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An overview of empty fruit bunch from oil palm

as feedstock for bio-oil production
ARTICLE in BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY MARCH 2014
Impact Factor: 3.39 DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.01.002

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http://www.elsevier.com/locate/biombioe

Review

An overview of empty fruit bunch from oil palm as

feedstock for bio-oil production
Siu Hua Chang*
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia, 13500 Permatang Pauh, Penang,
Malaysia

article info

abstract

Article history:

Empty fruit bunch (EFB) from oil palm is one of the potential biomass to produce biofuels

Received 9 August 2013

like bio-oil due to its abundant supply and favorable physicochemical characteristics.

Received in revised form

Confirming the assertion, this paper presents an overview of EFB as a feedstock for bio-oil

24 December 2013

production. The fundamental characteristics of EFB in terms of proximate analysis, ulti-

Accepted 4 January 2014

mate analysis and chemical composition, as well as the recent advances in EFB conversion

Available online 28 January 2014

processes for bio-oil production like pyrolysis and solvolysis are outlined and discussed. A
comparison of properties in terms of proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and fuel

Keywords:

properties between the bio-oil from EFB and petroleum fuel oil is included. The major

Empty fruit bunch

challenges and future prospects towards the utilization of EFB as a useful resource for bio-

Oil palm

oil production are also addressed.

2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Biomass
Pyrolysis
Bio-oil

1.

Introduction

Originated from West Africa, oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is

currently one of the leading perennial oleaginous food crops
grown widely in many tropical regions of Southeast Asia with
abundant rainfall (1600e2000 mm y
1) and sunlight
(5e7 h day
1), particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia, mainly
for the production of edible cooking oil [1]. The high oil yield
(up to 4.87 t ha
1 y
1 [2], that is almost 13 times greater than
soybean, 8 times higher than sunflower and 6.5 times more
than rapeseed [3]), long economic life span (up to 25 years [2]),
as well as the governments policies and initiatives to support
the sustainable production of palm oil [4] are among the key

driving forces towards the massive production of this crop in

these countries. In Malaysia, for instance, the palm oil production has recorded a rocketing growth over the years, from
about 4 million tonnes in 1985 to about 6 million tonnes in
1990 and to 18.8 million tonnes in 2012 [5].
In line with the unprecedented growth of the palm oil industry, a vast quantity of palm biomass is generated every
year. At a conservative estimate, for every tonne of palm oil
produced from a fresh fruit bunch, approximately 1 t of empty
fruit bunch (EFB), 0.7 t of palm fibers, 0.3 t of palm kernels and
0.3 t of palm shells are generated, which amounts to a total
palm biomass of 2.3 t [6]. Based on Malaysias palm oil production of 18.8 million tonnes in 2012, the total palm biomass
generated from the palm oil industry is therefore translating

* Tel.: 60 4 382 2546; fax: 60 4 382 3292.

E-mail address: changsiuhua@gmail.com.
0961-9534/$ e see front matter 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.01.002

175

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 6 2 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 7 4 e1 8 1

