metabolize their
adipose bodies to liberate water if they become
dehydrated.

375

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
Calcium supplementation
The need for calcium supplementation in all inverte
brates is a common fallacy, even in peer-reviewed
literature. The majority of arthropods, such as pet
scorpions and tarantulas, do not need calcium sup
plementation. The arthropod exoskeleton consists of
a combination of chitin, a long-chain polymer of
N-acetylglucosamine, and hence a polysaccharide
carbohydrate, which is embedded in a mix of various
proteins. Differing proportions of chitin lead to differ
ences in rigidity and flexibility between species, as
well as anatomical regions, and even between the
layers of the cuticle. The hardening or scleritization
after ecdysis is mediated by hydrophobic phenolics.
Only some crustaceans and myriapods (millipedes)
will incorporate minerals, predominately calcium car
bonate, into their exoskeletons. Other arthropods do
not. In fact, forced calcium supplementation of food in
some insects will cause decreased survival and
fecundity, due to abrasive damage to the gastrointes
tinal tract. While many invertebrates will form noncalcified eggs, there are exceptions, such as some
large beetles and GAL snails, which produce eggs
with a mineralized shell.

Breeding

Uncontrolled breeding of snails, phasmids and insects

can be a serious problem in captivity and culling may
be needed to keep numbers manageable.
Snails
GAL snails are hermaphrodites, containing both
ovaries and testes; sperm can be stored viably for
over a year. They can produce up to 200 eggs five
times a year. The eggs are large (35 mm in length)
with a calcified shell and are buried in the substrate.
Care should always be taken when changing the
substrate, as this may contain eggs.
Arthropods
The Indian stick insect is parthenogenetic, that is it
will produce fertile eggs without a male being
present.
Male tarantulas are only briefly introduced into the
females enclosure for breeding attempts (see Figure
21.2) and swiftly removed after this has occurred. It is
recommended that tarantulas be housed individually
as cannibalism can occur. Although some arboreal
species (Avicularia and Poecilotheria) have been kept
together in large communal enclosures, cannibalism
does still occur and thus is not advised. Spiderlings
are commonly left together after hatching for the first
few moults, and the stronger spiderlings will predate
the weaker ones.
All scorpions give birth to live young. Newly
emerged scorpions are vulnerable and unable to
fend for themselves, and are cared for by the
mother, sometimes for several months. The mother
will defend them and will be more aggressive to
handling attempts during this period. They will ride
on their mothers back (Figure 21.3) and she will kill
prey for them. The youngsters venture off their
mothers back as they grow, eventually dispersing
and becoming independent.

376

Newly emerged
scorpions ride on
their mothers back
for several months
before becoming
independent and
dispersing.
( Zoological
Medicine Ltd.)
21.3

Handling and restraint

Handling and restraint needs to be gentle in order not
to damage delicate invertebrates and also not to allow
specimens such as tarantulas or scorpions to injure
the handler.

Spiders

Many New World theraphosids such as the Mexican

redknee and Chilean rose tarantula rely for their pri
mary defence on barbed irritant urticating hairs that
are kicked off from their dorsal opisthosoma into the
face of potential predators. When handling New World
tarantulas, latex gloves are a sensible precaution. A
small number of people appear especially sensitive to
these irritant hairs and can develop skin rashes or
even respiratory distress on exposure. Asian taran
tulas and African baboon spiders do not have this
defence mechanism, and so will bite much more read
ily in defence.
Tarantulas may be gently encouraged into the
hand with a fine artists paintbrush. This can also be
used to assess the individuals temperament and
mood before handling, by gently and repeatedly
stroking the first pair of legs. Any aggressive response
will indicate that the tarantula is unlikely to tolerate
gentle handling attempts.
Tarantulas can also be gently pinned to the
substrate by applying finger pressure or using a
pencil, over the strong rigid cephalothorax carapace.
The tarantula can then safely be grasped and lifted,
with the thumb and middle finger between the second
and third pairs of legs on either side (Figure 21.4).
Switching off enclosure heating 12 hours before
handling may be helpful with some Old World taran
tula species, but placing individuals in the refrigerator
for 30 minutes, as is sometimes advocated, can result
in mortalities.
Trauma is a common cause of captive spider
deaths. An awkward drop from as little as 20 cm can
rupture the opisthosoma of a large terrestrial tarantula.
For this reason tarantulas should always be handled
over a table.

Chapter 21 Invertebrates

Diagnostic approach
If individuals are kept in small enclosures these should
ideally be brought into the veterinary surgery. The
water bowl can be emptied prior to transportation to
prevent spillage.

History

Safe handling of a Pterinochilus tarantula. This

is an African species and lacks irritant hairs,
so does not necessitate latex gloves. ( Zoological
Medicine Ltd.)
21.4

Tarantulas laying on their back are normally

undergoing ecdysis (Figure 21.5) and should not be
handled, as they are susceptible to trauma at this
time. Dead spiders are normally found in an upright
position with their legs in flexion beneath them, as the
legs have flexor muscles only and rely on haemolymph
pressure for extension.

