A New Genetic Model For Sedimentary Exhalative

Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev
Sedimentary fans: A new genetic model for sedimentary exhalative

ore deposits
Huan Li a,, Xiao-Shuang Xi b
a
b
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
School of Geosciences and Info-physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 May 2014
Received in revised form 29 September 2014
Accepted 6 October 2014
Available online 16 October 2014
Keywords:
Sedimentary-exhalative ore deposit
Sedimentary fan
Metallogenic facies
Fluid geochemistry
Xitieshan
Zhaokalong
a b s t r a c t
Sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) deposits are one of the most important types of metal ore deposits. The genesis
of such economic deposits has been problematic; thus a holistic model is urgently needed to explain their formation. Based on eld surveys and geochemical analyses of the Xitieshan PbZn, the Zhaokalong FeCu polymetallic,
and several other typical sedimentary-exhalative deposits in China, this study proposes a sedimentary fan
model to explain such deposits. The results of this research suggest that the ore forming uid of sedimentaryexhalative deposits can be considered as a kind of turbidity current. These uids originated from the exhalative
process itself, passing through syngenetic faults, owing into the marine basin, and forming fan-shaped sedimentary ore deposits. The ore bodies of sedimentary fans consist of three parts: pipe, central, and marginal facies. The
fans typically show zonations of mineralization, trace elements, uid inclusions, isotopes, redox environments,
etc. Pipe facies is deeply sourced and proximal to synsedimentary faults, generally constituted by unstratied,
altered stockworks, exhalite (e.g., siliceous rocks) and ore bodies, and characterized by high temperatures and
salinities. Central and marginal facies mainly occur as stratiform ore bodies, exhibiting typical characteristics of
sedimentary origin. From the central facies to the marginal facies, increasing seawater components enter into
the ore-forming process, resulting in a gradual change of metallogenic environment. This sedimentary fan
model is used with satisfactory results to predict metallogenesis in the Xitieshan, the Zhaokalong and other
sedimentary-exhalative deposits in China.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Sedimentary exhalative deposits (SEDEX deposits) are ore deposits
that are interpreted to have been formed by release of ore-bearing
hydrothermal uids into a water reservoir (usually the ocean), resulting
in the precipitation of stratiform ore (Gu et al., 2007; Heinrich, 2005;
Large et al., 2005; Russell, 1996). The SEDEX deposits are widely
distributed, and sedimentary-exhalative processes are considered
to be related to formation of a variety of ore deposits, including
sediment-hosted PbZnAg (Decre et al., 2008; Kawasaki et al., 2010;
Large et al., 1998; Paradis et al., 1998; Sangster and Hillary, 1998;
Tornos and Heinrich, 2008; Wang et al., 2014), Cu (He et al., 2009;
Kampunzu et al., 2009; Li and Xi, 2012; Vishwakarma, 1996), barite
(Canet et al., 2014; Clark et al., 2004), NiMo (Lott et al., 1999; Shi
et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2013), Sn-polymetallic (Cheng et al., 2012, 2013;
Jiang et al., 1999) and, probably, some precious metal deposits (Canet
et al., 2004; Emsbo et al., 1999; Gu et al., 2012).
Corresponding author at: Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
Tel.: +81 928023314.
E-mail address: li-huan@mine.kyushu-u.ac.jp (H. Li).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.10.001
0169-1368/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Sedimentary exhalative deposits are huge concentrations of a

variety of metals, but the genesis of these sediments has been subjected
to different views (Canet at al., 2004; Gu et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2008;
Xue et al., 2007). In recent years, a few studies were concerned with
morphological characteristics, while the rest mainly focused on
geochemistry research (e.g., Cooke et al., 2003; Large et al., 2005).
Though several researches investigated the formation environment of
exhalative deposits (e.g., Gu et al., 2012; Tornos, 2006; Yu et al., 2014),
research on their genesis is still ongoing.
Determining genetic processes is essential to understanding the
overall morphology in the study of sedimentary-exhalative deposits.
The basic forms of ore distribution patterns improve the accuracy of
forecasts and effectively evaluate the deposit prospects. Sedimentaryexhalative deposits are formed in the sea, so the genetic study of this
kind of deposit can be combined with the principles of sedimentology
(Ruffell et al., 1998; Tang, 2006). According to the mechanism of
sedimentary-exhalative mineralization, the sedimentary layer is formed
as seabed sediments. Therefore the fan-shaped layer patterns can be
named ore-body sedimentary fans. Sedimentary-exhalative ore
deposits usually underwent two major stages: submarine exhalative
ore-forming stage and superimposed structural transformation stage
(Prokin and Buslaev, 1998; Tang, 2006; Xi et al., 2005). The former
376
H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389
gives the deposits their basic form and the structural deformation
experienced by the latter stage generally changes the ore body shape
rather than positions and trends. Therefore, it is important to study
the early mineralization morphological characteristics of these deposits.
In this study, characteristics of exhalative-sedimentary mineralization in the Xitieshan PbZn deposit, the Zhaokalong FeCu polymetallic
deposit and other SEDEX type deposits in China are presented. We investigated multi-geological factors such as ore body three-dimensional
shape, ore geochemistry, grade, texture and structure, mineral granularity and composition in these deposits. In combination with comparative
studies of classical models and theoretical analysis, a sedimentary fan
model is formulated for these sedimentary-exhalative deposits. This
model can be used for analyzing the geological formation mechanism
of sedimentary fans of SEDEX deposits, improving metallogenic
prognosis and exploration achievements.
2. Methodology
Field investigation and laboratory analysis were combined to study
the ore body characteristics in the Xitieshan and the Zhaokalong
deposit. For other typical SEDEX deposits in China, previous publications
that reported the ore body morphology and geochemistry were
systematically reviewed and selectively used as support evidences in
this study.
For the Xitieshan deposit, geological maps on cross sections and
level plans have been collected and used to interpret the morphology
of the ore body layered structures. The geological data have been
integrated to establish an integral space form of the ore body layers.
The on-site eld surveys were carried out to determine the location of
the ore layer border and the scope of the ore bodies. In addition, the
sulde mineral granularity (N 1 mm) was measured from different
exploration lines in the 3062 m level of the Xitieshan deposit, totally
with 26 measuring sites and more than 30,000 data. Geochemically,
uid inclusion and CSi isotopic data from the different kinds of ores
were collected from previous publications. These data were recalculated
to reveal the geochemicalphysical characteristics (i.e., Eh, pH and
density) and genesis of the uids.
For the Zhaokalong deposit, abundant ore grade data was collected
from the mine. Systematic geological cross section maps were
combined to reveal the ore body layer characteristics. Field investigation
was carried out to determine the occurrences of the ore bodies. The REE
and trace element composition of the different types of ores (whole
rock) were determined using ICP-MS. The homogenization temperature

and salinity of the uid inclusions were determined, and gaseous and
aqueous compositions of the uid inclusions from the representative
ore minerals were also analyzed using chromatography. The analytical
methods followed the procedures described in Li et al. (2013).
3. Sedimentary fan characteristics of the Xitieshan deposit
3.1. Introduction of the Xietieshan deposit
The Xitieshan deposit is located in the northern part of Qinghai
Province, ~ 700 km away from the provincial capital city of Xining
(Fig. 1). It is one of the largest PbZn deposits in China, with ore reserves
amounting to 43 million tons and grades of at 3.7% Pb, 5.39% Zn,
0.391.12 g/t Au, 19.646.6 g/t Ag, 14.4318.4% S, 0.087% Sn, 0.033%
Cd and 0.0031% In. The mineralization took place in a back-arc spreading
setting in the Ordovician, and then subjected to intense tectonic deformation and transformation during the Late Silurian Caledonian orogeny
(Tang, 2006). The stratigraphic sequence in the deposit area from bottom
to top consists of Lower Proterozoic Dakendaban Group metamorphic
rocks, Upper Ordovician Tanjianshan Group chlorite-quartz schist and
sandstone, Upper Devonian Armunike Formation conglomerate, Lower
Carboniferous Chengqianggou Formation limestone and marble (Fig. 1).
Among them, the Upper Ordovician Tanjianshan Group is the orebearing strata. Recent research suggested that the Xitieshan leadzinc deposit is a SEDEX-type deposit, formed in the early stage of the back-arc
extensional process during the Ordovician period (Tang, 2006; Wang
et al., 2008).
3.2. Morphological characteristics of the ore bodies
The mineralization zone in the Xitieshan deposit is 2100 m in length
and 130 m in width, striking from northwest to southeast, with a high
inclination in section. The major ore bodies are located between the
marble and the phyllite, mostly sheeted and discontinuous in the belt,
with average thickness of less than 20 m. The ore bodies can be classied into two types: unstratied and stratied. These two kinds of ore
bodies are separated laterally and vertically (Wang et al., 2008). Taking
2942 m level as an example, the boundary between them is near Line 37
in planar view (Fig. 2). In cross section, unstratied ore bodies appear at
the upper portions whereas stratied ore bodies are located at the lower
portions.
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Xitieshan deposit (modied from Tang (2006) and Wang et al. (2008)).
377
Fig. 2. Lever plan at the 2942 m elevation of the Xitieshan deposit (after Zhu et al. (2007) and Wang et al. (2008)).
According to the ore boundary delineation results, the ore bodies are
morphologically characterized by fan-shapes. The upper portions of
these ore bodies are folded, whereas the deep portions are outstretched
(Fig. 3). The upper portions of the bodies have two opposite tendencies,
east and west. The convergent center lies in Line 50. The ore bodies are
asymmetric from the center to their different sides. Ore bodies have
larger widths on the eastern side than that on the western side. Their
boundaries have smaller plunge values on the upper portions, with
relatively at boundary lines. However, from 3100 m level to the deeper
portions, the boundaries become steeply plunging. Ore bodies outcrop
at a maximum level of 3500 m on the surface from Line 30 to Line 64,
with a width of 850 m. However, at the 3000 m level, the ore bodies
expand to a range from Line 05 to Line 75, with a width of approximately
2000 m. All of this indicates that the ore bodies are fan-shaped.
3.3. Identication of the fans and their internal characteristics
Based on a detailed analysis of the longitudinal and transverse
sections of the geological map and from on-site geological survey, the
ore bodies have been divided by Line 30 into two sedimentary ore
fans: eastern fan and western fan. The edges of these two fans are
overlapped above the 3182 m level, resulting in signicantly thick ore
bodies in the upper portions. The fans begin to deviate from each
other below the 3182 m level, which form the ore-absent area up to
300 m in width. Meanwhile, with increasing depth, the marble becomes
thinner and inter-layered with schist, showing the characteristics of a