to around 43.24 million tonnes. This large amount of palm

biomass, if not handled properly, would pose a severe environmental menace. Of late, there is a growing interest to utilize this massive palm biomass as a renewable energy source
or feedstock to produce a variety of value-added products
owing to their favorable physicochemical properties and rich
nutrient contents [4]. The motivation to turn palm biomass
into wealth is further strengthened by the fact that biomass
constitutes up to 90% of the palm oil production, while oil is
10% only [7].
EFB, a solid residue which accounts for 20% of the fresh
fruit weight [8], is one of the palm biomass produced in
abundance (4.42 t ha
1 y
1 [7]) after oil extraction at palm oil
mills. In the past, EFB was used as a fuel to generate steam by
incineration at the mills and the ash produced was used as
fertilizer or soil conditioner [9]. However, incineration of EFB
was soon discouraged due to the emission of a large amount of
white smoke [9], mainly down to its high moisture content
(>60% of total EFB weight [10]). Although not detrimental to
health, the white smoke had a significant aesthetic impact on
the surrounding environment [9]. Today, a large portion of EFB
is used as organic mulch in plantations (40e70 t ha
1 [8]), as a
substrate for mushroom cultivation [11] or left to rot and
returned to the fields as supplementary fertilizer [12]. While
these practices could mitigate the need for EFB disposal, there
is still plenty of EFB available that can be used for more
lucrative purposes, for instance to produce biofuels like biooil.
Bio-oil, also known as pyrolysis oil, is a dark brown, polar,
high-density and viscous organic liquid containing a complex
mixture of oxygenated compounds such as levoglucosan,
carboxylic acids, alcohols, esters, ketones, aldehydes and
benzenoids [13]. It can be produced from a wide variety of
biomass ranging from agricultural to livestock waste [14] and
used directly as a fuel in boilers [15], gas turbines [16] and
probably in automobiles after proper upgrading [17,18]. It may
also be converted into a series of valuable hydrocarbon-based
products for industrial use [14]. In fact, EFB is one of the
popular biomass used as feedstock to produce bio-oil in
Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia where the first
commercially-produced bio-oil from EFB was established by
Genting Sanyen (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. in 2005 [19]. In light of the
aforementioned, this review attempts to provide an overview
of EFB from oil palm as feedstock for bio-oil production.
Particular emphasis is placed on the EFB characteristics,
conversion processes and characteristics of the bio-oil produced. The major challenges and future prospects towards the
utilization of EFB as a useful resource for bio-oil production
are also discussed.

2.

EFB and its characteristics

EFB is a bulky and voluminous brown bunch left over at palm

oil mills after the removal of sterilized fruit by a rotary
thresher drum. It is irregular in shape, weighs about 3.5 kg and
has a thickness of 130 mm [20], and can vary from 170 to
300 mm long and 250e350 mm wide [11]. The biological
growth of fruit bunches, coupled with the preceding steam
sterilization process in the palm oil production lines [11], have

rendered the unprocessed EFB highly saturated with water.

This diminishes the recycling value of EFB since moisture
tends to reduce the combustible substances of EFB, which in
turn decreases its heating value. To put the EFB to better use, it
is usually pretreated via the traditional water retting process
to extract the fibrous materials, i.e. EFB fibers, followed by a
drying process to reduce its moisture content [11]. The average
yield of EFB fibers is approximately 400 g per bunch [21].
Conditional on the age, size, phase of growth, geographic
location, soil condition, climate effects and testing methods
used, the characteristics of EFB fibers may differ from one
source to another. Table 1 shows some of the important
properties associated to energy content and key components
of EFB fibers reported in recent literature. It covers the proximate and ultimate analyses, as well as the chemical composition of EFB fibers.
The proximate analysis encompasses the quantitative
determination of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and
ash contents within EFB fibers, whereas the ultimate analysis
determines the amount of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and sulfur. The former aims to provide the ratio of combustible (volatile matter and fixed carbon) to incombustible
(moisture and ash) substances in EFB fibers which is useful to
delineate their energy content, whereas the latter is used to
determine the amount of air required for combustion of EFB
fibers, as well as the quantity and composition of gas released
during combustion. As shown in Table 1, the proximate
analysis reveals that EFB fibers contain mostly of volatile
matter (up to 83.86%), followed by fixed carbon (up to 18.3%),
moisture (up to 14.28%) and ash (up to 13.65%). The high volatile matter content denotes the ease of ignition of EFB fibers,
with an ignition temperature of around 190  C [22], while a
substantial quantity of fixed carbon indicates a considerable
amount of heat that could be generated when EFB fibers are
burned. The ash, on the other hand, is the solid residue of EFB
that remains after combustion. It consists mostly of metal
oxides such as potassium oxide (2.4%), magnesium oxide
(0.23%), silica (0.19%), phosphorus pentoxide (0.18%) and

Table 1 e Properties of EFB fibers.