A thorough history with emphasis on husbandry is

essential, as the majority of health problems encoun
tered in pet invertebrates will be husbandry-related.
Behavioural changes can be an important indicator of
some conditions. Tarantula keepers often notice
Panagrolaimidae-infected tarantulas (see later) first
by the distinctive behavioural changes they demon
strate, such as anorexia and reluctance to move, and
either an abnormally huddled posture or standing on
tip toes.

Clinical examination

A macroscopic visual examination can be aided by

the use of a low magnification stereomicroscope.
Flattening arthropods such as scorpions with clear
plastic sheeting on to a plate of glass, or simply
placing the specimen in a clear-walled container, will
allow gross visual examination.

Imaging

Tarantulas, such as this Mexican redknee,

normally undergo ecdysis on their back, and
should not be disturbed or handled during this process.
( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.5

Scorpions

Safe handling of imperial scorpions is accomplished

by grasping the tail dorsoventrally with padded forceps
(Figure 21.6); they cannot twist the distal tail to sting to
the side. Some other more venomous scorpion spe
cies have a more muscular tail, which may be grasped
laterally at the distal third with padded forceps.

Radiography
Radiography is of very limited value in invertebrates
such as arthropods; their cuticle consists of proteins,
and very little soft tissue differentiation is evident even
in large specimens. Cuttlefish are an exception:
traumatic fractures of the cuttlebone and resorption
lesions associated with bacterial infections may be
visualized radiographically. Radiography can also be
useful in shelled molluscs, such as GAL snails, to
evaluate severe shell cracks after trauma and to help
plan repairs to provide adequate stabilization.
Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography can be useful, especially in GAL
snails (Figure 21.7). A small amount of water is all
that is needed, as the copious mucus secreted by the
gastropod foot is a perfect natural coupling gel. Snails
are less likely to retract when water is used, rather

Handling an imperial
scorpion using
padded forceps to
grasp the tail.
( Zoological
Medicine Ltd.)
21.6

21.7

Ultrasonography is particularly useful for GAL

snails. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)

377

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
than normal ultrasound gels which appear to irritate
some specimens. Small 7.510 MHz curvilinear
probes will give good definition, and structures such
as the oral radula, pharynx and cranial digestive tract,
as well as developed eggs, are relatively easily visual
ized. Ultrasonography can also be useful in determin
ing the origin and thus prognosis of a prolapse (see
later). Doppler ultrasonography has been reported to
be useful in auscultating and monitoring heart rate in
GAL snails (Rees Davies et al., 2000). Its most useful
application is in determining if a deeply retracted snail
is just in deep aestivation or, in fact, dead.
Some arthropods such as tarantulas do not have
discrete visceral organs that are amenable to ultra
sound examination. Ultrasonography has, however,
been used to screen tarantulas for the presence of
large endoparasitic acrocercid larvae in the opistho
soma (Johnson-Delaney, 2006). Unfortunately, while
individuals could be identified, attempts at treatment
by aspiration of the parasite have been unsuccessful
and resulted in the spiders death.
Endoscopy
Endoscopy is a useful diagnostic modality in inverte
brates, as it provides magnification of these small
patients. Endoscopic evaluation of oral discharges in
tarantulas can allow differentiation of microscopic
panagrolaimid nematodes from bacterial infection,
without the need for microscopy. Endoscopic exami
nation of the lung of pulmonate terrestrial snails via
the pneumostome (Figure 21.8) is easy and can help
demonstrate to clients that the snails are not infected
with Angiostrongylus cantonensis or parasitic mites.
Prolapses could also be examined, and endoscopy
may even be useful in evaluating obstructive egg
retention in large insects.

difficult to culture using standard veterinary techni

ques. A strong pure culture of a Bacillus species, of
which there are numerous entomopathogenic and
toxin-producing species, is more likely to be significant
than a mixed culture. Due to rapid gut breakdown and
bacterial invasion after death, culture post mortem is
often unrewarding.

Faecal examination

Faecal samples may yield protozoans such as Coccidia

and gregarines, but many insect species normally har
bour a high gregarine parasite load asymptomatically
in captivity (Figure 21.9). Similarly, millipedes com
monly have a high nematode burden on examination
without showing clinical signs; the author has not
examined a millipede post mortem that has not had
numerous gastrointestinal nematodes present.

Gregarine parasites in the gut of a desert

locust (Schistocerca gregaria). ( Zoological
Medicine Ltd.)
21.9

Cytology and haematology

Standard stained and unstained cytology can be

useful in identifying bacterial, fungal and protozoal
infections and lesions, as well as melanization
reactions and nodules (Figure 21.10), which are a
typical inflammatory response to trauma or infection
in insects and many arthropods.

