Children's Health Encyclopedia:

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

MMPI

Definition
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2; MMPI-A) is a
written psychological assessment, or test, used to diagnose mental disorders.

Purpose
The MMPI is used to screen for personality and psychosocial disorders in adults
(i.e., over age 18) and adolescents age 14 to 18. It is also frequently administered as part
of a neuropsychological test battery to evaluate cognitive functioning.

Description
The original MMPI was developed at the University of Minnesota and introduced
in 1942. The current standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was
released in 1989, with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early 2001. The
MMPI-A, a version of the inventory developed specifically for adolescents age 14 to 18,
was published in 1992.
The adolescent inventory is shorter than the standard adult version, was developed
at a sixth-grade reading level, and is geared towards adolescent issues and personality
"norms." The MMPI-A has 478 true/false items, or questions, (compared to 567 items on
the MMPI-2) and takes 45 minutes to an hour to complete (compared to 60 to 90 minutes
for the MMPI-2). There is also a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 350
items from the long-form MMPI-A.
The questions asked on the MMPI-A are designed to evaluate the thoughts,
emotions, attitudes, and behavioral traits that comprise personality. The results of the test
reflect an adolescent's personality strengths and weaknesses, and may identify certain
disturbances of personality (psychopathologies) or mental deficits caused by neurological
problems.
 There are eight validity scales and ten basic clinical or personality scales scored in
the MMPI-A, and a number of supplementary scales and subscales that may be used with
the test. The validity scales are used to determine whether the test results are actually
valid (i.e., if the test taker was truthful, answered cooperatively and not randomly) and to
assess the test taker's response style (i.e., cooperative, defensive). Each clinical scale uses
a set or subset of MMPI-A questions to evaluate a specific personality trait. Some were
designed to assess potential problems that are associated with adolescence, such as eating
disorders, social problems, family conflicts, and alcohol or chemical dependency.

Precautions
The MMPI should be administered, scored, and interpreted by a qualified clinical
professional trained in its use, preferably a psychologist or psychiatrist. The MMPI is
only one element of psychological assessment, and should never be used as the sole basis
for a diagnosis. A detailed history of the test subject and a review of psychological,
medical, educational, or other relevant records are required to lay the groundwork for
interpreting the results of any psychological measurement.
Cultural and language differences in the test subject may affect test performance
and may result in inaccurate MMPI results. The test administrator should be informed
before psychological testing begins if the test taker is not fluent in English and/or has a
unique cultural background.

Preparation
The administrator should provide the test subject with information on the nature
of the test and its intended use, and complete standardized instructions for taking the
MMPI (including any time limits, and information on the confidentiality of the results).
The MMPI should be scored and interpreted by a trained professional. When interpreting
test results for test subjects, the test administrator will review what the test evaluates, its
precision in evaluation and any margins of error involved in scoring, and what the
individual scores mean in the context of overall norms for the test and the background of
the test subject.
Risks
There are no risks involved in taking the MMPI. However, parents should try to
make sure the test is properly administered, and the results evaluated appropriately, to
avoid an unnecessary negative label on their child.

Parental Concerns
Test anxiety can have an impact on a child's performance, so parents should
attempt to take the stress off their child by making sure they understand that the MMPI is
not an achievement test and the child's honest answers are all that is required. Parents can
also ensure that their children are well-rested on the testing day and have a nutritious
meal beforehand.
When interpreting test results for parents, the test administrator will review what
the test evaluates, its precision in evaluation and any margins of error involved in scoring,
and what the individual scores mean in the context of overall norms for the test and the
background of the adolescent.

See also Psychological tests.

Resources
Books
Braaten, Ellen and Gretchen Felopulos. Straight Talk About Psychological Testing for
Kids. New York: Guilford Press, 2003.
Organizations
American Psychological Association. Testing and Assessment Office of the Science
Directorate. 750 First St., N.E., Washington, DC 20002–4242. (202)336–6000. Web site:
www.apa.org/science/testing.html.
Web Sites
Pearson Assessments. The MMPI-A. Available online at:
www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm (accessed September 10, 2004).
[Article by: Paula Ford-Martin]
Sports Science and Medicine:
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
MMPI

MMPI
An inventory that includes 12 scales designed to measure the personality of
abnormal subjects, but which has also been used successfully on normal subjects. The 12
scales are:
1. Hypochondriasis (Hs),
2. Depression (D),
3. Hysteria (Hy),
4. Psychopathic Deviate (Pd),
5. Masculinity-Femininity (Mf),
6. Paranoia (Pa),
7. Psychasthenia (Pt),
8. Schizophrenia (Sc),
9. Hypomania (Ma),
10. Lie (L),
11. Validity (F),
12. Correction (K).