Properties

Values

Moisture (%)
2.40e14.28
Proximate analysis (%a)
Volatile matter
70.03e83.86
Fixed carbon
8.97e18.30
Ash
1.30e13.65
Ultimate analysis (%b)
C
43.80e54.76
H
4.37e7.42
38.29e47.76
Oc
N
0.25e1.21
S
0.035e1.10
Chemical composition (%a)
Cellulose
23.7e65.0
Hemicellulose
20.58e33.52
Lignin
14.1e30.45
Extractive
3.21e3.7
a
b
c

References
[11,21,23e26,28,30,41]
[11,22,24e26,28,30,41]
[11,22,24e26,28,30,41]
[11,22,24e26,28,30,41e43]
[11,22e26,28,30,44e46]
[11,22,24e26,28,30]
[11,22,24e26,28,30]
[11,22e26,28,30,44e46]
[11,22,24e26,28,30,44,46]
[21,22,26,28,30,41e44]
[22,26,28,30,41,42,44]
[21,22,26,28,30,41e44]
[30,42,43]

Weight percent on a dry basis.

Weight percent on a dry and ash-free basis.
By difference.

176

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 6 2 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 7 4 e1 8 1

calcium oxide (0.13%) [23]. The great proportions of volatile

matter and fixed carbon within EFB fibers have given rise to
their high ratio of combustible to incombustible substances,
and hence they possess a large high heating value (HHV)
(17.02e19.35 MJ kg
1 [11,22,24e30]). These heating values of
EFB fibers are compatible with those of softwood
(19.66e20.63 MJ kg
1 [31]) and hardwood (17.63e20.81 MJ kg
1
[31]), and therefore they could be used as an alternative to
wood fuel. In addition, the small variation between the ultimate analysis of EFB fibers (Table 1) and woods [32,33] implies
that EFB fibers are expected to consume almost the same
amount of air as woods during combustion, as well as offer the
same benefits as woods over fossil fuels concerning the lower
emission of greenhouse gases [34].
Like many other natural fibers, EFB fibers are naturally
occurring composites consisting primarily of rigid, crystalline
cellulose microfibrils which are embedded in a soft, amorphous matrix of hemicellulose and lignin [35]. The chemical
composition of EFB fibers is shown in Table 1, with cellulose
(up to 65%) forms the bulk component of EFB fibers, followed
by lignin (up to 29.2%), hemicellulose (up to 28.8%) and
extractive (up to 3.7%). Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are
lignocellulose components, while extractive is the soluble
portion of an extract from EFB fibers consisting of minerals
(potassium (2.24%), nitrogen (0.44%), magnesium (0.36%), calcium (0.36%), phosphorus (0.144%)), proteins, pectic acids,
fatty acids, phenols, oil and wax [36]. The lignocellulose
components have rendered the EFB fibers recalcitrant to many
physico- and bio-chemical conversion processes due to their
complex and poorly-understood structures. Cellulose is a
linear polysaccharide with many glucose monosaccharide
units bonded together by beta-linkages, hemicellulose is a
branched polymer of various 5- and 6-carbon saccharides
such as xylose, arabinose, mannose, glucose and galactose,
whereas lignin is a complex polymer of phenylpropane units
with an aromatic backbone [37]. The hydrogen bonds between
different layers of cellulose chains, coupled with the crosslinking of lignin with both cellulose and hemicellulose, have
created a complex web of bonds that not only provide the
structural strength to EFB fibers, but also challenge their
degradation [38]. The latter jeopardizes their conversion to
value-added chemicals or biofuels in terms of yields and
production rates. To reduce or eliminate this predicament,
pretreatment of EFB fibers to break the lignin seal and disrupt
the crystalline structure of cellulose is often incorporated into
their conversion processes. For example, Misson et al. [39]
discovered that almost all lignin in EFB fibers was decomposed when the fibers were pretreated with consecutive
addition of NaOH and H2O2, and a high phenolic yield of up to
90% was obtained with pretreated fibers compared to 67%
yield with untreated ones. Some of the promising pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic biomass like EFB fibers have
been explored and are well-documented in the literature [40].

3.
Recent advances in EFB conversion
processes for bio-oil production
Among the different types of thermochemical process, pyrolysis is the most commonly used one for EFB conversion to

bio-oil. It is carried out at elevated temperatures in the complete absence of oxygen or with limited oxygen. EFB can be
converted to bio-oil by either fast/flash or slow pyrolysis.
However, the fast pyrolysis, which is conducted at a higher
temperature (>400  C) and over a shorter residence time
(<30 s), is more favorable since it tends to give a higher liquid
product yield [47]. Several recent research works have reported on the production of bio-oil from EFB by fast pyrolysis,
either without or with a catalyst present during the pyrolysis,
and most of them were carried out in a fluidized-bed, fixedbed or auger type system. The experimental setups for each of
these systems are as described in Ref. [14]. Beside pyrolysis,
solvolysis is another type of thermochemical process that has
been used to convert EFB into bio-oil.