Endoscopic view of the pulmonary sac via the

pneumostome in an East African GAL snail. The
pulmonary sac can be examined for nematode or mite
infections. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.8

Microbiology

Bacterial and fungal culture can be performed on

samples from lesions, or on oral or anal discharges,
but interpretation of the significance of any organisms
isolated can be difficult. Some entomopathogens are

378

Many arthropods will react to infections or

trauma by forming melanized inflammatory
nodules. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.10

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
There are some publications on haematology
in tarantulas (Figure 21.11) and other invertebrates,
but sources often do not agree on nomenclature of
cell types, and values vary with life stage and prox
imity to ecdysis, and also with environmental tem
peratures, currently precluding any meaningful
clinical application.

Blood smear from a tarantula. The green/blue

respiratory pigment haemocyanin is contained
in crystalline form in special haemocytes (cyanocytes)
before being liberated into the haemolymph. Interpretation
of invertebrate haematology is still in its infancy.
(Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.11

Common conditions
Only a small number of conditions in the most common
pet invertebrate species can be briefly covered here;
for more detailed information the reader is referred to
Lewbart (2006).

Hair loss in tarantulas

As noted above, many New World species of terres

trial tarantula have urticating hairs on the dorsal and
caudal aspects of their opisthosoma which they will
kick off with their hind legs in the face of predators, or
when disturbed. Loss of these hairs in captivity, result
ing in an obvious bald patch (Figure 21.13), often indi
cates environmental stress, such as excessive
handling or viewers repeatedly disturbing the spider
by tapping on the glass. The hairs will not regrow, but
once a new moult occurs the spider will have a new
appearance, complete with its full complement of
hairs. The condition does not need treatment, but
stress should be addressed where needed. Asian
tarantulas and African species do not have these irri
tant hairs, and hence do not develop alopecia. Skin
scrapes should not be performed on tarantulas with
alopecia as the dorsal opisthosoma overlying the
heart, which is typically bald, is thin and can be easily
ruptured, leading to fatalities.

Necropsy

In a group invertebrate disease problem, the diagnostic

approach usually relies on post-mortem examination
and sampling. As gut breakdown and translocation of
bacteria occur rapidly, even starting before death, it is
better to take samples from live specimens than to
use dead individuals.
Simple dissection of viscera immediately following
euthanasia and wet mounting between slides (Figure
21.12) can demonstrate infections such as tracheal
mites (Acarapis woodi) in honeybees which are visible
in the respiratory tracheoles, or viral destruction of
adipose bodies in Lepidoptera.

A bald patch is clearly visible on the dorsal

opisthosoma of this Mexican redknee tarantula,
presumed due to stress from viewers constantly banging
on the glass of its enclosure. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.13

Endoparasites

Section of an insect tracheole viewed

microscopically. Such preparations can be
examined for evidence of mites, eggs or inflammatory
melanization reactions. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.12

There are a large number of endoparasites, such as

acrocercid spider-fly larvae and mermithid nematodes
in tarantulas, that may be present in asymptomatic
wild-caught individuals for months or even years. There
is no treatment for these fatal infections, but the emerg
ing parasites usually pose little threat to other captive
invertebrates outside their normal geographical range.
Myriapods commonly carry a high load of mixed
nematodes in the digestive tract asymptomatically,
and these do not require treatment.
Although there is much written about zoonotic
Angiostrongylus cantonensis nematode infections in
GAL snails, this has only been seen in wild snails,
and not in the UK. Snails are infected through rat
faeces; a person would need to eat an infected GAL
snail raw to contract the disease. Endoscopy of the
pulmonary sac (see Figure 21.10) may be helpful in
demonstrating infection.

379

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
Saprophytic soil nematodes (and mites) may be
found in the substrate and are not a concern, but often
indicate a need to clean the enclosure.

Oral nematodes of tarantulas

Panagrolaimid nematodes appear to be an important

emerging problem in captive pet and zoo tarantulas,
which has been reported in the UK, several European
countries, the USA and Canada. The infection
manifests initially with anorexia and lethargy, which
progresses to a huddled posture. Death occurs after
several weeks. A thick white discharge between the
mouth and chelicerae may be noted. This appears at
first to be fluid macroscopically, but under endoscopic
or microscopic magnification can be seen to consist
of a mass of microscopic motile nematodes (Figure
21.14). The diagnosis can be confirmed by visualizing
the small, highly motile nematodes (< 0.53 mm in
length) in a sample of saline flushed over the
mouthparts. The nematodes appear to have a
symbiotic relationship with bacteria, which cause
tissue necrosis on which the nematodes feed. While
the mode of transmission is unknown, humpbacked
flies (Phoridae) have been suggested as possible
vectors, and infections have spread between separate
containers in a room. Recent work has also suggested
that these nematodes may be related to those of
beetles, and this has raised the possibility of mealworm
beetles (Tenebrio molitor) acting as vectors.

wounds is possible. Due to the possible risk, lack of

treatment options, and potential spread in a collec
tion, minimal handling and euthanasia of all affected
spiders is currently strongly recommended. There is
ongoing research and these guidelines may change
within the next few years as more is learnt about
these nematodes.