marginal zone. The western and eastern fans are combined again
below the 2942 m level, and the ore-absent areas gradually narrow
and vanish. The ore body layers become multi-layered mineralization
in the deeper portions.
Notably, these two fans have their own inner characteristics. A single
fan shows asymmetric characteristics in ore body continuity,
mineralization type and marble distribution. Moreover, these two fans
have similar asymmetric trends. For example, the ore bodies are
discontinuous in the western portion of the western fan, extended
shortly and separated by barren areas. From Line 55 to the east, the
ore bodies become continuous; single ore body extends increasingly
and the barren areas become narrow (Fig. 3). The eastern fan has a
similar character. The ore bodies from the western portion of the
eastern fan are scattered, whereas those from the eastern portion
are continuous. However, overall, the eastern fan has better continuity than the western fan. Sulde compositions also have similar
trends. The central and western ore bodies of the western and the
eastern fans have high concentrations of galena and sphalerite,
whereas pyrite contents are much higher in their eastern portions.
Additionally, marble thickness has an increasing trend in the
western portions of the fans. Laterally, the marble area is also far
beyond the scope of the ore body layers in their western portions. A
sketch illustration is drawn to explain the relationship between these
two sedimentary fans (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Vertical projections of ore body (layer) boundaries of the Xitieshan deposit.
378
3.4. Ore structure and texture
Fig. 4. A sketch illustration explaining the relationship between the two sedimentary fans
in the Xitieshan deposit.
3.4.1. Ore classication

According to the ore occurrences in the sedimentary fan model, we
classied the ores into three facies: 1) exhalative vent pipe facies,
2) central fan facies, and 3) marginal fan facies. The pipe facies ores
are characterized by an explosive brecciated structure, hosted by
altered-mineralized stockwork rocks. The veins in the rocks consist of
quartz and carbonate (Fig. 5a), and the mineralized breccias are
composed of marble (Fig. 5b) and cherts (Fig. 5c). The central facies
ores are dominated by massive structures, followed by banded
structures. The banded ores show a Bouma-type sequence (Fig. 5d),
layered with country rocks (Fig. 5e). The massive ores are banded in
mineral assemblages (Fig. 5f), composed of coarse galena, sphalerite
and pyrite (Fig. 5g). The ores that form the marginal fan facies are
characterized by banded structures (Fig. 5h and i), and sometimes
show laminae fragmental sedimentary texture (Fig. 5j).
Fig. 5. Typical ore textures and structures in the Xitieshan deposit. ac: Pipe facies, dg: central facies, hj: marginal facies. a: Stockwork rocks consist of quartz and carbonate veins; b:
explosive marble breccias; c: explosive siliceous breccias; d: Bouma-type sequence consists of 1) massive bedding formed by coarse-equigranular mineral assemblage (left),
2) interbedding formed by ne-grained galena and sphalerite (central), and 3) interbedding formed by thin pyrite layers, country rocks (schist) and siliceous laminae (right). This gradational bedding indicates that gravity ow was generated when the exhalative uid met the seawater, and evolved into drag ow during the transportation processes. e: Banded galena
sphalerite ore interbedding with country rocks, showing a rhythmic layering characteristics; f: interbedding of galenasphalerite layers and pyrite layers; g: massive ore composed of
coarse galena, sphalerite and pyrite; h: interbedding of chlorite-quartz schist and ne grained pyrite layers; i: wavy beddings of ore layer skew across horizontal beddings of country
rocks; j: laminae galenasphalerite ore deposited with clastic sediments.
3.4.2. Mineral granularity

The mineral granularity data was used for the second-order
(quadratic curves, Fig. 6a, b and c) and third-order (cubic curve,
Fig. 6d) calculations. The observed data displays that the maximum
granularity was measured near Line 30 where the two fans overlapped
(Fig. 6b). There were also two secondary level peaks observed in Line 14
and Line 68 (Fig. 6a and c). As per the trend analysis (cubic curve), it was
also found that there were two peak values (Fig. 6d), with the boundary
lines in the vicinity of Line 30. Mineral granularity trend curves suggest
a typical structure for the sedimentary-exhalative fans. Grain size with
peak values indicates the centers of the exhalative mineralization. The
decrease in grain size from the centers to the sides corresponds to the
decline of the trend curves. In the 3062 m level, mineral granularity of
the two peaks corresponds to the center portions of the western and
eastern fans. The centers are located near Line 20 and Line 50,
respectively.
3.5. Geochemical characteristics of the ore body fans
3.5.1. Characteristics of uid inclusions
The homogenization temperatures and calculated salinities of the
uid inclusions from the different kinds of ores vary differently
(Table 1). The preliminary study showed that the uid in the quartzhosted inclusions from the altered stockwork rocks that represent the
pipe facies was very active (Wang et al., 2008). In addition, uid
inclusions in carbonates near the unstratied ore bodies hosted in the
thick-bedded marble, which represents vent-proximal facies, were
also investigated. The inclusions were found to be large in size and
have moderate to high temperatures. The pipe facies has the highest
temperature, followed by the central facies and then the marginal facies
(Table 1). Meanwhile, compared to the pipe facies and marginal facies,
the central facies have higher salinity values. In the sedimentary ore
379
body fans, massive ores from the central facies have higher pH yet
lower Eh values in the inclusions when compared to the banded ores
from the marginal facies (Table 1). Additionally, the central facies has
the highest uid density (1.041.12 g/cm3), followed by the marginal
facies (0.910.99 g/cm3) and the pipe facies (0.760.88 g/cm3).
Aqueous compositions in the uid inclusions of different ores from
different facies also vary differently (Table 2). Fluids in the altered
stockwork rocks and carbonates in pipe facies have a similar
H2ONaClCO2 system, enriched in deeply sourced uid compositions
such as CO2, CH4, C2H2, Ar, N2 and Na+ (Wang et al., 2008, 2009).
Compared to the pipe facies, the central and especially the marginal
facies absorbed more compositions associated with seawater, such as
Ca2+, Mg2+, SO2
4 and other ions.
3.5.2. Isotopic constraints

Wang et al. (2009) carried out uid isotopic analysis on quartzhosted inclusions in different kinds of ores from the unstratied (pipe
facies) and the stratied ore bodies in the Xitieshan deposit. The results
showed that the 13CCO2 value of the quartz-hosted uid from the pipe
facies is 5 2, indicating deep origin characteristics. The 13CCO2
values of the quartz-hosted uid inclusions proximal to the stratied
ore bodies also have a similar range, indicating the migration of the
uid from the pipe facies. On the other hand, the 13CCO2 values of the
quartz-hosted inclusions from the stratied ore bodies are around 0,
indicating the genesis features of ore-bearing carbonate strata.
Additionally, 30Si values of the quartz in the pipe facies range
from 0.1 to 0.4, and the 13C and 30Si values of the marble
located in the unstratied ore body anking are 5.76 and 0.5,
respectively. All of this suggests that the pipe facies may be inuenced
by deeply sourced (magmatic?) uid, whereas the stratied ore bodies
may be hydrothermal exhalative sedimentary in origin.
Fig. 6. Mineral granularity trend curves at the 3062 m level (a, b and c: partial quadratic curves; d: overall cubic curve).
380
Table 1
Homogenization temperature, salinity and uid density of inclusions in the Xitieshan leadzinc deposit.
Occurrences
Facies
Host rocks
Host minerals
Analytical
number (n)
Homogenization
temperature (C)
Range
Unstratied
ore bodies
Stratied ore
bodies
Pipe
Central
Altered
stockwork rocks
Altered breccia
Carbonate
Massive ores
Marginal Banded ores
Quartz
123
Quartz
Quartz
Calcite,
sphalerite,
quartz
Quartz, calcite
Salinity
(wt.% NaCl equiv.)
Average Range
Ph
Eh
Density
(g/cm3)
7.018.
03
0.140.18 0.760.88
Wang
et al., 2008
6.817.
37
0.180.
23
Liu et al.,
2006
Data
sources
Average
110468 284
021.7
9.43
13
33
9
314468 367
250415 322
225341 300
018.22
13.31
040.61
18.47
22.834.7 28.8
182229 200
5.321.9
14.4
1.041.12
4.635.41 0.300.37 0.910.99
Note: The calculation of density follows the methods in Liu et al. (2000); the calculations of pH and Eh use the methods mentioned in Wang and Wang (2011).
type deposits, but some researchers (e.g., Hou et al., 2007) classied
this deposit as a volcanic hosted massive suldes (VHMS) type due to
its close relationship with the volcanic rocks.
4. Sedimentary fan characteristics of the Zhaokalong deposit

4.1. Introduction of the Zhaokalong deposit
The Zhaokalong FeCu polymetallic deposit lies in the northwest
portion of the Jiangda island arc uplift, Sanjiang ore belt, Northwest
China. Geographically, it is located in the southern part of Qinghai
Province, ~900 km away from the provincial capital city of Xining. The
Jiangda island arc is located to the southwest of the famous Jinshajiang
suture zone, which is surrounded by the Yangtze Block, Dege Block and
JiangtangQamdo Block (Fig. 7; Chen et al., 2008). This deposit occurred
in a shallow water environment in the extensional basins of the late
Triassic arc rift, with FeCuAuPbZn and other metal mineralization.
According to the latest exploration results, it was determined as a largescale polymetallic deposit, with total proven ore reserves of more than
30 Mt and average grades at 33.50% Fe, 0.70% Cu, 0.91% Pb, 0.71% Zn,
25.47 g/t Ag and 0.41 g/t Au. The rift basins were lled by a sequence
consisting of siliceous rock, laminar ne-crystalline dolomite and dolomitic limestone, and host most of exhalative-sedimentary polymetallic
deposits (Hou et al., 2007). Strata from the deposit are not complicated,
exposed Triassic Batang group (including Upper Clastic Formation, Top
Carbonate Formation) and Quaternary Alluvium. The Upper Clastic
Formation can be further subdivided into three members, that is,
Upper, Middle and Lower Members. The Lower Member is composed
of sandstone, siltstone, argillite, quartz conglomerate, pebbly oolitic
limestone, etc. The Middle Member is formed by siltstone, silty slate,
and feldsparquartz sandstone. The Upper Member is the main
ore-bearing strata, which is composed of andesite, limestone, argillite,
carbonaceous slate, feldspathic-quartz sandstone and dolomite, with a
mild chloritization (Li et al., 2013). Wall rocks of ore bodies are andesite,
limestone, carbonaceous slate and argillite. The main wall-rock
alteration is sericitization, chloritization, silicication, pyritization and
carbonation. We believe the Zhaokalong deposit belongs to SEDEX
4.2. Morphological characteristics of ore bodies