3.1.

Non-catalytic fast pyrolysis

The non-catalytic fast pyrolysis is the most frequently used

thermal cracking process to produce bio-oil from EFB. Recent
research surrounding the bio-oil derived from EFB with this
process has been focusing on increasing the bio-oil yield by
reducing the ash content in EFB. For instance, Abdullah and
co-workers [26,48,49] manipulated the ash content in EFB by
water washing and investigated the effect of ash reduction on
the bio-oil yield. They discovered that the bio-oil yield was
increased from 35 to 61% when the ash content of EFB was
reduced from 5.43 to 1.03% with water washing. This bio-oil
yield obtained from the washed EFB is as well as, if not better than, the woody feedstock [50,51]. The decrease in the biooil yield with increasing ash content is due to the fact that ash,
particularly potassium, favors the secondary reactions, which
in turn decreases the bio-oil yield but increases the aqueous
liquid, gas and char yields. They also claimed that a reduction
of ash content in EFB to less than 3% was necessary to produce
a homogenous bio-oil. Besides ash content, other key variables affecting the bio-oil yield of EFB include the pyrolysis
temperature, heating rate, residence time and particle size
[52,53]. It was reported by Sukiran et al. [53] that a temperature
of 500  C, heating rate of 100  C min
1 and particle size of
91e106 mm were necessary to maximize the bio-oil yield of up
to 42% during the pyrolysis of EFB. In the evaluation of bio-oil
yield from different feedstocks, Kim and co-workers [54]
found that EFB showed the highest yield of 36.47%,
compared with palm kernel shell and Jatropha seedshell cake
of 30.26 and 27.18% yields, respectively. These bio-oil yields of
EFB reported by Sukiran et al. [53] and Kim et al. [54] are
consistent with that reported by Abdullah et al. [49] for unwashed EFB, and this implies that they could be further
increased by washing EFB with water prior to pyrolysis. The
downside of non-catalytic fast pyrolysis, however, is the poor
quality of bio-oil produced [55].

3.2.

Catalytic fast pyrolysis

Although catalytic fast pyrolysis has been studied extensively

with various feedstocks [55e58], it is a relatively new process
to the production of bio-oil from EFB and not much work in
this field has been done. In fact, this process is modified from
the non-catalytic one by introducing a catalyst during the
pyrolysis and the objective is to improve the quality of bio-oil

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 6 2 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 7 4 e1 8 1

produced. The catalyst promotes the reactions of CeO bond

breakages, dehydration, decarboxylation and decarbonylation
of lignocellulosic materials so as to increase the desired
components in bio-oil [59]. For example, Misson et al. [39]
catalyzed the fast pyrolysis of EFB with different zeolite catalysts (HZSM-5, HY and Al-MCM-41) and discovered that the
bio-oil produced with Al-MCM-41 catalyst showed the highest
yield of phenolic compounds, which was up to 20% higher
than those produced with other catalysts, as well as without
catalyst. Such bio-oil provides an alternative renewable
source of phenolic compounds which are much cheaper than
those derived from crude oil. In addition, pyrolysis of EFB with
Al-MCM-41 catalyst was also found to produce much lower
yields (<5%) of unfavorable compounds such as the highly
reactive (olefins) and oxygenated compounds (carboxylic
acids, ketones and aldehydes) in bio-oil. The reduction of
oxygenated compounds in bio-oil in this case was facilitated
by Al-MCM-41 catalyst through the formation of water and
carbon dioxide. Another alternative route to reduce the
oxygenated compounds in bio-oil is by attacking and retaining
the oxygen-containing functional groups in the solid char of
biomass using a catalyst during pyrolysis. Such an attempt
had been explored by Lim and Andresen [60] in the catalytic
fast pyrolysis of EFB. In their work, boric oxide was used as the
catalyst and a reduction of hydroxyl and methoxy groups by
50e80% in the bio-oil produced was reported. The ability of
boric oxide to transform from trigonal to tetrahedral configuration upon heating allows the temporary transfer of oxygen
from biomass to boric oxide and eventually embedded in the
solid char [61]. In spite of the fact that catalytic fast pyrolysis
tends to produce bio-oil of higher quality than that produced
by its non-catalytic counterpart, its bio-oil yield is usually
much lower while its water, char and non-condensable gas
yields are normally much higher [62].