Mites

Mites are a frequently reported problem in captive

terrestrial invertebrates (Figure 21.15). Many are
saprophytic, rather than parasitic or host-specific.
Microscopy can sometimes be helpful, as mites
without piercing mouthparts are not parasitic, but
this is not always clear. Saprophytic mites are com
monly encountered in high-humidity enclosures, or
where hygiene is poor. Saprophytic mites can occa
sionally cause irritation and can cause hermit crabs
to abandon their shell. Wood chip and bark sub
strates are more likely to harbour mites. Some hostspecific mites are not particularly harmful, such as
Gromphadorholaelaps schaeferi, a mite specific to
Madagascan hissing cockroaches that feeds off food
around the mouthparts.

21.15

Panagrolaimid nematodes forming a white

fluid-like mass under magnification on the
mouthparts of a Goliath birdeater. ( Zoological Medicine
Ltd.)
21.14

All treatment attempts with different benzimid

azole and avermectin anthelminthics, and with anti
microbials for the associated bacteria, have so far
been unsuccessful at even prolonging survival time.
An important consideration is that related nematode
species have been demonstrated to cause a poten
tially fatal zoonosis of deep anaerobic wounds, with
no effective treatment currently available. Since
large specimens of Theraphosa blondi can have
fangs in excess of 3 cm, secondary infection of bite

380

Parasitic mites on a newly imported African

dung beetle. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)

Other mites are clearly pathogenic, such as Varroa

destructor in European honeybees, which also acts
as a viral vector and causes colony die-offs. Tracheal
mites in a variety of insects may also cause decreased
survival and fecundity, even if mortalities are not obvi
ous. Many hobbyists routinely microwave non-flam
mable substrates in order to prevent mite outbreaks.
A commercially available predatory mite, Hypoaspis
miles, that is sold to control fungus gnats and pest
thrips has also been used successfully in large collec
tions of tarantulas; they appear to control the mites in
the enclosure without irritating the spider.
Numerous other methods have been described,
depending on the affected species, including:
removing all substrates; removing visible mites with
petroleum jelly/ultrasound gel on a cotton bud or fine
artists paintbrush; mite removal with sticky tape; and
applying a 1:200 dilution of ivermectin with a fine

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
artists paintbrush. New arrivals should always be
quarantined in separate rooms to an invertebrate
collection for 30 days, and enclosures can be encircled
with double-sided sticky tape to catch any mites
leaving the enclosure.

Fungal infections

Two basic types of fungal infection are seen in captive

arthropods. The first is most commonly seen in
individual pets and manifests as visible fungal growth
on the exoskeleton while the individual is still alive.
The majority of these are opportunistic infections,
often due to poor environmental hygiene, and respond
well and rapidly to topical treatment with weak
povidoneiodine.
The second type of infection demonstrates visible
fungal growth only after an individuals death, and
usually indicates an entomopathogenic fungus. These
commonly invade the coelom, multiplying with no
external signs until the animals death, when external
fruiting bodies rapidly emerge and produce spores.
These infections are very difficult to manage in
collections once spores have contaminated a room. In
severe cases, destocking for several months and
fumigation may be needed before keeping can
recommence. In some cases affected individuals may
show colour changes or behavioural abnormalities
shortly before death, but often there are no antemortem clinical signs.

Hermit crabs out of shell

It is not normal to find land hermit crabs out of

their shell. There can be numerous causes, which
include: severe systemic illness; enclosure temp
eratures that are too warm; stress; stealing of the
shell by another hermit crab (extra shells of a variety
of sizes should be available in the enclosure);
ecdysis, very occasionally; and irritants, such as
mites. Shells can be removed and boiled to kill
mites. If sufficient shells are not available, plastic
containers such as film canisters may be useful as
temporary pseudoshells.

Poisoning

Most modern dedicated agricultural pesticides are

rapid-acting and non-cumulative, and are an
uncommon source of intoxication in pets, but it may
occur if treated vegetables are fed to herbivorous
species. Commercial flea and tick treatments,
household sprays, and fumigation of nearby properties
are more problematical. Some species, such as
phasmids, appear very sensitive to even household
aerosols. Arthropods, particularly tarantulas, appear
to be sensitive to fipronil toxicity due to its residual
nature; this is another reason for veterinary surgeons
to use latex gloves when handling patients. Care
should be taken when using containers previously
used for snakes that fipronil was not used to treat
snake mites; treated enclosures have killed spiders
several months later, despite being washed. Signs of
intoxication can include anorexia and decreased
mobility, or incoordination and twitching, depending
on the compound. Some other compounds appear

less harmful than would be supposed: the author has

used 1:200 dilutions of ivermectin topically on large
scorpions and tarantulas to treat mites without any
apparent ill effects.

Prolapses

Prolapses are not uncommonly seen in GAL snails.

When the bursa copulatrix or dart apparatus pro
lapses, it may be replaced with a lubricated probe or
moist cotton bud, and there is a good prognosis.
Digestive tract prolapses usually indicate severe
systemic disease and are invariably fatal.