Major ore bodies in the Zhaokalong deposit are strictly controlled by
the stratigraphy and lithology, and the ore belt has a strike length of
2400 m, and a horizontal width of 200800 m. According to the ore
body distribution, the ore belt is divided into seven mineralization
zones (Fig. 7), and each zone has characteristic mineralizing types and
ore grades (Table 3). The ore bodies are characterized by layered,
lens-shaped or quasi-lamellar structures. The orientation of ore bodies
and host rocks is basically the same, trending NESE with high dip
angles. Exceptionally, the ore bodies from Mineralization Zone V are
lenticular in shape, having a at dipping occurrence with a NESE trend.
Field surveys revealed that the ore bodies from the Zhaokalong
deposit were strongly transformed by tectonic deformation, wrinkled
but synchronized with the host rocks. Mineralization zones that
outcropped on the surface are connected at depth, and the folds of
this deposit controlled the basic sketch of ore body distribution. Ore
body layers responded to the strong fold deformation, forming the
present-day distribution characteristics with multiple mineralization
zones.
4.3. Zonation of the mineralization systems
Based on eld investigation, the strata correlation between the
central portion and the eastern portion of the deposit was discovered
to be unintelligible, especially in ore-bearing strata. The mineralization
types in the central and eastern portions of the deposit are also
different: Mineralization Zone I and II are mainly high-grade FeCu
oxide mineralization hosted by andesite, whereas Zone III and V are
Table 2
Aqueous compositions of the quartz-hosted uid inclusions in the Xitieshan deposit (ppm).
Occurrences
Facies
Host rocks
K+
Na+
Unstratied ore bodies
Pipe
Central
Strong silicied quartzite

Altered breccia
Average
Massive ores
Marginal
Average
Banded ores
1.20
2.00
1.60
1.30
2.10
0.60
1.60
0.32
1.18
2.26
2.10
3.30
4.10
2.94
14.20
14.70
14.45
12.10
20.40
9.20
14.10
4.14
11.99
18.10
8.00
9.50
16.50
13.03
Stratied ore bodies
Average
Note: is below the detection lower limit.
Ca2+
2.80
2.80
1.90
2.50
0.50
1.40
17.40
4.74
14.60
0.90
0.20
6.10
5.45
Mg2+
Cl
SO2
4
Na+/K+
References
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.10
0.48
0.17
4.34
0.20
0.10
0.30
1.24
0.42
3.26
0.05
1.24
0.39
0.39
16.50
6.50
11.50
9.00
20.70
1.90
2.30
18.20
10.42
33.60
5.20
6.50
20.40
16.43
5.60
1.90
3.75
6.70
1.80
6.70
17.10
15.3
9.52
43.40
5.00
3.10
8.80
15.08
12.40
7.20
9.80
9.10
9.70
14.60
8.70
12.98
11.02
6.83
3.90
2.90
4.10
4.43
Wang et al., 2009
Wang et al., 2009
Liu et al., 2006

Liu et al., 2006
Wang et al., 2009
381
Fig. 7. Geological sketch map of the Zhaokalong deposit (after Li et al., 2011).
dominantly high-grade PbZn sulde mineralization in the siderite

layer (Table 3). On the other hand, drilling data suggests that the
oxide and sulde layers do not entirely correspond with the formation
strata. For example, iron oxide layers can occur in the upper part of the
siderite formation, and sulde layers can also be found in the andesite
and exhalative rock formations. Hence, there should be a syngenetic
fault between the central and eastern mineralization.
Based on the survey of stratigraphic and magmatic rocks, the
Zhaokalong deposit appears to have a double-vent sedimentaryexhalative system, which is corroborated by the mineralized zonation
(Fig. 8). Volcanic hydrothermal activity in the central area caused the
formation of Mineralization Zone I, II, VI, and VII. On the other hand,
hydrothermal activity in the eastern area resulted in the formation of
Mineralization Zone III and V. Mineralization Zone I and II from the
central mine are enriched in FeCu, indicating they are the core of the
fan. Zone I, II and Zone VI, VII are connected and belong to the same
sedimentary-exhalative system, showing the transition relation from
the central facies to the marginal facies. On the contrary, Zone III and
V are dominated by PbZnAg mineralization, showing characteristics
of marginal facies of the other fan (Fig. 8). The Zhaokalong deposit
shows signicant mineralization zoning in the single ore-forming
system. Vertically, metallic elements are distributed from the bottom
to top with an order of Cu, AuFe, Cu, AuFeFe, Pb, Zn, AgPb, Zn and
Ag. Laterally, elements also display trends of mineralization zoning: Fe
and Cu are mainly mineralized in the central portion of the mine, whereas
Zn, Ag and other relatively low-temperature minerals primarily occurred
in the western portion of the mine (Fig. 9).
The FeCu ores from the pipe facies are characterized by massive
structures, formed by explosive breccias (Fig. 10a) and exhalative
silicalites (Fig. 10b). The central facies contains the ores of banded and
massive structures (Fig. 10c), occasionally with mixed sedimentaryexhalative components (Fig. 10d). The ores that form the marginal
facies are characterized by bedding structures (Fig. 10d), casually
composed of hematite layers (Fig. 10f).
4.4. Geochemistry of the ore-body sedimentary fans

We carried out trace element (including REE) and uid inclusion
analysis on different ore types from the Zhaokalong deposit. Magnetite
ores from Zone I and II, chalcopyrite ores from Zone VII, and sphalerite
galena ores from Zone III and V represent pipe facies, central fan facies
and marginal fan facies, respectively. The detailed analytical results
can be found in Li et al. (2013).
Table 3
The mineralized type and ore grade of different ore-forming zones in the Zhaokalong deposit.
Mineralization zone
Mineralized type
Ore grade (%)
Number of samples
Fe
Major
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Fe, Cu
Fe, Cu
Fe, Pb, Zn
Pb, Zn
Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu
Pb, Zn
Pb, Zn, Cu
Minor
Pb, Zn
Cu
Fe, Cu
Fe, Cu
Fe
Cu
Pb
Zn
Maximum
General
Average
Maximum
General
Average
Average
Average
43.08
39.93
36.56
32.73
36.42
33.54
35.2
2839
2536
2033
2832
2936
2734
3032
33.87
31.32
30.29
32.73
26.57
28.73
29.09
1.51
1.16
0.78
0.9
3.56
0.7
1.1
0.30.9
0.20.8
0.050.2
0.11
0.150.9
0.10.6
0.10.8
0.42
0.36
0.18
0.05
0.37
0.2
0.31
0.5
0.56
0.71
0.65
0.54
0.27
0.24
0.52
0.51
0.23
0.33
0.08
87
69
74
45
72
41
55
382
Fig. 8. Simplied geological sections of the Zhaokalong deposit.
The magnetite ores are characterized by relatively at REE patterns,

showing a negative Ce anomaly (Fig. 11a). REE compositions of the
sulde ores vary largely, enriched in light rare earth elements with
pronounced positive Eu anomalies (Fig. 11a). Additionally, the different
types of ore also vary distinctly in metallic elements. As shown in
Fig. 11b, the sphaleritegalena ores and the chalcopyrite ores have
higher contents of Au, Ag, Hg, Ni, and other indicative elements of
sedimentary processes compared to the magnetite ores. Furthermore,
the sphaleritegalena ores have extremely high Mn contents
(average 35,000 ppm). On the contrary, the magnetite ore has higher
Fe3+/Fe2+ and Co/Ni ratios, suggesting exhalative genesis.
The uid inclusions of the sulde ores (chalcopyrite and sphalerite
galena) and the magnetite ores also vary from each other (Fig. 11c and
d; Li et al., 2013). The magnetite and chalcopyrite ores have higher
temperatures and salinities compared to the sulde ores (Table 4;
2+
Fig. 11d). Some components in the sulde ores (such as SO2
)
4 , Ca
are signicantly higher than in the magnetite ores, whereas F, Na+
and K+ are more abundant in the magnetite ores (Table 5; Fig. 11c).
In addition, CH4 compositions in the sulde ores are much higher than
that in the magnetite ores, whereas H2 and CO2 contents display
Fig. 9. Mineral zoning characteristics of the ore body sedimentary fans in the Zhaokalong
deposit.
opposite characteristics. Additionally, chalcopyrite ores have the