Wikipedia: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the most
frequently used personality tests in the mental health fields.This assessment, or test, was
designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in psychiatric
patients. The test helps provide relevant information to aid in problem identification,
diagnosis, and treatment planning for the patient.

History and development

 The original MMPI was at the University of Minnesota Hospitals and first
published in 1942. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and
J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted by the University of Minnesota; therefore
a fee is assessed for each use of the test. The current standardized version, the MMPI-2,
was released in 1989 and is for adults 18 and over. A subsequent revision of certain test
elements was published in early 2001. The MMPI-2 has 567 items or questions, all true
or false in format, and usually takes between 1 and 2 hours to complete. There is a rarely-
used short form of the test that comprises the MMPI-2's first 370 items. In addition, a
companion test designed for adolescents, the MMPI-A, was released in 1992. A new and
dramatically revised version of the test, the MMPI-2 RF, was released in 2007. However,
the MMPI-2 RF produces a radically different understanding of any given individual's
psychopathology compared to earlier versions of the MMPI, and lacks evidence to
supports its validity. The MMPI-2 RF should therefore be viewed as experimental only
until further research occurs.
The original MMPI was developed using a novel (at the time) approach to test
construction known as empirical keying. The big difference between this approach and
other test development strategies used at the time was that it was atheoretical (not based
on any particular theory) and thus the initial test was not as saturated with the prevailing
psychodynamic theories as were its contemporaries. The atheoretical approach to MMPI
development enabled the test to capture critical aspects of human psychopathology that
have remained recognizable and meaningful as theories have changed, even to the present
day.
Empirical keying works by initially identifying two groups, one which possesses
some key trait or outcome you wish to identify (e.g. depressed clients), and a control
group of "normal" individuals who do not possess the trait. The two groups are then
given the same set of questions, then any question that reliably differentiates between the
groups is selected for further study, regardless of its content. Thus, if depressed clients
were to respond "yes" to the statement "I like cheese pizza" significantly more often than
individuals in the control group, this item would potentially be included on a scale of
depression, despite the fact that the content of the item appears to have little relevance to
the phenomenon of depression.
 This construction method led to the inclusion of many "subtle" items on the
MMPI/MMPI-2, which are thought to make the test more difficult to fake, given the
items' relative lack of face validity. However, there is controversy as to whether subtle-
obvious items contribute to test validity.