Trauma and dehydration

Trauma (see Wound repair, below) and resultant

dehydration (see Rehydration, below) are common
problems in pet invertebrates.

Dysecdysis

Dysecdysis is a common problem in arthropods,

particularly tarantulas, in captivity. Good nutritional
status and hydration are important in preventing
dysecdysis. Misting during the actual ecdysis is often
not particularly helpful, as the arthropod cuticle is
relatively water-resistant and the surface tension of
water prevents it entering the narrow space between
the new and old cuticle. Adding a surfactant such as
household detergent can be useful, but care must
then be taken not to apply this in the vicinity of the
book lungs (or spiracles in insects) to avoid
asphyxiation. Dysecdysis is relatively uncommon in
adult scorpions, but a form can occur in newly
emerged scorpions when embryonic membranes are
desiccated and become trapped. Moistening for
several minutes on wet tissue paper, followed by
careful removal of the membranes with a cotton bud,
can be performed.
It is essential to avoid the temptation to interfere or
try to assist during ecdysis. The new cuticle is soft and
fragile to allow body expansion to occur; scleritization
takes place over the first few hours to days. In contrast,
the old cuticle is hardened and strong, and attempting
to remove this usually results in dismembering the
patient by tearing the new fragile cuticle. Even if
several limbs are trapped or distorted, it is best to wait
1236 hours until the new cuticle has hardened before
attempting to trim retained cuticle away with fine
scissors, attempting gentle removal with surfactants,
or inducing autotomy of affected limbs (see Autotomy,
below). Many tarantulas will autotomize limbs safely
during this period (see Figure 21.20); it is still advis
able to apply cyanoacrylate adhesive to the site to
prevent haemolymph leakage.

Egg binding

Egg binding is occasionally seen in females. If it is a

recurrent problem in a collection, it is possible that
there may be an environmental problem such as lack
of suitable or sufficiently deep ovipositing substrate,
or insufficient humidity. Careful removal of the
obstructed ootheca (capsule containing the eggs) is
possible in affected large individuals such as
cockroaches (Figure 21.16).

381

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
Thisfalsedeaths
headcockroach
(Blaberus discoidalis)suffered
dystociabecausethe
ovipositingsubstratewastoo
shallow.Thelargeoothecawas
removedmanuallytorelievethe
obstruction.(Zoological
MedicineLtd.)
21.16

Notifiable Diseases

Veterinary surgeons dealing with honeybees (Apis

mellifera) should be aware that, at time of going to
press, there are currently three Notifiable Diseases in
the European Union according to EC Directive 92/65/
EEC. These are:

American foulbrood (Figure 21.17a), a bacterial

disease caused by Paenibacilluslarvaevar.larvae
The small hive beetle (Aethinaturnida), an
African species, now problematic in the USA,
Canada and Australia

(a)

(b)
(a) Thepathognomicropeythreadseenin
AmericanfoulbroodintheEuropeanhoneybee.
(b) Europeanfoulbroodleavesadryscaleinthecell.
(CourtesyofDLWilliams.)
21.17

382

Tropilaelaps spp. mites, originating from the

Asian giant honeybee (Apisdosata).
The United Kingdom includes one further Notifiable
Disease:

European foulbrood (Figure 21.17b), a bacterial

disease caused by Melissococcusplutonius.
Lightly infected hives may be treatable with
oxytetracycline administered by licensed
inspectors.

While Varroa destructor mites are the most

economically important health problem of honeybees,
since their recognition in the UK in 1992 they have
become endemic and so are no longer notifiable. The
parasite originates from Asia, where it naturally occurs
on the Asian honeybee Apiscerana. The mite feeds
on adult European honeybees and brood, causing
weakness, as well as acting as a vector for viruses
such as deformed wing virus (DWV). Infested colonies
eventually die out if not treated. Further difficulty in
control has arisen with the recognition of pyrethroid
resistant mite strains in the UK since 2001.
In the UK, the National Bee Unit offers diagnostic
testing of these as well as other common bee
diseases, such as the protozoan Nosema apis, the
amoeba Malpighamoeba mellificae, viral sacbrood,
and fungal chalkbrood (Ascosphaera apis). The unit
also offers treatment advice, and further offers testing
and monitoring of suspected incidents of pesticide
intoxication of bees with the Wildlife Incident Unit.
The Office International des Epizooties (OIE) lists
Varroadestructor and tracheal mites (Acarapiswoodi)
of bees as Notifiable, along with several diseases of
crustaceans and molluscs of commercial concern.

Supportive care
Supportive care in pet invertebrates usually consists
of correcting underlying environmental problems,
particularly temperature and humidity, and the
correction of fluid deficits.

Chapter 21 Invertebrates

Drug administration

Therapeutic usage of medications in pet invertebrates

is anecdotal at present. Veterinary surgeons are
referred to Lewbart (2006) for further information.