highest uid density (0.95 g/cm3), followed by the sphaleritegalena
ores (0.94 g/cm3) and the pipe facies (0.93 g/cm3) (Table 4). The Eh
values have the same trends: chalcopyrite ores have the lowest values,
followed by the sphaleritegalena ores and then the magnetite ores.
The pH values decrease in facies from pipe to central and then to
marginal (Table 4). All of these may indicate that these ores have
different ore-forming environments. The sulde ores probably absorbed
more components from seawater, and the ore-forming environment
was partial to a lower temperature, reducing environment. In contrast,
the ore-forming elements for the magnetite ores are more likely to
have originated from submarine eruptions of volcanic rocks under a
higher temperature, oxidizing environment, and deeply sourced uids
(probably magmatic) were the main contributions (Li et al., 2013).
5. Discussion
5.1. Theoretical formation process of ore body sedimentary fans
For the SEDEX deposits, the theory of ore genesis by submarine
exhalation on the seaoor is now widely accepted (Gu et al., 2012).
The SEDEX deposits are distinctive in that it can be shown that the ore
minerals were deposited in a marine second-order basin environment,
related to discharge of metal-bearing brines into the seawater. The
genetic model for SEDEX mineralisation is varied, depending on the
type of ore that is deposited by sedimentary exhalative processes
(Clark et al., 2004; Tornos and Heinrich, 2008; Yang and Scott, 1996,
2005).
Large (1981) pointed out that there were two alternative discussions
on sediment-hosted submarine exhalative deposits: a morphological
classication upon empirical features, or a genetic one based on a particular interpretation of these features. The main problem of the morphological classication of mineral deposits was the impossibility of
characterizing a class of ore deposits by one or two features (Large,
1981). He suggested that sediment-hosted submarine exhalative
mineralization can be explained by the submarine exhalative model,
and those deposits are formed on the sea oor from hydrothermal
solutions discharged into the sea. Two of the possible sources of the
metals were proposed: 1) leached from underlying sediments and
volcanics and 2) juvenile derivation from magmatic processes (Large,
1981). Convective circulation of the metal-bearing solution was
suggested to be related to sea water circulation within a great size of
the convective cell beneath the sea oor. Precipitation of the metal
suldes occurs as a result of four variables: a decrease in temperature,
dilution of the solution, an increase in pH towards neutrality, and an
383
Fig. 10. Typical ore textures and structures in the Zhaokalong deposit. ab: Pipe facies, cd: central facies, ef: marginal facies. a: Explosive breccia; b: massive silicalite; c: banded galena
sphaleritepyrite ore; d: massive ore; e: interbedding of country rocks and ne grained pyrite layers; f: hematite layer.
increase in concentration of reduced sulfur. The following representative models and reviews on SEDEX deposits given by Russell et al
(1981), Kimberley (1989), MacIntyre (1991, 1995), Gu et al (2003),
Seal (2004), Clark et al (2004), Goodfellow and Lydon (2007), Large
et al (2008), Wilkinson (2010), Radulescu (2010) and Wang et al

(2014) discussed the morphological characteristics and/or ore genesis
separately, but few of them explained the genesis of the deposits combined with the ore body morphology.
Fig. 11. (a) REE patterns, (b) metallic element spider diagrams, (c) compositional variations in uid inclusions and (d) homogenization temperature and salinity patterns in uid inclusions
of the different ore types in the Zhaokalong deposit. Normalized values for chondrite are from Taylor and McClennan (1985).
384
Table 4
Homogenization temperature, salinity and uid density of inclusions in the Zhaokalong ironcopper polymetallic deposit.
Occurrences

Stratied ore bodies
Facies
Pipe
Central
Marginal
Host rocks
Host
minerals
Magnetite ore
Chalcopyrite ore
Sphaleritegalenapyritehematite ore
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Analytical
number (n)
16
16
7
Homogenization
temperature (C)
Salinity
(wt.% NaCl equiv.)
Range
Average
Range
Average
145207
143195
131180
176
173
157
4.656.88
5.928.40
1.067.86
5.5
6.6
3.8
Ph
Eh
Density
(g/cm3)
6.92
6.50
5.60
0.05
0.12
0.13
0.93
0.95
0.94
Note: The calculation of density follows the methods in Liu et al. (2000); the calculations of pH and Eh use the methods mentioned in Wang and Wang (2011).
In this study, we believe that the ore forming uids of SEDEX

deposits can be considered as a kind of turbidity currents. These uids
originate from the exhalative process, passing through syngenetic
faults, then owing into the sea basin. Transport of these brines follows
stratigraphic reservoir pathways toward faults, which isolate the buried
stratigraphy into recognizable sedimentary basins. The brines percolate
up the basin-bounding faults and are released into the overlying oceanic
water. The mineralizing uids originated as seawater or as evaporated
seawater and migrated downward through sedimentary basins into
networks of interconnected fractures within their basement (Muchez
et al., 2005). In regions characterized by pronounced extension and
heat production, the ore-bearing uids were expelled back upwards
along extensional faults and associated fracture networks during fault
rupture. This circulation pattern caused the formation of the pipe facies
of SEDEX-type deposits. The mineralizing uids were carried upwards
within sedimentary units toward basin-bounding faults. The uids
moved upwards due to thermal ascent and pressure of the underlying
reservoir. Fluid density and sea water overpressure play important
roles in the transportation of uid. Faults which host the hydrothermal
ow can show evidence of this ow due to development of massive
sulde veins, hydrothermal breccias, quartz and carbonate veining
and pervasive ankeritesideritechloritesericite alteration (Kelley
et al., 1992). During the exhalative process, the uid density is not so
high, so uids can be transported easily. Once the original uid encounters the seawater, the pH and Eh environment changes tremendously,
resulting in a strong reaction between uid and sea water, and with
the increase of uid density the uids change into a kind of turbidity
currents which contains a lot of mineral particles of different sizes.
The turbidity currents migrate under the inuence of ocean currents.
In this process, the ore-forming temperature decreases gradually;
increasing seawater elements and wall rock components add into the
currents as a whole ore-forming uid system. Regarding the sources of
the ore minerals, some researchers expect that the elements could be
scavenged from seawater by exhalative particles in a hydrothermally
derived plume that nally accumulated on the seaoor (Canet et al.,
2004). This type of accumulation can form the sedimentary fan for the
exhalative sulde deposits. Trap sites are found in lower or depressed
areas of the ocean topography where the heavy, hot brines ow and
mix with cooler sea water. This causes the dissolved metal and sulfur
in the brine to precipitate from solution as a solid metal sulde ore,
deposited as layers of sulde sediment as a fan shape. Upon mixing of
the ore uids with the seawater, the ore constituents and gangue are
dispersed across the seaoor and precipitated to form an ore-body
and mineralization halo which are congruent with the underlying
stratigraphy and are generally ne grained, nely laminated and can
be recognized as chemically deposited from solution, whose density
has slightly decreased. Fluids eventually discharge onto the seaoor,

forming really extensive, stratiform deposits of chemical precipitates.
Sometimes, synthesis of the stratigraphically repeated mineralized
sequences in this kind of deposit suggests that mineralization was
episodic, accompanied and periodically interrupted by turbiditic
sedimentation. Each exhalative episode was preceded by a period of
mixed, both chemical and turbiditic sedimentation (footwall alteration
blanket), followed by a peak release of hot metalliferous brines
(stratiform ores and associated stringers), and terminated by a waning
inux of hydrothermal uid accompanying turbiditic deposition
(hanging-wall alteration blanket) (Gu et al., 2012).
5.2. Zoning genesis of ore body sedimentary fans
5.2.1. Texture and structure
In the formation process of ore body sedimentary fans, due to the
changes of uid composition and mineralization environment, each
part of the fan may be different from the other, having their own
features. According to our sedimentary fan model, the fans can be
divided into at least three facies: pipe, central and marginal facies.
Pipe facies occurred near the venting area due to the collapse of the
rapid deposition and impact of exhalative uid. It is characterized by
block and brecciated structure of chert, soft sedimentary deformation
structures and slump structure of exhalative sediments. Slightly away
from the venting area, temperature decreased and deposition strengthened, forming the central facies. Sometimes, hydrogen sulde gas in hot
water is conducive to the growth and reproduction of organisms,
resulting in the formation of the spherulitic structure of biological characteristics. Away from the vent center, typical sedimentary structures
are the majority because of relatively quiet waters. Further away from
the venting, it reaches the marginal facies. Because of the low content
of silicon in hot aqueous solution, deposition rate becomes slower; at
the same time, siliceous rocks and sedimentary rocks show transitional
contact because of terrigenous input. The changes of these facies are
particularly evident in many SEDEX type deposits in China, such as the
deposits in the goldcopperuranium metallogenic belt in the south
subzone of Western Qinling (Zheng and Liu, 1993). In the Xitieshan
deposit, the altered stockwork rocks and unstratied ore bodies
represent the pipe facies, whereas stratied ore bodies characterize
the central and marginal facies. Within the ore sedimentary fans, the
decrease in sulde mineral granularity from the center to the edge
corresponds to the transition of the sedimentary fan facies from the
central to the marginal.
Based on the different textures and structures in the different facies
of the fans, it becomes much easier to determine the vent and mineralization center. For example, in the Dongshengmiao PbZnS deposit
Table 5
Aqueous and gaseous compositions of the quartz-hosted uid inclusions in the Zhaokalong deposit (ppm) (Li et al., 2013).
Occurrences
Facies
Host rocks
Host
minerals
Analytical
number (n)
Cl
SO2
4
Na+
K+
Ca2+
H2
CH4
CO2
H2O

Stratied ore bodies
Pipe
Central
Marginal
Magnetite ore
Chalcopyrite ore
Sphaleritegalenapyrite ore
Magnetite
Magnetite
Pyrite
2
1
1
3.62
1.75
0.10
1.27
0.59
1.06
114.80
297.98
201.25
5.06
2.74
2.40
4.12
1.15
1.20
2.96
15.32
10.97
1.63
1.36
0.64
5.70
19.23
16.58
410.67
152.99
153.77
943
1603
1074
(Miao and Ran, 1992), cloddy-spotted, brecciated structural ores were