Current scale composition

Clinical interpretation of the instrument centers around five general groups of
scales: the validity scales, the clinical scales, the content scales, the supplemental scales,
and the PSY-5 scales [citation needed]. Historically, the clinical scales have been used as
the core of the interpretation, but recent trends have been moving away from these
somewhat heterogeneous (i.e. measuring more than one thing) scales and towards a focus
on the more homogeneous (i.e. measuring only one thing) content and supplemental
scales. Furthermore, recent projects have produced alternate versions of the clinical
scales known as the Restructured Clinical or RC scales. The RC scales are generally more
homogeneous than their traditional counterparts, but are not simple reflections of the
original clinical scales, as the pathology they assess is dramatically different than the
original clinical scales and is highly redundant with the Content scales (see Graham, 2006
for a review).
The validity scales are comprised of three basic types of measures: scales which
are designed to detect overtly random or non-responding (CNS, VRIN, TRIN), scales
designed to detect when clients are intentionally or unintentionally over reporting or
exaggerating the prevalence or severity of psychological symptoms (F, Fb, Fp, Fs, FBS),
and scales designed to detect when clients are intentionally or unintentionally
underreporting or downplaying psychological symptoms (L, K, S).
The basic clinical scales, numbered 1-9 and 0, (originally labelled: Hy, D, Hs, Pd,
Mf, Pa, Pt, Sc, Ma, Si) are designed to measure common types of psychopathology.
Although diagnostic schemes have changed over time, core human pathology has not; as
such, the original 10 clinical scales continue to capture complex and critical dimensions
of human psychopathology. As a result of the empirical keying process by which the
scales were developed, many of the clinical scales measure several highly correlated
symptom clusters (e.g. scale 7 [Pt]) appears to measure symptoms common to several
anxiety disorders, most notably generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive compulsive
disorder). To supplement these multidimensional scales, more unidimensional Content
Scales, Supplementary Scales, and most recently the RC scales have been developed.
The content scales are composed of 15 scales which directly address a specific
area of pathology (i.e. Depression, Anxiety, Fears) or a known pattern of behavior which
impacts the client in a direct and measurable way (i.e. Cynicism, Work Interference,
Negative Treatment Indicators). These questions on these scales tend to assess areas of
interest more directly, and as a result, the scales themselves tend to be more
homogeneous.
There have been a large number of supplementary scales created for the MMPI-2
over the years, with many falling into disuse due to a lack of necessity or general
psychometric problems. Among the more frequently used supplemental scales are the
substance abuse scales (MAC-R, APS, AAS), designed to assess the extent to which a
client admits to or is prone to abusing substances. Also frequently used are the A and R
scales, developed by Welch after factor analyzing the original MMPI item pool. Welch's
first factor, A, which is a measure of general maladjustment, is similar to the new RC
Demoralization scale. Other commonly used supplemental scales include measures of
marital distress (MDS) and social dominance (Do) (again, see Graham, 2006 for a more
complete review).
Unlike the content and supplemental scales, the PSY-5 scales were not developed
as a reaction to some actual or perceived shortcoming in the MMPI-2 itself, but rather as
an attempt to connect the instrument with more general trend in personality psychology.
The five factor model of human personality (or the OCEAN model, see also NEO-PI-R)
has gained great acceptance in non-pathological populations, and the PSY-5 scales are the
result of an attempt to see a similar model existed in a pathological sample. Although five
scales were developed, the content of these scales differ drastically from the 5 factors
identified in non-pathological populations (for a more through review, see Arnau, Handel
and Archer, 2005, or see Harkness and McNulty, 1994) The five components discovered
were labeled Negative Emotionality (NEGE), Psychoticism (PSYC), Introversion
(INTR), Disconstraint (DISC) and Aggressiveness (AGGR).
Scoring and interpretation
Like many standardized tests, scores on the various scales of the MMPI-2 are not
representative of either percentile rank or how "well" or "badly" someone has done on the
test. Rather, raw scores on the scales are transformed into a standardized metric known as
T-scores (mean or average equals 50, standard deviation equals 10), making interpretation
easier for clinicians. Individuals who are not trained in psychological assessment and
scoring should not attempt to score or interpret the MMPI-2, as accurate scoring and
interpretation requires knowledge of the test itself, standardized testing theory, the
various subscales in combination (test profile) and correspondence of results to diagnosis.
With few exceptions, the MMPI-2 should only be scored and interpreted by individuals
with graduate level training in either clinical, experimental or I/O psychology, or some
closely related discipline. Test manufacturers and publishers ask test purchasers to prove
they are qualified to purchase the MMPI/MMPI-2 and other tests [1]
The scales on the MMPI-2 are generally interpreted in the positive direction.
What this means is that, while a high score on any of the Depression scales may suggest
the individual is significantly more depressed than we would expect a random individual
to be, a low score is not interpreted to mean the individual is significantly less depressed
than the average individual. This is due in part to the wording of many of the items on the
test. These items often are designed to detect the presence or absence of symptoms, and
the absence of symptoms does not necessarily indicate the presence of contrary traits. As
an example, it is entirely possible for a person to be relatively free of the symptoms of
depression, and not be considered a particularly happy person. Furthermore, since the test
was designed as a measure of psychopathology, its predictive ability tends to be much
sharper when scores are high compared to when they are low. There are some scales on
the MMPI-2, most notably Clinical Scales 5 (Mf) and 0 (Si) which do not follow this
pattern, and where low scores are routinely interpreted. Dramatically low scores on any
MMPI scale should be examined for potential meaning.

Test uses
Criminal justice and corrections
 Evaluation of disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, clinical depression
and schizophrenia. Identification of suitable candidates for high-risk public safety
positions such as nuclear power plant workers, police officers, airline pilots, medical and
psychology students, firefighters and seminary students

Evaluation of armed forces' officer and NCO candidates

Assessment of medical patients and design of effective treatment strategies,
including chronic pain management. Evaluation of participants in substance abuse
programs
1. Support for college and career counseling
2. Marriage and family counseling
3. International adoption parent screening
4. Multiple forensic uses
Ethical use of psychological tests means that results must be interpreted in the
context of other information about the individual, i.e., personal history, reason for
assessment, the intended uses of the report about the results, who made the referral for
assessment (e.g., self, family, physician, lawyer). Many of the controversies have been in
situations of inappropriate test use, such as deciding the results are infallible, or can stand
on their own in isolation from other information about the test taker.Psychological
assessment requires the use of psychological tests, background information about the
individual, clinical interviews such as a mental status examination, so as to put test results
into appropriate context. This is called "test interpretation" and requires graduate level
professional training.
Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is
an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job
performance.
There is a great amount of controversy about the extent to which third parties can
publish derivative works and scoring programs. The University of Minnesota maintains
an iron grip on all intellectual property rights. Others however have argued that the
MMPI is actually more of a patentable construct rather than a literary or artistic work,
and should have fallen into the public domain long ago. However, copyright law will
basically give the University of Minnesota indefinite control over any rights. It is quite
possible that these rights could be invalidated in court, but no single entity has enough to
gain from the cost associated with litigation, and a win for any one of them would open
up the flood gates to competitors.