Rehydration
Snails
If dehydrated or kept under dry conditions GAL snails
will retract and seal themselves into their shell and
aestivate; this can last for several months. It can be
difficult to tell whether a snail is dead or simply deeply
retracted and aestivating; this can usually be
accomplished using a small-headed pulse Doppler
probe to auscultate vascular flow (see Figure 21.19).
Rehydration is accomplished by placing the snail in a
shallow tray of warm water, which in emerged snails
should not cover the pneumostome entrance to the
lung just beneath the lip of the shell. Water appears to
be more effective than 0.9% physiological saline, due
to the increased osmotic gradient.
Arthropods
Severely dehydrated spiders are unable to move, as
extension of appendages is dependent on haemo
lymph pressure. The easiest treatment in most cases
is to place the cephalothorax of the spider in a very
shallow dish of water. Care must be taken not to sub
merge the book lungs on the ventral opisthosoma.
Most spiders will rehydrate over a few hours. In more
severe cases, intrahaemolymph injections of sterile
isotonic fluids may be performed using a 30-gauge
insulin needle and syringe, into the dorsal midline of
the opisthosoma, where the heart lies (Figure 21.18).
Tarantulas have a closed arterial and open venous
system, and fluids will be effective even if the heart is
missed. As the cuticle is inflexible, it is advisable to
seal all needle puncture sites with tissue adhesive.

to keep individuals on paper towels for 48 hours

instead of the normal substrate to detect any signs of
continued leakage. Haemolymph is pale and often
difficult to see otherwise.

Anaesthesia and analgesia

OBrien (2008) provides a detailed review of anaes
thesia in invertebrates, including aquatic species.

Snails

Practical anaesthesia of some gastropods, such as

GAL snails, appears to be difficult. In contrast to
arthropods, which appear resistant to volatile anaes
thetics, pulmonate terrestrial snails appear very sen
sitive, and the author has inadvertently killed GAL
snails with what would be normal volatile anaesthetic
concentrations in other species. Girdlestone et al.
(1989) found effective dose 50 (ED50) concentrations
for reversible anaesthesia, judged on loss of whole
body withdrawal reflex, to be only 0.83% v/v halo
thane, and 1.09% v/v isoflurane. Sodium pentobarbi
tal baths were found to provide insufficient anaesthesia
by Joosse and Lever (1959). Zachariah and Mitchell
(2009) recommend shallow tricaine methane sulpho
nate (MS-222) at 100 mg/l, but Joosse and Lever
(1959) found this method caused mortalities. If using
a bath for terrestrial gastropods such as GAL snails,
the bath should be sufficiently shallow so as not to
cover the pneumostome (opening to the lungs), found
just beneath the shell rim in the mantle.
A relatively reliable and safe method for inducing
surgical depth anaesthesia across numerous different
pulmonate snail species has been described by
Mutani (1982). Snails were placed in shallow baths of
0.08% sodium pentobarbital at 27C for 30 minutes,
followed by a shallow bath of both 0.08% sodium
pentobarbital and 0.3% MS-222, with complete surgi
cal depth anaesthesia occurring within 20 minutes.
Revival occurred within 60 minutes of being placed in
normal water. While this technique may or may not be
practical in a veterinary clinical setting, anaesthesia
of pet snails should be regarded as higher risk than
that of arthropods, and this information conveyed to
owners when consent is sought. Anaesthetic depth is
judged on foot and whole body withdrawal reflexes,
and it is possible to monitor heart rate by means of a
Doppler ultrasonography probe (Figure 21.19).

Fluids may be administered into (or

haemolymph sampled from) the heart, which
lies in the dorsal midline of the opisthosoma in tarantulas.
Needle puncture sites should be sealed with
cyanoacrylate adhesive to prevent haemolymph leakage.
( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.18

Scorpions can similarly be injected via the soft

pleurite membranes between the hard dorsal and
ventral plate-like tergites. OBrien (2008) recommends
using sterile water rather than saline in phasmids as
their haemolymph contains little sodium.
If treating arthropods for dehydration secondary to
suspected trauma or haemolymph loss, it is advisable

Doppler ultrasonography can be used to

auscultate vascular flow and monitor anaesthesia
in gastropods, as well as differentiating aestivating from
dead individuals. ( Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.19

383

Chapter 21 Invertebrates

Arthropods

Most common pet arthropods, such as tarantulas,

scorpions and insects, can be safely anaesthetized
with 46% isoflurane concentrations. This may be per
formed in a double anaesthetic chamber to prevent
the patient escaping up the tubing (Figure 21.20).
Anaesthesia is judged on loss of righting reflex.
Induction can be slow, taking up to 20 minutes in
tarantulas, which predominately use anaerobic mus
cle activity and rely on passive diffusion of gas via the
book lungs. Induction is more rapid in insects, which
contain spiracles and a tracheolar respiratory system.