found in the central-northern part of the mine; whereas laminated,
nodular and nutty structural ores are located in the eastern, western
and southern areas. It can therefore be speculated that the exhalative
vent center lies in the central northern part of the mine, where the
structure of the ores shows the hydrothermal mineralization characteristics. On the other hand, ores from the eastern, southern and western
parts show the deposition characteristics because of their distance
from the venting center. Subsequent explorations have proven the
accuracy of this speculation (Zhang et al., 1999, 2010).
5.2.2. Mineralization
The ore bodies of SEDEX deposits are usually stratied and zoned.
The formation of zoning in mineralized elements is due to the different
solubility and migration of compounds which were formed by the
ore-forming elements (Betts, 2004; Tornos, 2006). In the Xietieshan
deposit, high-grade leadzinc ores are concentrated in the central facies
of the fans, whereas pyrite content increases signicantly in the marginal
facies. In the Jinding PbZn deposit, distinct zonation from top (marginal
facies) to bottom (central facies) also exists (Ye et al., 1993). The
Zhaokalong deposit also shows signicant mineralization zoning in a
single ore-forming system. Laterally, Fe and Cu are deposited in the
central facies of the fans, whereas Zn, Ag and other relatively
low-temperature minerals are located in the marginal facies (Fig. 9).
The ore bodies of the Jingtieshan ironcopper deposit are stratied,
with the copper ore body at the bottom and the iron ore body at the
top (Fig. 12a, Xue et al., 1997). The Luchaichong polymetallic deposit in
Southeast Yunnan Province also shows the vertical and horizontal
mineralization zoning characteristics (Meng et al., 1998). Vertical zoning
from bottom to top is PbZn (Ag) Ba Cu (Pb, Zn) Ag (Pb,
Zn) BaMn; lateral zonation from the east (synsedimentary fault) to
west is PbZn (Ag), Ba Ag MnFe (Fig. 12b). The ore bodies of
the Jiande copper deposit (Zhejiang Province) also have a distinct
zonation, with Cu rich ores in the bottom yet PbZn rich ores in the
top. Horizontally, the Cu/(Cu + Pb + Zn) ratios in the central fan
facies are much higher than that in the marginal fan facies, whereas
Zn/(Cu + Pb + Zn) values show the opposite phenomenon (Liu et al.,
1996). In the Laerma goldcopperuranium deposit in West Qinling,
Cu mineralization is concentrated at or near exhalative venting areas,
whereas most of Au mineralization occurs in chert which is located
away from the venting center. Vertically, Cu mineralized in the lower
part, Au deposited in the medium whereas U gathered at the top (Liu
and Zheng, 1992).
5.2.3. Trace elements
In sedimentary exhalative deposits, trace elements show different
enrichments in different fan facies. Pipe facies are enriched in elements
that have a close relationship with deep sourced hydrothermal activities
(Canet et al., 2004), whereas central and marginal facies have more
concentrated elements from sea water.
385
In the Zhaokalong deposit, As, Sb, Hg, Mn, Co, Ni and other indicative
elements are generally abundant in the ores. Part of this enrichment
could be derived from a direct precipitation from seawater, favored by
the euxinic conditions of the basin. These elements could be scavenged
from seawater by exhalative particles in a hydrothermally derived
plume that nally accumulated on the seaoor (Canet et al, 2004).
Proles of redox-sensitive trace elements show great W, Ni, Co, Mo
and Bi enrichments in the magnetite ores, and high values of these
elements could be of deep hydrothermal origin. Additionally, magnetite
ore has lower Hg and As content, higher Fe3+/Fe2+ ratios, with Co/Ni
values greater than 1 (Fig. 11b), indicating that oxide-type ore has a
closer genetic relationship with deeply sourced uid, formed in relatively
oxidizing environments. It is further suggested that the iron formations,
which are often, but not always genetically connected with volcanism,
have their iron source from volcanic exhalations. In this study's ore
body sedimentary fan model, magnetite ores and sulde ores belong to
the pipe (or central) facies and marginal facies, respectively.
There is another example from the Woxi SEDEX type polymetallic
deposit in Hunan Province (Gu et al., 2012). Geochemical data of this
deposit show that, with increasing distance above and below the
mineralized horizons, contents of W, Au, As, and Sb systematically
decrease, whereas concentrations of other trace elements such as Hf,
Sc, Th, Ta, Y, Zr, Nb and REEs gradually increase. This may indicate a
decreasing hydrothermal input in the sediments and an increasing
dominance of detrital and seawater-derived components. The high
concentrations of W, Au, As and Sb are commonly interpreted to be of
hydrothermal origin, whereas the low contents of the other trace
elements are attributed to rapid accumulation rates and rapid burial of
hydrothermal precipitates in the sediment pile (Lottermoser, 1991).
Rare earth element geochemistry has been used to constrain the
genesis of exhalative deposits, especially for the exhalites that are
spatially associated with them (Parr, 1992; Song et al., 1997; Steiner
et al., 2001). In the Zhaokalong deposit, different REE patterns between
the magnetite ores and sulde ores suggest the different ore-forming
environments and the transition from pipe (or central) facies to marginal facies in the ore body sedimentary fans. Negative Ce of ore-forming
hydrothermal uid has a close relationship with the added water from
the sea (Ding et al., 2003; Yan et al., 2005). As the samples exhibit
minor negative Ce anomalies, it may suggest that a submarine
ore-forming process existed. The magnetite ores have similar REE patterns with the andesite (Li et al., 2011), suggesting the iron-containing
uid originated from deep sources. On the other hand, sulde ores
have positive Eu and negative Ce anomalies with similar REE patterns
to the liquids and sediments of modern submarine hydrothermal
sedimentary systems, indicating a similar formation process as submarine hydrothermal sedimentary system deposits (Canet et al., 2004;
Douville et al., 1999; Gu et al., 2007; Li et al., 2007; Li et al., 2013).
Some ratios of trace elements (e.g., Co/Ni, S/Se) can be used to
determine the source of ore forming uid of SEDEX deposits. In the
Zhaokalong deposit, the Co/Ni values of the sulde ores are generally
less than 1. In the Jiande copper deposit, the pyrite of FeCu ores from
Fig. 12. (a) Synsedimentary section diagrams of (a) the Jingtieshan ironcopper deposit (after Xue et al., 1997) and (b) the Luchaichong polymetallic deposit (after Meng et al., 1998).
386
the bottom of the ore bodies has average Co/Ni ratios that are greater
than 1. The S/Se ratio is less than 1.15 million, indicating that FeCu
mineralization is closely linked to volcanic hydrothermal activity. In
contrast, the pyrite of the PbZn enriched ore from the upper and
anking sides of the ore bodies has opposite Co/Ni and S/Se ratios,
suggesting a hydrothermal sedimentary origin for the PbZn ore (Liu
et al., 1996). Therefore, it can be concluded that the FeCu ores from
the bottom of the ore bodies were formed during the initial stage of
submarine exhalation, whereas the PbZn mineralization was formed
by later deposition when the exhalative uid vented into the sea basin
and mixed the seawater. Similar phenomenon also occurred in the
Dongshengmiao PbZnS deposit, Inner Mongolia. The pyrite from the
northern part of the mine has a higher ratio of Co/Ni, which is greater
than 1; the pyrite from the eastern, western and southern areas shows
opposite characteristics, with the ratios of Co/Ni smaller than 1. These
indicate that the exhalative venting center of the Dongshengmiao
deposit lies in the northern part of this mine. The lower ratio of Co/Ni
can be explained by constant addition of seawater, which contains a
low ratio of Co/Ni, when endogenetic hydrothermal uid vents into
the sea basin and migrates to the seaoor. Furthermore, these gradient
trends of Co/Ni and S/Se ratios indicate that sedimentation was gradually
enhanced from the central facies to marginal facies, and all of this proved
the reliability of the sedimentary fan model.
5.2.4. Isotopes
In the Xitieshan deposit, the pipe facies and stratied ore bodies
(central facies and marginal facies) of the fans have different 13CCO2
values (ranging from 5 2 to 0), indicating that deep-sourced
uid played an important role in the pipe facies, whereas shallow uid
(containing seawater) might be essential in the formation of the central
and marginal facies.
Meng et al (1998) carried out C and O isotope analysis for the 18
carbonate samples that are related to different types of ores in the
Luchaichong SEDEX-type polymetallic deposit, Yunnan Province. The
results showed that the 13C and 18O values at the bottom of each
sedimentary cycle (central facies) are higher than that at the medium
or top parts (marginal facies). The general range of isotopes from
bottom to medium (or top) are 13C: 0.6 to 2, 18O: 6 to
8 13C: 2.0 to 3.5, 18O: 10 to 15. Thermal
diffusion and water desalination can explain the isotopic zoning (Liu
et al., 2012; Meng et al., 1998). In each exhalative-sedimentary cycle,
ore-forming thermal uid vented into the sedimentary basins and
mixed seawater, causing the temperature of the uids to decrease
with increasing distance of transportation. In this process, heavy
isotopes (e.g. 13C, 18O) were likely precipitated due to the higher
temperatures, whereas the content of light isotopes (e.g. 12C, 16O)
tends to increase at the medium or top of the cycles. Another possible
factor is the desalination of seawater. With the intensication of deposition, surface water that contained more light isotopes (e.g. 12C, 16O) may
have affected the deposition, resulting in the decrease of 13C and 18O
values in the marginal facies of the ore body sedimentary fans.
5.2.5. Temperatures and salinities
The uid inclusions in each facies of the ore body sedimentary fans
show different characteristics. The temperatures and salinities in the
inclusions associated with the pipe facies are generally high, followed
by the central facies and the marginal facies. In the Jiande copper
deposit, the homogenization temperature of the massive FeCu sulde
ores from the central facies is around 300 C, whereas the banded
PbZn enriched ores from the marginal facies have a temperature of
150 C (Liu et al, 1996).
Based on the uid compositional analysis in the Xitieshan and the
Zhaokalong deposit, it can be conceded that the pipe and central facies
usually contain higher Ar, N2, H2, CO2, F, Na+ and K+. On the contrary,
2+
the marginal facies generally has higher contents of SO2
, Ca2+
4 , Mg
and CH4. This suggests that from the pipe and central facies to the
marginal facies, seawater components constantly increased whereas