3.3.

Solvolysis

Solvolysis, also known as liquefaction, is a thermochemical

process in which biomass is degraded into fragments of small
molecules with or without a catalyst at mild temperature
(<400  C [63,64]) and high pressure (>1 MPa [64,65]) in the
presence of a suitable solvent (water, organic solvent or
mixture of water and organic solvent [66]). It exhibits a few
advantages over the pyrolysis process such as lower operating
temperature and elimination of the energy-intensive biomass
drying process [66e68], and thus has drawn substantial
attention from numerous researchers. However, the application of high operating pressure (above the critical pressure of
solvent [64]) in solvolysis, which is crucial to maintain a
single-phase system for reaction and to increase the solvent
density [66], has made the process less attractive.
Although solvolysis of various types of biomass like rice
straws and husks, corncobs and cornstalks, wood waste and
animal waste for bio-oil production have been reported
[66,69], solvolysis of EFB is relatively uncommon but is slowly
gaining momentum in recent years. For instance, Fan et al.
[29] investigated the effect of different solvents (acetone,
ethylene glycol, ethanol, water and toluene) on the solvolysis
of EFB for bio-oil production without using any catalyst. They
achieved the highest bio-oil yield (96.4%) with ethylene glycol

177

and obtained the highest heating value (29.42 MJ kg
1) of biooil with ethanol. They found that the chemical composition of
bio-oil was greatly dependent on the type of solvent used
where water, ethanol and toluene favored the formation of
phenolic compounds, ethylene glycol favored alcohol compounds while acetone yielded major ketone and aldehyde
compounds. In another study by Akhtar et al. [70], the effect of
different catalysts (NaOH, KOH and K2CO3) on EFB solvolysis
with water as solvent was explored. The highest bio-oil yield
of 68% was found to be achieved with K2CO3 catalyst and a
concentration of 138.2 g L
1 of this catalyst was necessary to
obtain bio-oil with the highest phenolic compounds. Pua et al.
[71] analyzed the chemical composition of bio-oil produced
from a non-catalytic EFB solvolysis with ethylene glycol as
solvent by using both Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR) and pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry
(Pyrolysis-GC/MS). The FTIR results showed the presence of
alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, esters, ethers and aromatic compounds in the bio-oil produced, whereas the Pyrolysis-GC/MS
results revealed the phenolic compounds as its major
components.

4.
Comparison of properties between bio-oil
from EFB and petroleum fuel oils
Table 2 summarizes the properties of bio-oil from EFB produced by different processes (fast pyrolysis, slow pyrolysis
and solvolysis) along with those of petroleum fuel oils (diesel/
light fuel oil (LFO), low and high sulfur heavy fuel oil (HFO)) so
as to determine the quality and potential application of the
bio-oil produced. Regardless of the process involved, the biooil from EFB normally contains much larger amounts of
moisture, ash, solids and oxygen than the petroleum fuel oils.
These are undesirable traits for an engine fuel because high
moisture and ash contents tend to reduce the heating value
and combustion rate, as well as increase the ignition delay;
high solid content poses a challenge in injection systems and
pipes while high oxygen content leads to thermal instability,
and thus impedes the storage stability of bio-oil [72]. Nevertheless, the ash content in bio-oil could possibly be reduced to
less than that in petroleum fuel oils by washing the EFB more
extensively prior to pyrolysis, while the moisture content
could be reduced by a fractional distillation process [73].
Although the bio-oil produced by solvolysis shows slightly
higher carbon content than those produced by fast and slow
pyrolysis, it is still too small compared to petroleum fuel oils.
The smaller amounts of carbon, as well as hydrogen, in bio-oil
also contribute to its lower heating value [74], i.e.
20.23e36.06 MJ kg
1, which is about 20e50% of those of petroleum fuel oils. Despite the unfavorable side effects of high
moisture and oxygen contents on the bio-oil properties, in
point of fact, they have some positive effects. The former has a
propensity to improve the flow characteristics of oil,
contribute to a more uniform temperature profile in the cylinder and reduce the NOx emission [75], whereas the latter
tends to enhance the combustion characteristics, which in
turn decreases the CO2 emission [13]. In addition, the lower
sulfur content in bio-oil (<0.1%) as compared to that in petroleum fuel oils (up to 3.55%) creates the immediate health