Limb amputation

Limb amputation is fairly easily accomplished in most

arthropods, and may be needed in cases of trauma
where there is uncontrolled haemolymph loss. The
arthropod cuticle is brittle and not easily sectioned
without fragmenting, so incisions should be made in
the joint membranes. Wounds or stumps of amputated
limbs should be sealed with tissue adhesives; it is
best to apply this in several individual layers. Care
should be taken around the base of appendages not
to glue other limbs, or seal spiracles or book lung
openings, and especially in the proximity of the tiny
oral cavity in tarantulas and the surrounding filtering
hairs, blockage of which will result in inability to suck
up liquid food.
Autotomy
Tarantulas and other spiders are able to perform limb
autotomy (Figure 21.21). This evolved to allow ani
mals to discard a badly damaged limb, escape if
trapped by dysecdysis, or survive an unsuccessful
mating attempt.

A double anaesthetic chamber prevents the

patient escaping up one of the tubes. This
tarantula is demonstrating the loss of righting reflex.
(Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.20

Crustaceans are problematical to anaesthetize.

Crustacean neurotransmission depends on peptides
and hydroxytryptamine glutamate, in addition to more
orthodox neurotransmitters, and their response to
anaesthetic agents can vary in comparison with other
species. Injections of anaesthetic drugs such as keta
mine, lidocaine and xylazine via the arthrodial limb
joint membranes has been described (Lewbart, 2006)
but may result in limbs being autotomized. MS-222 is
not particularly effective in many crustaceans. Clove
oil has been used in some aquatic crustaceans, but
induction can take over an hour and concentrations
recommended vary widely, from 0.03 to 1 ml/l. Halo
thane was effective in anaesthetizing freshwater
crayfish in under 15 minutes using concentrations of
0.5% v/v (Ingle, 1995).

Analgesia

Currently, it is unknown how invertebrates interpret

noxious stimuli, which in vertebrates would be
perceived as pain. Appropriate anaesthesia should
prevent any response to noxious stimuli and therefore
meet the requirements for analgesia in invertebrates.
While hypothermia is sometimes used to facilitate
handling, this is believed to cause immobilization
rather than any loss of sensation and is therefore not
considered humane anaesthesia. Some invertebrates
are particularly sensitive to rapid temperature changes
and cold stress.

Common surgical procedures

It comes as a surprise to many veterinary surgeons
that surgical procedures are indeed possible in
invertebrates.

384

This shed tarantula cuticle contains a trapped

limb that the spider had autotomized.
(Zoological Medicine Ltd.)
21.21

Autotomy can be induced by firmly grasping the

femur segment of the limb. Grasping more distal limb
segments does not usually lead to the spider auto
tomizing its leg. Autotomy is a voluntary act and can
not be performed with the spider anaesthetized. The
usual autotomy site is between the coxa and the tro
chanter. The pedipalps may also be autotomized, but
this may affect feeding. The spider may shed the limb
itself, by rapidly jerking the coxa dorsally while the
grasped femur retains its position, but usually the vet
erinary surgeon needs to snap the femur rapidly
upwards. The coxal apodeme fractures and the joint
membrane ruptures dorsally under the tension. Only
the gracilis muscle traverses the autotomy site, insert
ing on the trochanter. This generally detaches easily,
and retracts into the coxa. The remaining muscles
insert on thickenings of the joint capsule (sclerites),
and contraction of these function to pull the wound
edges closed, limiting haemolymph loss. It is strongly
advised to apply cyanoacrylate adhesive after any
autotomy, as there is a risk of haemorrhage starting at
a later point, and spiders have been lost up to a month
later from this. The limb will usually regenerate during
the next ecdysis, and will return to normal size
and appearance within 23 ecdyses. Foelix (1996)

Chapter 21 Invertebrates
reported a specimen where all the legs and pedipalps
were automomized, which was then hand-fed until the
next ecdysis, when all the appendages regenerated.

Wound repair
Molluscs
Radiography can help in determining the extent of
shell damage. Shell repair in gastropod snails is
performed by cleaning and apposing fragments, and
covering the cracks with micropore tape followed by
an epoxy resin repair (Lewbart and Christian, 2003).
Tissue adhesives are not suitable, as they tend to
seep into cracks, acting as a foreign body and
preventing healing from occurring.
Integument wounds in cephalopods have been
reported to heal well with standard monofilament
absorbable sutures (Boyle, 1991).
Arthropods
While Johnson-Delaney (2000) has reported the use of
sutures in tarantulas, the author performed an experi
mental study with different suture materials in Chilean
rose tarantulas (Pizzi and Ezendam, 2005) and found
the opisthosoma cuticle to have no practical sutureholding ability whatsoever. Sutures simply tore through
the cuticle, resulting in larger wounds and the taran
tulas death. The author has found tissue adhesives or
commercial cyanoacrylate superglue to be the best
trauma repair method in arthropods such as spiders.
Large or lacerated wounds in the tarantula opistho
soma have been repaired using a small patch of micro
pore tape covered with several layers of tissue adhesive,
and these have healed by the following ecdysis. The
same technique has been successful in scorpion dor
sal mesosoma or metasoma wounds. When using
cyanoacrylate, several layers should be applied and
allowed to dry to build a sturdy repair. Commercial
superglue gels do not appear to be usable.