deep sourced uid gradually vanished.
5.2.6. Redox environment
The redox environment of the pipe facies can be reduced (e.g., the
Xitieshan deposit) or oxidized (e.g., the Zhaokalong deposit), depending
on the conditions of the deep-sourced uids and exhalative processes.
In these deposits, the massive ores from the central facies have higher
pH but lower Eh values, compared to banded ores from the marginal
facies. It may suggest that the environment at the marginal facies
could be more oxidized than that at the central facies (e.g., Liu et al.,
1996; Meng et al., 1998). Additionally, the hematite ores are found
located at the edge of the ore body fans in the Zhaokalong deposit
(Fig. 9), indicating that the marginal facies was formed in a relatively
oxidizing environment.
One of the most controversial aspects of the genesis of sediment
hydrothermal mineralization is the source of uids and metals and the
physical and chemical conditions of material transport. Solubility
considerations suggest that metals and reduced sulfur cannot be
efciently transported together in sufciently high concentrations in a
mildly acid to neutral uid at temperatures below about 350 C
(Tornos and Heinrich, 2008). Unrealistically high volumes of uid and
long-lived convection systems would be required to form a signicant
deposit (Solomon and Heinrich, 1992; Spirakis and Heyl, 1995). Thus,
it seems a prerequisite that effective metal-transporting uids must be
poor in reduced sulfur (e.g., Anderson et al., 1998; Kyle and Saunders,
1996; Plumlee et al., 1994). Two main alternatives have been proposed
by Tornos and Heinrich (2008), including (a) the transport of metals
and sulfur by different solutions that later mix, or (b) the joint transport
of metals with sulfate, which is later reduced in the depositional
environment (e.g., Cooke et al., 2000; Hinman, 1996; Plumlee et al.,
1994; Spirakis and Heyl, 1995). Therefore, it seems that during the
formation of the deposited fans, the redox environment can be changed
from reduction to oxidation, corresponding to the changes of facies
from central to marginal.
5.2.7. Fluid density
In the Xitieshan and the Zhaokalong deposit, the central facies have
the highest uid densities, followed by the marginal facies and the pipe
facies. The different density values between the same facies of these two
deposits can be explained by the different overpressure of the seawater,
and the ore bodies from the Zhaokalong deposit are estimated to be
deposited in relatively shallow waters. The low density of the pipe facies
uid might be related to the buoyant effect of the exhalative process,
whereas the high density of the central facies uid could be generated
by the mixing of deep-sourced uid and seawater, resulting in the
deposition of coarse ore minerals. In pace with the migration of the
turbidity currents, the uid densities slightly decreased, resulting in
the relatively longer transportation and ner mineral deposition.
5.2.8. Summary
Base on the Xitieshan, Zhaokalong and other typical sedimentaryexhalative deposits in China, the facies characteristics for the sedimentary
fan model are summarized below (Table 6; Fig. 13).
6. The application of the model: Metallogenic target prediction
Using the sedimentary fan model, the overall ore-body shapes can
be easily discerned. According to the zoning characteristics of these
deposits, it is essential to determine the location of the vent center
and the extending trend of ore belts. This study attempted to restore
the whole form of the fans in the Xitieshan and the Zhaokalong deposit,
and it would have great signicance for metallogenic study and
mineralization forecast.
387
Table 6
Facies characteristics of the sedimentary ore-body fans from the typical sedimentary-exhalative deposits in China.
Facies
Ore body occurrences
Pipe
Unstratied ore bodies; Block, brecciated and stockwork

structures
Central
Stratied ore bodies; massive and banded ore structures with
large mineral particles; Bouma sequences
Marginal Stratied ore bodies; bedding structure with
small mineral particles and sedimentary rhythm
Mineralization Enriched trace elements
Fluid
density
Fluid
Fluid
temperature salinity
Fe, Cu (Au)
W, Mo, Bi
Low
High
Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn
W, Mo, Bi, Ni, As,

Hg Co/Ni N 1
As, Hg, Hf, Sc, Th, Ta, Y, Zr,
Nb, REEs Co/Ni b 1
High
Medium
Pb, Zn, Ag, Ba

(Mn)
6.1. The Xitieshan deposit

In the two-fan model of the Xitieshan deposit, an asymmetric shape
and structure have been ascertained. The asymmetry of the sedimentary
fans can be ascribed to the roles of relay slope and directional currents
(Fig. 4). The deep extensions of ore bodies are controlled by the direction
of ore uid migration, whereas marine slopes can also change the basic
forms of the sedimentary fans as an external factor (Philip and John
2005; Stow and Mayall 2000). The upper parts of typical ore fans always
have emanative characteristics, in a two-way form plunging down
towards the deep. In the Xitieshan deposit, the ore body is generally tilted
eastward. This is because the relay slope controlled the direction of the
exhalative uid migration. Hence, the shape of the ore body is formed
by the superposition of the standard fan and relay slope. These two
factors have the same direction to strengthen the east plunging
occurrence in the eastern part of the deposit. On the other hand, these
two factors have the opposite direction in the western portion. The ore
bodies still plunge to the west in the western portion of the upper part
of the deposit. At approximately 3000 m level, the boundary became
vertical and then changed to an eastern plunge at depth. These morphological characteristics correspond to the existing drilling data. The
western boundary of this deposit is forecasted to lie around Line 75 to
Line 80. The ore bodies are unlikely to continue to extend westwards.
In the east, the ore bodies extend at depth eastward. The boundaries
have a large plunge with a dip of about 70. Notably, there is a limited
expansion at the 2600 m level. We suppose that the main ore body
boundary can be extended to Line 05. The deposit has been explored
with a width of 2 km (from Line 75 to Line 0). So far, the vertical mining
range is 500 m (from surface to 2942 m level). The overall depth of the
western fan is estimated to be at least 1000 m according to this study's
fan model. Therefore, there is still a 500 m extension from the 2942
level to the deeper portions. Based on the observations of the recent
deep drilling cores, the ore bodies in the nearby levels are characterized
by large thickness, coarse crystal size and high-grade mineralization,
still showing a central facies feature of the deposit. This indicates that it
still has a great extension space at depth.
6.2. The Zhaokalong deposit
Because of later fold transformations and fault cuttings (particularly
the large fault F1 in the northern part of the mine), the sedimentary fans
Medium Low
Redox
environment
Medium Reducing
oxidizing
High
Reducing
Low
Oxidizing
of the Zhaokalong deposit are incomplete at present time; therefore, the