MMPI-2 clinical scales

There are ten main clinical scales on the MMPI-2. The names and numbers of the
scales are given below. Usually psychologists will refer to the scales by number rather
than name due to the obsolete nature of some names, e.g, hysteria, psychasthenia. There
are many "sub scales" of these clinical scales that can also be scored, e.g., scale 2 -
Depression contains subscales of "subjective [feelings of] depression", "psychomotor
retardation", "physical malfunctioning", "mental dullness" and "brooding. In addition to
these scales and subscales, researchers have created "content scales", which assess
particular issues, e.g., alcoholism, Type A personality.[2]

Scale 1 — Hypochondriasis
Neurotic concern over bodily functioning and the tendency to express emotional
distress through physical symptoms.

Scale 2 — Depression
Cognitive distortions of poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and ageneral
dissatisfaction with one's own life situation. High scores suggest clinical depression
whilst lower scores suggest more general unhappiness with life.

Scale 3 — Hysteria
Hysterical reaction to stressful situations. Often have 'normal' or even happy
facade and then go to pieces when faced with a 'trigger' level of stress. Women score
higher. High scores suggest repressed anger and the tendency to express emotional
distress through physical symptoms.
Scale 4 — Psychopathic Deviate
 Classic measure of psychopathy. Measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of
authority, amorality, and anger. Adolescents tend to score higher. Very high scores are
correlated with criminal activity, promiscuity, and interpersonally exploitative behavior.

Scale 5 — Masculinity-Femininity
This scale is used to measure how strongly an individual identifies with a
traditional masculine or feminine role. It is also related to intelligence, education, and
socioeconomic status, as the feminine component includes aesthetic interests. Measures
passive vs. assertive interpersonal stance.

Scale 6 — Paranoia
Paranoid symptoms such as ideas of reference, feelings of persecution, grandiose
self-concepts, suspiciousness, excessive sensitivity, and rigid opinions and attitudes.

Scale 7 — Psychasthenia
A broad measure of anxiety-related symptoms. Excessive doubts,
compulsions,obsessions,and unreasonable fears, it indicates conditions such as Obsessive
Compulsive Disorder. It also shows abnormal fears, self-criticism, difficulties in
concentration, and guilt feelings.

Scale 8 — Schizophrenia
A broad measure of cognitive disruption and confusion, with high scores
potentially indicating psychotic processes. Assesses a wide variety of content areas,
including bizarre thought processes and peculiar perceptions, social alienation, poor
familial relationships, difficulties in concentration and impulse control, lack of deep
interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and self-identity, and sexual difficulties.

Scale 9 — Hypomania
Tests for elevated mood, accelerated speech and motor activity, irritability, flight
of ideas, and brief periods of depression.
Scale 10 — Social Introversion
 Tests for a person's tendency to withdraw from social contacts and
responsibilities, discomfort with others, and social anxiety.
Often more than one of these clinical scales is elevated. Most common MMPI
interpretation relies on extensive research into the meaning of specific sets of elevated
scales.
The authors also developed four Validity Scales to detect "deviant test-taking
attitudes" and gauge the accuracy of the other scales.
The "Cannot Say" scale. This is the simple frequency of the number of items omitted or
marked both true and false. Large numbers of missing items call the scores on all other
scales into question.

The L scale
Originally called the "Lie" scale, this was an attempt to assess naive or
unsophisticated attempts by people to present themselves in an overly favorable light.
These items were rationally derived rather than criterion keyed.

The F scale
This is a deviant, or rare response scale; and may be called the "infrequency"
scale. The approach was to look at items which are rarely endorsed by normal people. If
less than 10 percent of the normals endorse the item, but you do, your F count goes up.

The K scale
This scale was an attempt to assess more subtle distortion of response, particularly
clinically defensive response. The K scale was constructed by comparing the responses of
a groups of people who were known to be clinically deviant but who produced normal
MMPI profiles with a group of normal people who produced normal MMPI profiles (no
evidence of psychopathology in both). The K scale was subsequently used to alter scores
on other MMPI scales. It was reasoned that high K people give scores on other scales
which are too low. K is used to adjust the scores on other scales. K-corrected and
uncorrected scores are available when the test results are interpreted. There are additional
validity scales developed via research and incorporated into computer scoring services
(whether used in office or sent to a service for scoring).

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