Euthanasia
Invertebrates are not covered by animal welfare legis
lation in most countries. An exception is the UK Animal
(Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 which, through the
1993 amendment, includes a single invertebrate spe
cies, Octopus vulgaris.
Euthanasia should always aim to be as humane
as possible; otherwise there is little sense in a pet
invertebrate owner approaching a veterinary surgeon.
The method of euthanasia is also determined by what
the cadavers will be needed for. Some owners may
want the cadaver for display (e.g. large tarantulas),
while in other cases post-mortem histology or
bacteriology may be desired.
Euthanasia is usually practically performed by
using anaesthetic agents, followed by pithing, immer
sion in a fixative (e.g. alcohol or formalin), or freezing.

While conscious immersion in alcohol is commonly

used by entomologists in the field, in the authors
experience some small spiderlings and insects will
demonstrate frantic activity for over 5 minutes, and this
method is hence not recommended unless animals
are first anaesthetized. It is strongly recommended
that crustaceans are pithed during euthanasia.

References and further reading

Boyle PR (1991) The Care and Management of Cephalopods in the
Laboratory. UFAW, Potters Bar
Cooper JE (1987) A veterinary approach to spiders. Journal of Small
Animal Practice 28, 229239
Foelix RF (1996) The Biology of Spiders, 2nd edn. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA
Frye FL (1992) Captive Invertebrates: A Guide to their Biology and
Husbandry. Krieger, Malabar, FL
Girdlestone D, Cruikshank SG and Winlow W (1989) The actions of the
volatile general anaesthetics on withdrawal responses of the pond
snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology
C 92, 3943
Ingle RW (1995) The UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of
Decapod Crustaceans in Captivity. UFAW, Potters Bar
Johnson-Delaney C (2000) Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook for
Veterinarians. Zoological Education Network, Lake Worth, FL
Johnson-Delaney CA (2006) Use of ultrasonography in diagnosis of
parasitism in goliath bird eater tarantulas (Theraphosa blondi). British
Veterinary Zoological Society Proceedings, pp. 102
Joosse J and Lever J (1959) Techniques for narcotisation and operation
for experiments with Lymnaea stagnalis (Gastropoda Pulmonata).
Proceedings, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen,
Amsterdam, 2,145149
Lacey L (1997) Manual of Techniques in Insect Pathology. Academic Press,
San Diego
Lewbart G (2006) Invertebrate Medicine. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA
Lewbart G and Christian L (2003) Repair of a fractured shell in an apple
snail. Exotic DVM 5(2), 89
Mutani A (1982) A technique for anaesthetising pulmonate snails of medical
and veterinary importance. Zeitschrift fr Parasitenkunde 68, 117
119
OBrien M (2008) Invertebrate anaesthesia. In: Anaesthesia of Exotic Pets,
ed. LA Longley, pp.279295. SaundersElsevier, St. Louis
Pizzi R (2002) Induction of autotomy in Theraphosidae spiders as a surgical
technique. Veterinary Invertebrate Society Newsletter 2(18), 26
Pizzi R (2008) Disease management in ex-situ invertebrate conservation
programs. In: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy, ed. M
Fowler and E Miller, pp. 8896. SaundersElsevier, St. Louis
Pizzi R, Carta L and George S (2003) Oral nematode infection of tarantulas.
Veterinary Record, 152, 695
Pizzi R and Ezendam T (2005) Spiders and sutures: or how to make
wounds a whole lot worse. Veterinary Invertebrate Society Newsletter
2 (21), 1820
Rees Davies R, Chitty JR and Saunders R (2000) Cardiovascular
monitoring of an Achatina snail using a Doppler ultrasound unit.
Proceedings, British Veterinary Zoological Society p.101
Reichling SWB and Tabaka C (2001) A technique for individually identifying
tarantulas using passive integrated transponders. Journal of
Arachnology 29, 117118
Schultz SA and Schultz MJ (1996) A Mechanical Mom for Tarantulas.
American Tarantula Society, Carlsbad, NM
Schultz SA and Schultz MJ (1998) The Tarantula Keepers Guide. Barron,
Hauppauge, NY
Smith M, Goodrum L et al. (2008) The importance of hive health in
apiculture from a veterinary perspective. UK Vet 13(8), 6569
Tanada Y and Kaya HK (1993) Insect Pathology. Academic Press, San
Diego
Williams D (2002) Invertebrates. In: BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets, 4th
edn, ed. A Meredith and S Redrobe, pp. 2633. BSAVA Publications,
Gloucester
Zachariah T and Mitchell MA (2009) Invertebrates. In: Manual of Exotic
Pet Practice, ed. MA Mitchell and T Tully, pp. 1138. Saunders
Elsevier, St. Louis

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