ore bodies that have been found in this deposit should only be part of the
sedimentary fans. As mentioned earlier, we divided the ore-forming
system into two parts, which correspond to the two sedimentary fans
respectively. Mineralization Zone I, II and Zone VI, VII belong to a same
sedimentary-exhalative system, showing the transitional relations from
central facies to marginal facies. On the other hand, Mineralization Zone
III and V have PbZnAg mineralization, showing the characteristics of
marginal facies of the other fan (Fig. 8b). So where is the central facies
to this fan? It indicates that the mineralization center of this system still
lies to the east, which is not completely exposed. We believe that there
is a considerable extension for the ore bodies, and it is possible to nd
the new vent center outside of this mine in the east.
7. Conclusions
1. The ore-bodies from the Xitieshan and the Zhaokalong SEDEX-type
deposit are fan-shaped. Based on the zoning characteristics of mineralization, trace elements, uid inclusions and isotopes, the single fan
has been classied into three facies: pipe, central, and marginal
facies.
2. The pipe facies is located close to synsedimentary fault channel ways,
characterized by unstratied altered stockwork rocks or ores, deeply
sourced uids and FeCu mineralization with high temperatures and
salinity. Central and marginal facies are formed by stratiform ore
bodies, showing typical characteristics of sedimentary origin, with
Pb, Zn, Ag and other relatively low-temperature mineralization.
3. Ore-forming uids of SEDEX-type deposits can be considered as
turbidity currents. These uids come from the exhalative venting
center, passing through the syngenetic fault, owing into the sea
basin, and forming the ore bodies as a fan shape. The sedimentary
fan model can be used for metallogenic prognosis to obtain good
exploration results.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the China Scholarship Council (CSC)
and the Global COE Program in Novel Carbon Resource Sciences, Kyushu
University. Field work was supported by the Xitieshan Mine and the
Zhaokalong Mine, Qinghai, China. We thank Dr. Jillian Aira S. Gabo and
Dr. Thomas D. Tindell for their comments on the early draft. Two
anonymous reviewers are appreciated for the detailed and valuable
suggestions that helped us to improve the article. Special thanks are
due to Dr. Franco Pirajno (Editor-in-Chief) for his help in polishing the
nal article.
References
Fig. 13. Sketch model of sedimentary fans to sedimentary-exhalative deposits.
Anderson, I.K., Ashton, J.H., Boyce, A.J., Fallick, A.E., Russell, M.J., 1998. Ore depositional
processes in the Navan ZnPb deposit, Ireland. Econ. Geol. 93, 535563.
Betts, P.G., 2004. Aeromagnetic patterns of half-graben and basin inversion: implications
for sediment-hosted massive sulde PbZnAg exploration. J. Struct. Geol. 26,
11371156.
Canet, C., Alfonso, P., Melgarejo, J.C., Belyatsky, B.V., 2004. Geochemical evidences of
sedimentary-exhalative origin of the shale-hosted PGEAgAuZnCu occurrences
of the Prades Mountains (Catalonia, Spain): trace-element abundances and SmNd
isotopes. J. Geochem. Explor. 82, 1733.
388
Canet, C., Anadn, P., Gonzlez-Partida, E., Alfonso, P., Rajabi, A., Prez-Segura, E.,
Alba-Aldave, L.A., 2014. Paleozoic bedded barite deposits from Sonora (NW
Mexico): evidence for a hydrocarbon seep environment of formation. Ore Geol.
Rev. 56, 292300.
Chen, J.P., Tang, J.X., Fu, X.F., 2008. Study on Metallogenic Regularrity and Metallogenic Prediction of Middle Part of Sanjiang River. Geological Publishing House, Southwestern
China. Beijing 70 p, (in Chinese with English abstract).
Cheng, Y.B., Mao, J.W., Rusk, B., Yang, Z.X., 2012. Geology and genesis of Kafang CuSn
deposit, Gejiu district, SW China. Ore Geol. Rev. 48, 180196.
Cheng, Y.B., Mao, J.W., Chang, Z.S., Pirajno, F., 2013. The origin of the world class
tin-polymetallic deposits in the Gejiu district, SW China: constraints from metal
zoning characteristics and 40Ar39Ar geochronology. Ore Geol. Rev. 53, 5062.
Clark, S.H.B., Poole, F.G., Wang, Z.C., 2004. Comparison of some sediment-hosted,
stratiform barite deposits in China, the United States, and India. Ore Geol. Rev. 24,
85101.
Cooke, D.R., Bull, S.W., Large, R.R., McGoldrick, P.J., 2000. The importance of oxidized
brines for the formation of Australian Proterozoic stratiform sediment-hosted
PbZn (Sedex) deposits. Econ. Geol. 95, 118.
Cooke, D.R., Bull, S., Large, R.R., 2003. Processes of ore formation in the stratiform
sediment-hosted ZnPb deposits of Northern Australia: testing the Century model.
J. Geochem. Explor. 7879, 519524.
Decre, S., Marignac, C., Putter, T.D., Deloule, E., Ligeois, J.-P., Demaiffe, D., 2008. PbZn
mineralization in a Miocene regional extensional context: the case of the Sidi Driss
and the Douahria ore deposits (Nefza mining district, northern Tunisia). Ore Geol.
Rev. 34, 285303.
Ding, Z.J., Yao, S.Z., Liu, C.Q., Zhou, Z.G., Yang, M.G., 2003. The characteristics of exhalationsedimentary deposit of Donggouba polymetal deposit: evidence from ores REE
composition. Acta Petrol. Sin. 19, 792798 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Douville, E., Bienvenu, P., Charlou, J.L., Fouquet, Y., Appriou, P., Gamo, T., 1999. Yttrium and
rare earth elements in uids from various deep-sea hydrothermal systems. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 63, 627643.
Emsbo, P., Hutchinson, R.W., Hofstra, A.H., Volk, J.A., Bettles, K.H., Baschuk, G.J., Johnson,
C.A., 1999. Syngenetic Au on the Carlin trend: implications for Carlin type deposits.
Geology 27, 5962.
Goodfellow, W.D., Lydon, J.W., 2007. Sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits. In:
Goodfellow, W.D. (Ed.), Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesisof Major Deposit
Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration
Methods: Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special
Publication No. 5, pp. 163183.
Gu, X.X., Liu, J.M., Schulz, O., Vavtar, F., Zheng, M.H., 2003. Syngenetic origin for the
sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits in NW Sichuan, China: ore fabric
evidence. Ore Geol. Rev. 22, 91116.
Gu, X.X., Schulz, O., Vavtar, F., Liu, J.M., Zheng, M.H., Shaohong, Fu., 2007. Rare earth
element geochemistry of the Woxi WSbAu deposit, Hunan Province, South
China. Ore Geol. Rev. 31, 319336.
Gu, X.X., Zhang, Y.M., Schulz, O., Vavtar, F., Liu, J.M., Zheng, M.H., Zheng, L., 2012. The Woxi
WSbAu deposit in Hunan, South China: an example of Late Proterozoic sedimentary
exhalative (SEDEX) mineralization. J. Asian Earth Sci. 57, 5475.
He, L.Q., Song, Y.C., Chen, K.X., Hou, Z.Q., Yu, F.M., Yang, Z.S., Wei, J.Q., Li, Z., Liu, Y.C., 2009.
Thrust-controlled, sediment-hosted, Himalayan ZnPbCuAg deposits in the
Lanping foreland fold belt, eastern margin of Tibetan Plateau. Ore Geol. Rev. 36,
106132.
Heinrich, D.H., 2005. Sedimentary mineral deposits and the evolution of earths' near surface environments. Econ. Geol. 100, 14891509.
Hinman, M., 1996. Constraints, timing and processes of stratiform base metal
mineralisation at the HYC AgPbZn deposit, Mac Arthur River. Econ. Geol. Res.
Unit Contrib. 55, 5659.
Hou, Z.Q., Zaw, K., Pan, G.T., Mo, X.X., Xu, Q., Hu, Y.Z., Li, X.Z., 2007. Sanjiang Tethyan
metallogenesis in S.W. China: tectonic setting, metallogenic epochs and deposit
types. Ore Geol. Rev. 31, 4887.
Jiang, S.Y., Han, F., Shen, J.Z., Palmer, M.R., 1999. Chemical and RbSr, SmNd isotopic systematics of tourmaline from the Dachang Sn-polymetallic ore deposit, Guangxi Province, P.R. China. Chem. Geol. 157, 4967.
Kampunzu, A.B., Cailteux, J.L.H., Kamona, A.F., Intiomale, M.M., Melcher, F., 2009.
Sediment-hosted ZnPbCu deposits in the Central African Copperbelt. Ore Geol.
Rev. 35, 263297.
Kawasaki, K., Symons, D.T.A., Dawborn, T., 2010. Paleomagnetism of the world-class Century ZnPbAg deposits, Australia. J. Geochem. Explor. 106, 137145.
Kelley, K.D., Borden, J.C., Bailey, E.A., Fey, D.L., Motooka, J.M., Roushey, B., 1992.
Geochemically anomalous areas in the west-central part of the Howard Pass
Quadrangle, National Petroleum Reserve, Brooks Range, AlaskaEvidence for
sediment-hosted ZnPbAgBa mineralization. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 2041, 6069.
Kimberley, M.M., 1989. Exhalative origins of iron formations. Ore Geol. Rev. 5, 13145.
Kyle, J.R., Saunders, J.A., 1996. Metallic deposits of the Gulf Coast basin: diverse mineralization styles in a young sedimentary basin. In: Sangster, D.F. (Ed.), Carbonate Hosted
Lead Zinc Deposits. Society Economic Geologists Special Publication v. 4, pp. 218229.
Large, D.E., 1981. Sediment-hosted submarine exhalative sulphide depositsa review of
their geological characteristics and genesis. In: Wolfe, K.E. (Ed.), Handbook of
Stratabound and Stratiform Ore Deposits. Geological Association of Canada vol. 9,
pp. 459507.
Large, R.R., Bull, S.W., Cooke, D.R., McGoldrick, P.J., 1998. A genetic model for the HYC
deposit, Australia: based on regional sedimentology, geochemistry, and suldesediment relationship. Econ. Geol. 93, 13451368.
Large, R.R., Bull, S.W., McGoldrick, J., Walters, S., Derrick, G.M., Carr, G.R., 2005. Stratiform
and stratabound ZnPbAg deposits in Proterozoic sedimentary basins, northern
Australia. Econ. Geol. 100, 931963.
Large, R.R., Bull, S.W., Cooke, D.R., McGoldrick, P.J., 2008. A genetic model for the H.Y.C.
Deposit, Australia; based on regional sedimentology, geochemistry, and suldesediment relationships. Econ. Geol. 93, 13451368.
Li, H., Xi, X.S., 2012. Geochemistry and sedimentary exhalative mineralization in
HutouyaKendekeke eld, Qinghai Province, China. Chin. J. Nonferrous Met. 22,
772783.
Li, W.B., Huang, Z.L., Qi, L., 2007. REE geochemistry of suldes from the Huize ZnPb ore
eld, Yunnan province: implication for the sources of ore-forming metals. Acta
Geol. Sin. 81, 442449.
Li, H., Xi, X.S., Wu, C.M., Di, C.X., 2011. Geology and metallogenesis of the Zhaokalong
ironcopperpolymetallic ore deposit in Yushu, Qinghai Province. Geol. Explor. 47,
380387 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li, H., Xi, X.S., Wu, C.M., Watanabe, K., 2013. Genesis of the Zhaokalong FeCu polymetallic
deposit at Yushu, China: evidence from ore geochemistry and uid inclusions. Acta
Geol. Sin. (Engl. Ed.) 87, 486500.
Liu, J.J., Zheng, M.H., 1992. Exhalative-sedimentary features and prospecting targets of
Laerma goldcopperuranium deposit. Acta Geol. Sichuan 12, 112117 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Liu, J.J., Cao, S.Y., Li, Y.L., 1996. Origin of the Jiande copper deposit, Zhejiang. Mineral
Resour. Geol. 10, 145154 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Liu, B., Zhu, S.L., Shen, K., 2000. Softwares and Examples for Calculating the Thermodynamic Parameters of Fluid Inclusions. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp.
186 (in Chinese).
Liu, Y.H., Wu, L.S., Mo, J.P., Zhang, F., Huang, J., Yang, M.D., 2006. Fluid inclusions and
metallogenic environment of the Xitieshan leadzinc deposit. Geol. Prospect. 42,
Liu, X.J., Liu, W., Liu, L.J., 2012. The generation of a stratiform skarn and volcanic exhalative
PbZn deposit (Sawusi) in the southern Chinese Altay Mountains: the constraints
from petrography, mineral assemblage and chemistry. Gondwana Res. 22, 597614.
Lott, D.A., Coveney Jr., R.M., Murowchick, J.B., Grauch, R.I., 1999. Sedimentary exhalative
nickel-molybdenum ores in South China. Econ. Geol. 94, 10511066.
Lottermoser, B.G., 1991. Trace element composition of exhalites associated with the
Broken Hill sulde deposit, Australia. Econ. Geol. 86, 870877.
MacIntyre, D.G., 1991. Sedex-sedimentary-exhalative deposits. In: McMillan, W.J.,
Coordinator, B.C. (Eds.), Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian
Cordillera. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 19914, pp.
2569.
MacIntyre, D., 1995. Sedimentary exhalative ZnPbAg. In: Lefebure, D.V., Ray, G.E. (Eds.),
Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit ProlesMetallics and Coal Volume 1.
British Columbia Ministry of Energy of Employment and Investment, pp. 3739
(Open File 1995-20).
Meng, Y.F., Cui, B., Yang, J.C., Zhang, L.C., 1998. Sedimentary cycles divided of exhalation
sedimentary mineralization in Luchaichong polymetallic deposit of southeast Yunnan
province. Geol. Prospect. 34, 1620 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Miao, Y.X., Ran, C.Y., 1992. Geological and geochemical characteristics of Dongshengmiao
PbZnS deposit of submarine exhalative origin, Inner Mongolia. Geochimica 4,
Muchez, P., Heijlen, W., Banks, D., Blundell, D., Boni, M., Grandia, F., 2005. Extensional
tectonics and the timing and formation of basin-hosted deposits in Europe. Ore
Geol. Rev. 27, 241267.
Paradis, S., Nelson, J.L., Irwin, S.E.B., 1998. Age constraints on the Devonian shalehosted
ZnPbBa deposits, Gataga district, Northeastern British Columbia, Canada. Econ.
Geol. 93, 184200.
Parr, J.M., 1992. Rare-earth element distribution in the exhalites associated with Broken
Hill-type mineralisation at the Pinnacles deposit, New South Wales, Australia.
Chem. Geol. 100, 7391.
Philip, A., John, A., 2005. Basin Analysis: Principles and Applications, 2nd ed. Blackwell,
(234 p.).
Plumlee, G.S., Leach, D.L., Hofstra, A.H., Landis, G.P., Rowan, E.L., Viets, J.G., 1994. Chemical
reaction path modeling of ore deposition in Mississippi Valley-type PbZn deposits of
the Ozark Region, US Midcontinent. Econ. Geol. 89, 13611383.
Prokin, V.A., Buslaev, F.P., 1998. Massive copperzinc sulphide deposits in the Urals. Ore
Geol. Rev. 14, 169.
Radulescu, M., 2010. Formation of a stratiform ZnPbAg sedex depositnumerical
simulation. Carpath. J. Earth Environ. Sci. 5, 6782.
Ruffell, A.H., Moles, N.R., Parnell, J., 1998. Characterisation and prediction of sedimenthosted ore deposits using sequence stratigraphy. Ore Geol. Rev. 12, 207223.
Russell, M.J., 1996. The generation at hot springs of sedimentary ore deposits,
microbialites and life. Ore Geol. Rev. 10, 199214.
Russell, M.J., Solomon, M., Walshe, J.L., 1981. The genesis of sediment-hosted, exhalative
zinc + lead deposits. Mineral. Deposita 16, 113127.
Sangster, D.F., Hillary, E.M., 1998. Sedex leadzinc deposits: proposed sub-types and their
characteristics. Explor. Min. Geol. 7, 341357.
Seal II, R.R., 2004. Geoenviromental models for massive sulphide deposits with an emphasis on sedimentary-exhalative lead-zinc deposits. In: Deb, M., Goodfellow, W.D.
(Eds.), Sediment-hosted lead-zinc sulphide deposits: attributes and models of some
major deposits in India, Australia and Canada. Narosa Pub House, pp. 191217.
Shi, C.H., Cao, J., Hu, K., Bian, L., Yao, S., Zhou, J., Han, S.C., 2014. New understandings of
NiMo mineralization in early Cambrian black shales of South China: constraints
from variations in organic matter in metallic and non-metallic intervals. Ore Geol.
Rev. 59, 7382.
Solomon, M., Heinrich, C.A., 1992. Are high heat producing granites essential to the origin
of giant leadzinc deposits at Mount Isa and Mac Arthur River, Australia? Explor. Min.
Geol. 1, 8591.
Song, X.X., Xu, Q.S., Guo, Y.M., 1997. REE geochemistry of VMS and SEDEX ores in China.
Acta Geol. Sin.-Engl. Ed. 71, 263272.