178

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 6 2 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 7 4 e1 8 1

Table 2 e Properties of bio-oil derived from EFB and petroleum fuel oils.
Bio-oil derived from EFB by different
processes
Fast pyrolysis
[26,49,53,54,76]
Moisture (%)
Proximate analysis (%a)
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Ash
Solids
Ultimate analysis (%b)
C
H
Oc
N
S
HHV (MJ kg
1)
LHV (MJ kg
1)
Density (kg m
3) @ 15  C
Kinematic viscosity (mm2 s
1)
Flash point ( C)
Pour point ( C)
Total acid number as
KOH (g kg
1)
pH
a
b
c

Slow pyrolysis
[30]

Diesel/LFO
[30,77]

Low sulfur HFO

[54]

High sulfur HFO

[54,77]

6.66e24.3

5.2

0.025

0.1

41.3e60
40e58.7
0.37e3.22
24.1

e
e
0.1
e

e
e
e
e

e
e
0.01
0

e
e
e
e

e
e
0.03
0.2e1

35.29e69.35
5.08e9.61
20.02e57.02
0.0113e2.74
<0.1
20.23e36.06
25.1
900e1548
38.4 @ 25  C
e
e
67.75e110

68.26
8.02
21.57
2.02
0.03
31.44
e
1031
13.52 @ 50  C
65
12
102.9

70.8e75.28
8.68e9.57
14.73e20.17
0.41e0.42
e
27.56e29.42
e
e
e
e
e
e

86e86.52
13.3e13.6
0.03
0.04e0.2
0.11e0.18
45.8
40.3
853e890
3e7.5 @ 40  C
60e98
15
e

87.3
12.19
0.17
0.06
0.28
44.7
e
939
e
e
e
0.451

82.79e85.6
10.3e12.98
0.48e0.6
0.2e0.6
2.5e3.55
43.4
40.7
940e979
351 @ 50  C
100
21
e

2.33e3.4

3.6

Neutral

Weight percent on a dry basis.

Weight percent on a dry and ash-free basis.
By difference.

and environmental benefits. As shown in Table 2, bio-oil is

generally heavier than the petroleum fuel oils, even when
comparing to HFO, but its viscosity is between those of diesel/
LFO and HFO. While its flash and pour points are close to those
of diesel/LFO, the acidity of bio-oil is much higher than either
diesel/LFO or HFO, with its total acid number as KOH and pH
value of up to 110 g kg
1 and 2.33, respectively. This is
attributed to the high concentration of carboxylic acids present in the bio-oil, particularly lauric, palmitic and acetic acids
[30], which accounts for >30% peak area of mass chromatograms as measured by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) (Table 3). Consequently, the bio-oil derived from
EFB is expected to be corrosive to some common construction
materials like iron, carbon steel and aluminum [75]. However,
this qualm may be diminished by catalyzing the EFB pyrolysis
with acid-cracking catalysts such as Al-MCM-41, a mesoporous zeolite catalyst, which could remove almost all acids
from the oil [39]. Other major chemical compounds of bio-oil
from EFB, for instance phenol and its derivatives, methyl esters, furan and pyran derivatives, ketones, alcohols, alkenes
and alkanes, are also presented in Table 3.

5.

Solvolysis
[29]

Petroleum fuel oils

Major challenges and future prospects

Bio-oil, a renewable liquid biofuel made from biomass conversion, has been drawing considerable attention as a potential alternative source of energy due to its reproducibility and
resources universality [72]. At present, research works in biooil production are mostly conducted on laboratory scale and

the pilot scale production of bio-oil is still very limited [14].

Although bio-oil has been used as a substitute for fuel oil in
power generation with diesel engines, gas turbines, natural
gas or steam power plants [75,77], it is still at its infancy stage
as transportation fuel [17].
Over the past few decades, much research and development effort has been advocated to utilize the large amount of
EFB generated from palm oil mills, especially in Southeast
Asia, in bio-oil production, both to achieve the global environmental benefits and to shape the national economy.
Although one successful industrial-scale bio-oil production
plant using EFB as feedstock has been established in Malaysia
[19], this industry is still facing various challenges such as the

Table 3 e Major chemical compounds of bio-oil derived

from EFB [30,53].
Chemical compound
Carboxylic acids
Phenol
Phenol derivatives
Methyl esters
Furan derivatives
Pyran derivatives
Ketones
Alcohols
Alkenes
Alkanes
a

% Peak areaa
37.87
11.68e18.1
15.27e15.89
13.38
7.38
2.99
0.71e9.35
3.2e4.08
3.65
1.64

Measured by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GCMS).

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 6 2 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 7 4 e1 8 1

inferior quality of bio-oil produced (high oxygen, water and

solid contents, high viscosity and corrosivity, instability and
inhomogeneity [26]), lack of economically viable technology
(high investment and maintenance costs, complex and
energy-intensive feedstock preparation processes like drying,
grinding and particle size screening [14]), insufficient local
expertise in pyrolysis process and equipment handling,
financial barriers and uncompetitive marketing strategies.
Moreover, challenges associated to the palm oil industry like
biodiversity and conservation, life cycle assessment [78],
health hazards, replantation and land use issues [79] also
endanger the sustainable EFB management systems or supply
chains, which in turn affects the development of the bio-oil
industry.
Amidst these challenges, continuous efforts to improve the
quality of bio-oil produced from EFB via proper upgrading
such as hydrotreating, hydrocracking, steam reforming [68]
and catalytic upgrading [17] are indispensable to increase its
competence as engine fuel. Besides, attempts to develop costeffective EFB pretreatment and pyrolysis technologies, optimization of EFB supply chains, nurturing local expertise in
efficient pyrolysis process and equipment handling, provision
of subsidy and financial aids to oil palm smallholders, as well
as development of strategic marketing plans should also be
executed. Furthermore, the enforcement and administration
of strategic and tactical government policies, mandates and
standards to promote the sustainable development of both
palm oil and biomass industries ought to be appropriately
planned and legislated [80]. In Malaysia, for instance, the
National Renewable Energy Policy was introduced in 2010 to
stimulate the exploitation of local biomass such as palm EFB
to produce renewable energy like bio-oil [79], and recently
under the Economic Transformation Program (ETP), both the
palm oil and biomass industries have been highlighted as the
nations premier niche National Key Economic Areas (NKEAs)
[81]. At the end of the day, full cooperation from all parties
(government, private sector and communities) in support of
this earnest endeavor to boost the bio-oil industry with EFB as
feedstock is a directive motivation for the race to the finish
line.

6.

Conclusion

The increasing awareness in energy security and environmental protection, coupled with the abundant supply (especially in Southeast Asia) and favorable physicochemical
characteristics (high heating value and low emission of
greenhouse gases during combustion) of EFB from oil palm,
are the key driving forces towards the overwhelming research
in the utilization of EFB as feedstock to produce biofuels like
bio-oil in recent years. Fast pyrolysis (without and with a
catalyst) and solvolysis are the two main processes used in the
conversion of EFB to bio-oil, with the former being more
widely used and the latter is a more emerging process.
Regardless of the conversion processes (slow/fast pyrolysis,
solvolysis) used, the bio-oil from EFB is generally lower in
heating value, heavier and more acidic than the petroleum
fuel oil (diesel/light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil). However, its viscosity is between the light and heavy fuel oils, whereas its

179

flash and pour points are closer to the light fuel oil. To date,
the limited success of EFB conversion to bio-oil confirms the
many challenges that have to be dealt with before a great
progress in this field could be anticipated in the future.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge Universiti Teknologi
MARA (UiTM) Malaysia for subscribing to the major collections of
publications that serve as important sources of reference for the
completion of this review paper. A special thanks to the Malaysian Palm Oil Council (MPOC) and Malaysian Palm Oil Board
(MPOB) for the information provided throughout the study.

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