Spirakis, C.S., Heyl, A.V., 1995. Evaluation of proposed precipitation mechanisms for
Mississippi Valley-type deposits. Ore Geol. Rev. 10, 117.
Steiner, M., Wallis, E., Erdtmann, B.D., Zhao, Y., Yang, R., 2001. Submarine-hydrothermal
exhalative ore layers in black shales from South China and associated fossilsinsights
into a Lower Cambrian facies and bio-evolution. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 169, 165191.
Stow, D.A.V., Mayall, M., 2000. Deep-water sedimentary systems: new models for the 21st
century. Mar. Pet. Geol. 17, 125135.
Tang, J.R., 2006. The study of mineralization by relay structure of normal fault on typical
metal ore depositPhD thesis Central South University, Changsha, pp. 2456 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Taylor, S.R., McClennan, S.M., 1985. The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution.
Blackwell, Oxford (312 p.).
Tornos, F., 2006. Environment of formation and styles of volcanogenic massive suldes:
the Iberian Pyrite Belt. Ore Geol. Rev. 28, 259307.
Tornos, F., Heinrich, C.A., 2008. Shale basins, sulfur-decient ore brines and the formation
of exhalative base metal deposits. Chem. Geol. 247, 195207.
Vishwakarma, R.K., 1996. 1.66-Ga-old metamorphosed PbCu deposit in Sargipali
(eastern India): manifestations of tidal at environment and sedex-type genesis.
Precambrian Res. 77, 117130.
Wang, Z.G., Wang, L.J., 2011. Computer program of NET 2.0 C# for calculating physicochemical parameters from compositions of uid inclusions. Mineral Deposits 30,
Wang, L.J., Zhu, X.Y., Wang, J.B., Deng, J.N., Wang, Y.W., Zhu, H.P., 2008. Study on uid
inclusions of the sedimentary exhalative system (SEDEX) in Xitieshan leadzinc
deposit. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24, 24332440 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, L.J., Peng, Z.G., Zhu, X.Y., Deng, J.N., Wang, Y.W., Zhu, H.P., 2009. Source and
evolution of ore-uid of the Xitieshan sedimentary-exhalative lead-zinc system,
Qinghai province: evidence from uid inclusion and isotope geochemistry. Acta
Petrol. Sin. 25, 30073015 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, C.M., Deng, J., Carranza, E.J.M., Lai, X.R., 2014. Nature, diversity and temporalspatial
distributions of sediment-hosted PbZn deposits in China. Ore Geol. Rev. 56, 327351.
Wilkinson, J.J., 2010. A review of uid inclusion constraints on mineralization in the Irish
ore eld and implications for the genesis of sediment-hosted ZnPb deposits. Econ.
Geol. 105, 417442.
Xi, X.S., Tang, J.R., Kong, H., He, S.X., 2005. Control of relay structure on mineralization of
sedimentary-exhalative ore deposit in growth faults of graben systems. J. Cent. S.
Univ. Technol. 12, 340345.
389
Xu, L.G., Lehmann, B., Mao, J.W., 2013. Seawater contribution to polymetallic NiMo
PGEAu mineralization in Early Cambrian black shales of South China: evidence
from Mo isotope, PGE, trace element, and REE geochemistry. Ore Geol. Rev. 52,
6684.
Xue, C.J., Ji, J.S., Zhang, L.C., Lu, D.R., 1997. The Jingtieshan submarine exhalative-sedimentary ironcopper deposit in north Qilian Mountain. Mineral Deposits 16, 2130 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Xue, C.J., Zeng, R., Liu, S.W., Chi, G.X., Qing, H.R., Chend, Y.C., Yang, J.M., Wang, D.H., 2007.
Geologic, uid inclusion and isotopic characteristics of the Jinding ZnPb deposit,
western Yunnan, South China: a review. Ore Geol. Rev. 31, 337359.
Yan, S.H., Zhang, Z.H., Wang, Y.T., Chen, B.L., Zhoum, G., He, L.X., 2005. REE geochemistry
of Qiaoxiahala type FeCu deposits in southern margin of Altay Mountains, Xinjiang,
and its geological implications. Mineral Deposits 24, 2533 in Chinese with English
abstract.
Yang, K.H., Scott, S.D., 1996. Possible contribution of ametal-rich magmatic uid to a
sea-oor hydrothermal system. Nature 383, 420423.
Yang, K.H., Scott, S.D., 2005. Vigorous exsolution of volatiles in the magma chamber
beneath a hydrothermal system on the modern sea oor of the eastern Manus
back-arc basin, western Pacic: evidence from melt inclusions. Econ. Geol. 100,
10851096.
Ye, Q.T., Hu, Y.Z., Yang, Y.Q., 1993. Regional Geochemical Background and Gold, Silver,
Lead, Zinc Mineralization in the Sanjiang Region. Geological Publishing House,
Beijing, S.W. China (253 p. (in Chinese with English abstract)).
Yu, J.J., Mao, J.W., Chen, F.X., Wang, Y.H., Che, L.R., Wang, T.Z., Liang, J., 2014. Metallogeny
of the Shilu FeCoCu deposit, Hainan Island, South China: constraints from uid
inclusions and stable isotopes. Ore Geol. Rev. 57, 351362.
Zhang, H.T., Som, C.-S., Yun, S.-T., 1999. Regional geologic setting and metallogenesis of
central Inner Mongolia, China: guides for exploration of mesothermal gold deposits.
Ore Geol. Rev. 14, 129146.
Zhang, Z.B., Li, J.H., Huang, C.Y., Liu, H., Zhao, Y.H., 2010. Study on genesis and ore
prospecting of Dongshengmiao deposit in Inner Mongolia. J. Jilin Univ. (Earth Sci.
Ed.) 40, 791800 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zheng, M.H., Liu, J.J., 1993. On the submarine exhalative sedimentation nature of silicalites
from the goldcopperuranium metallogenic belt in the south subzone of Western
Qinling. J. Chengdu Coll. Geol. 20, 916 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhu, X.Y., Deng, J.N., Wang, J.B., Lin, L.J., Fan, J.C., Sun, S.Q., 2007. Identication and study of
stockwork altered pipe of Xitieshan leadzinc deposit, Qinghai Province. Geochemistry
36, 3738 (in Chinese with English abstract).

A New Genetic Model For Sedimentary Exhalative

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

A New Genetic Model For Sedimentary Exhalative

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

Sedimentary fans: A new genetic model for sedimentary exhalative

Sedimentary exhalative deposits are huge concentrations of a

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

rock) were determined using ICP-MS. The homogenization temperature

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

thinner and inter-layered with schist, showing the characteristics of a

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

3.4. Ore structure and texture

3.4.1. Ore classication

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

3.4.2. Mineral granularity

3.5.2. Isotopic constraints

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Marginal Banded ores

4.635.41 0.300.37 0.910.99

4. Sedimentary fan characteristics of the Zhaokalong deposit

4.2. Morphological characteristics of ore bodies

Unstratied ore bodies

Strong silicied quartzite

Stratied ore bodies

Wang et al., 2009

Wang et al., 2009

Liu et al., 2006

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

dominantly high-grade PbZn sulde mineralization in the siderite

4.4. Geochemistry of the ore-body sedimentary fans

Ore grade (%)

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Fig. 8. Simplied geological sections of the Zhaokalong deposit.

The magnetite ores are characterized by relatively at REE patterns,

opposite characteristics. Additionally, chalcopyrite ores have the

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

et al (2008), Wilkinson (2010), Radulescu (2010) and Wang et al

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Unstratied ore bodies

In this study, we believe that the ore forming uids of SEDEX

has slightly decreased. Fluids eventually discharge onto the seaoor,

Unstratied ore bodies

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

(Miao and Ran, 1992), cloddy-spotted, brecciated structural ores were

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

marginal facies, seawater components constantly increased whereas

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Ore body occurrences

Unstratied ore bodies; Block, brecciated and stockwork

Mineralization Enriched trace elements

Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn

W, Mo, Bi, Ni, As,

Pb, Zn, Ag, Ba

6.1. The Xitieshan deposit

of the Zhaokalong deposit are incomplete at present time; therefore, the

Fig. 13. Sketch model of sedimentary fans to sedimentary-exhalative deposits.

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

H. Li, X.-S. Xi / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 375389

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi