Advanced Optoelectronics

Spring Semester 2015

Dr. Anayat Ullah Baloch
Anayat.Ullah@buitms.edu.pk
Anayatullah.baloch@gmail.com

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://alldaysolar.com/images/solar3.jpg

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://dr13.de/fileadmin/media/dr13/farbe/lichtspektrum.png

http://outreach.jach.hawaii.edu/pressroom/2006_jcmbday/Maxwell.jpg

Maxwell-Equations

Maxwell-Equations in Vacuum:

E 0

B
E
t

B 0

E
B 0 0
t

These equations lead directly to E and B satisfying

the oscillation equation
(or the wave equation):

2E
E o o 2
t

considering only the x direction:

2
E
1 E

0 ; where
2
2
t
o o x
2

o o

299792458 m / s c

the sinusoidal solution to the EM wave equation is a plane wave travelling at the
speed of light:

A(r , t ) A cos(t k r )

where, k is the wave vector

Fundamental Terms Harmonic Waves

A(r , t ) A cos(t k r )

Propagation in the x direction; A( x, t ) A cos(t kx)

Wavenumber, k is the magnitude of the wave vecor and is given by;
2 2
k

vph
vph

In vaccuum vph c and k

becomes
2v h
2 hv
E
k
( ) ( )( )
c
c h
h c
c
Where, is the reduced Planck constant.
h

h 6.626 x 10 34 Js
2

x2 x1 x

v ph
t 2 t1
t
c

m
299792458
s
0 0

Fundamental Terms Damped Oscillations

Damped oscillation in absorbing materials

Propagation in the x direction; A( x, t ) A e (

The propagation constant is given by;

2 x)

cos(t x)

where; is the attenuation coefficien t;

is the phase coefficien t;

2
4

vk k

k (wavenumber)

k is the extinction coefficien t

n~ n ik

n~ is the complex refractive index

c
n~
v

Superposition of Waves

A( x, t ) A cos(t kx) A cos(t kx)

cos cos
1
1
2 cos ( t ) cos ( )
2
2
A( x, t ) 2 A cos(t ) cos(kx)

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

Standing Waves

Consider a standing wave;

A( x, t ) 2 Ao cos(t ) sin(kx)

For a standing wave;

gr v (v) 0

2L
L n n
2
n

Wave Packets I

c
v ph
n( )

.
.

Phase velocity, v ph

d
Group velocity, vgr
d
vgr v ph

dv ph
d

Wave Packets I

a. Normal Dispersion;

v ph vgr

b. Anomalous Dispersion; v ph vgr

c. Wavepacket undergoing dispersion

10

Polarization of Light Ia

linear

11

circular

E y Ez

Polarization of Light Ib

12

E y Ez

Polarization of Light II

linear

elliptical

E y Ez

any value, except 0 and p

13

Creation of Polarized Light

Influencing the Polarization of Light:

Polarization by Transmission
(using Polariod Filters)
Polarization by Reflection
Polarization by Double Refraction
Polarization by Scattering
Polarization by /2 & /4
Wave Plates

14

Creation of Polarized Light

15

Polarization by Transmission
(using Polariod Filters)
E-field to grid
causes electric currents =>
absorption
E-Feld b to grid
=> transmission

Electromagnetic vibrations that

are in a direction parallel to the
alignment of the molecules are
absorbed.

Polarization by Transmission (using Polariod Filters)

3D Projection using
Polarization Filters

16

Polarimeter

17

Polariod Filters are used

in Polarimeters.

Specific rotation angle :

c l
specific rotation, T temperature,
wavelength , optical rotation,

http://andromeda.rutgers.edu

c mass concentration (in g / 100ml ), l optical path length (in dm)

http://www.belledame.de

Applications of Polaroid Filters

Research Applications

Distinguishing between optical isomers

Evaluating and characterizing optically active compounds

Analyzing molecular structures

Quality and Process Control Applications

Pharmaceutical Industry

Food Industry

To ensure product quality by measuring the concentration and

purity of different compunds in sugrar based foods

Chemical Industry

Determination of product purity

Analyzing optical rotation as a means of identifying different

polymers

Flavor, Fragrance, and Essential Oil Industry

Inspection of incoming raw materials

18

Polarization by Reflection

19

Brewster - Law
n2
tan P
n1

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

Tipler, P.A.: Physik

Reflected intensity for rays parallel

and perpendicular to the plane of
incidence

Polarization by Double Refraction (Birefringence)

20

/ 4 - plate : / 2
Circular polarization
/ 2 - plate :
Change of polarization direction by 90
against initial polarization

Tipler, P.A.: Physik

Tipler, P.A.: Physik

Polarization by Scattering

Polarization by Scattering

21

Refraction

sin n2 v1

sin n1 v2

c
n
v

22

Refraction of Waves

n1

23

n2

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

, reflection at media with lower phase velocity (n2 n1)

0, reflection at media with lower phase velocity (n2 n1)

Refraction of Waves

n1

24

n2

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

Total Reflection

25

three cases:
1.
2.
3.

1 c
c
3 c

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

for b = 90 one obtains the critical angle

c sin 1 (n2 n1 )

Evanescent Waves

26

i 40

i c 61

i 50

i c 70

Prism

27

wavelength dependence of
the refractive index

Snell' s Law

sin 1 (

http://www.students.uni-mainz.de

wave guiding on the basis

of total reflection

n1
sin )
n2 ( )

Diffraction

28

Diffraction of light

1
structural size >

shadows
daily life

structural size ~

29

structural size <<

diffraction
opalescence in

usually shielding

nature (blue sky)

integrated
circuits

diffraction, VCSEL

observation possible in
near field

Diffraction of light

Huygens principe:
Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of
secondary spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward
direction at the speed of light. The new wave-front is the
tangential surface to all of these secondary wavelets.
Diffraction:
When EM waves encounters an obstacle, they bend around the
corners. This bending of EM radiation is called Diffraction.

30

Diffraction of light

The diffracted waves appear as bright and

dark fringes on a distant screen.

31

Diffraction of light

For constructive interference to take place;

d sin 0, , 2 , 3 , ... m , where m 0, 1, 2, ....
For destructive interference to take place;
d sin

3 5
,

2 2

, ... m

, where m 0, 1, 2, ....

32

Image spacing;
z
tan
L
tan sin
if L z
mL
z
d

Diffraction at Single Slits

Intensity of the single - slit Fraunhofer diffractio n pattern

a sin
I ( ) I osinc 2

Where;
I ( ) is the intensity at a given angle,
I o is the original intensity,and
the sinc function is given by
sin(x)
sinc(x)
if x 0,
x
and sinc(0) 1
The minimas (destructive interference will occur) are given by;
sin m

Where;
m 1,2,3,.....

nulls are given by:

33

Diffraction at Single Slits

a sin
I ( ) I osinc 2

34

Diffraction at Double Slit

Intensity oscillations on the screen:

maxima at:

sin max m

35

d
I I m cos ( sin )

minima at:

sin max

m
2 d

Diffraction at Grids

sin 2 N
sin

I I o

2 g
sin sin

36

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

Real Grids

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

37

Grids Different Incidence Angles

38

Hecht, E.: Optik

Grating Equation;
a sin m m
a(sin m sin i ) m

Gratings as dispersive elements

39

Transmission Gratings
Reflection Gratings

1. Dispersion by gratings (due to diffraction)

2. Dispersion by a prism (due to GVD)

Gratings as dispersive elements

Diffraction through a ciruclar hole

40

Interferometry

Coherence

42

coherence describes the ability of waves to interfere

interference is only possible if:
a) spatial coherence
b) temporal coherence
is guaranteed

spatial coherence is described by the coherence length Lc ,

within this length the phase stays stable
coherence time tc is connected to the coherence length via speed of light c:

Lc
c
c
the emission process of a wave packet finishes after tc
and a new wave packet emerges
tc is a measure of spectral purity

Coherence - Examples

43

coherence time is connected to the bandwidth Df

via FOURIER-theorem

c
f

2 c 2Lc

400
nm

Example

800

LC

f / f

Low pressure spectral lamp,

Ne
Low pressure spectral lamp,
Kr
Laser, HeNe, 633 nm

3 cm

0.1 ns

3.4 10-6

100 m

300 ns

1.1 10-9

500 km

1.6 ms

2.1 10-11

Laser, InGaAlAs / InP, 1.55 m

60 m

200 ns

10-9

Basic Principles

precise distance measurement

determination of wavelengths
determination of the refractive
index of air
http://www.chemgapedia.de

44

MACH-ZEHNDER Interferometer

45

Gpel, W., et al.: Sensors A Comprehensive Survey

more optical components

can also be used like the MICHELSON interferometer
is especially used for comparative testing of optical
components after manufacture

INTERFERENCE WITH MULTIPLE BEAMS

n1 1 (Air)

n2 n1

n1 1 (Air)

T R 1
FSR R

1 R
is called the Full Width at Half M aximum
(FWHM )
F

46

FABRY-PROT Interferometer

Basic principle
two plane parallel surfaces (mirrors)
constructive and destructive interferences
of transmitted and reflected beams
position of maxima dependent on cavity
length
(For normal incidence
and air cavity)

for different incidence angles:

m 2nc dc cos
Finesse:

FSR R

1 R

Free Spectral Range:

FSR

c
2d c

47

Implementation of the mirrors

1
by Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) mirrors

Replacement of the surfaces by Bragg mirrors

not ideal mirrors, finite extent of the mirrors
high reflectivity, dependence on wavelength
finite absorption

n2 n1
R

n
2 1

no (nH ) 2 N ns (nL ) 2 N
R
2N
2N
n
(
n
)

n
(
n
)
s
L
o H

4o
1 nH nL
o
sin

n
L
H

48

Implementation of the mirrors

2

49

FP Interferometer (FP Filter)

1

Replacement of the 2 DBR = Distributed Bragg Reflectror

surfaces in the simple interferometer set-up (see above) by
2 Distributed Bragg Reflectror

Farby-Prot filter with Bragg mirrors

DBR 1

cavity

DBR 2

50

Application FP-Interferometer

By applying a voltage the cavitys length can be varied

transmitted light can be filtered
large tuning range (221-1550nm)
with low actuation voltages (3,2 V at 146 nm tuning range)

51

FP Interferometer Actuable MEMS Structure

52

FP Interferometer Actuable MEMS Structure

53

FP Interferometer Actuable MEMS Structure

54

55

Incident light

Reflected light
Theoretical reflected spectrum

Sensor array

Transmitted light

Typical experimental phenomenon

Theoretical transmitted spectrum

Application of FABRY-PROT Interferometer

FP filter structure
a) tunable filters
b) sensor array with different cavitys

56

FP Interferometer Static Filters (Anayat Ullah et al, 2005)

57

3D WLI Image

White Light Interferometry

1
MWYMAN-GREEN Type Interferometer

58

MICHEALSON Type Interferometer

White Light Interferometry

1
MIRAU Type Interferometer
high resolution due to short coherence length
height resolution ~ 0.1nm
lateral resolution several micrometers to
a few millimeters

Gpel, W., et al.: Sensors A Comprehensive Survey

59

White Light Interferometry (WLI)

60

3D view of MEMS structures obtained by WLI

Etched SiOx-Films

After etching process:

Removing etch mask
Deposition 30 nm Al
Measurement

February 2009 61

White Light Interferometry graphs of

dielectric (Si3N4/SiO2) membranes, directly
in contact to the base plane

suspension length l = 20m

YSi3N4 = -1

surface profile of a dielectric membrane

with a radius of curvature = - 0.31 mm

62

membrane diameter D = 40m

Integrated Interferometers

63

Fiber Sensors

Fiber -Sensors

1. observation of :
temperature
strain
fuel gage
number of revolutions

2. measuring a quantity and directly transferring the signal

3. in contrast to electronic signal transfer, optical fibers are not disturbed by

external electrical fields

65

Repetition of Optical Fibers

66

using = C and Snell`s law

refractive index difference
mean refractive index

n n1 n 2
n n1 n 2 / 2

m arcsin 2 n n
numerical aperture

NA sin m

AA` : axial ray

BB` : critical core mode (total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface)
due to symmetry reasons the max. acceptance angle and the radiation angle at the end of the fibre are identical

Fiber Sensor Types

depicted from: Bludau, W.: Lichtwellenleiter in Sensorik und optischer Nachrichtentechnik

67

Fiber Sensor Types II

3
extrinsic type

68

intrinsic type

depicted from: Bludau, W.: Lichtwellenleiter in Sensorik und optischer Nachrichtentechnik

fiber is used only for light transport

light couples out of fiber
measured quantity influences the
light outside the fiber

light stays within the fiber

dependency on fiber properties
mono-mode fibers are used in most
applications
reduces the sensor size to a
minimum
low vulnerability to failures

Fabrication of Fibre Bragg Gratings

1

69

FBGs are intrinsic sensors

Bludau, W.: Lichtwellenleiter in Sensorik und optischer Nachrichtentechnik

B 2neff

Fibre Bragg Gratings

2

70

Fabrication of Fibre Bragg Gratings

3

71

UV

2 sin( / 2)

Applications of Fibre Bragg Gratings - I

3

72

Applications of Fibre Bragg Gratings - II

3

73

Applications of Fibre Bragg Gratings IV : Temperature Sensor

74

Temperature dependency of
emitted light

Bludau, W.: Lichtwellenleiter in Sensorik und optischer Nachrichtentechnik

measurement accuracy
between 0C and 250C:
1C
resolution: 0,1C

Applications of Fibre Bragg Gratings V : Temperature and Strain Sensor

75

Fuel gage Sensor

76

n0,n2<nfiber < n1

nfiber
n2

n0

n1
depicted from: Bludau, W.: Lichtwellenleiter in Sensorik und optischer Nachrichtentechnik

total reflection of light beam outside liquid

intensity loss inside the liquid, due to out coupling light beams
especially used in tanks filled with explosive liquids (no electrical discharge)

Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
LASER

LASER
1

78

LASER
1

79

LASER
1

80

LASER
1

81

LASER
1

82

Optical Pumping
1

83

Electrical Pumping in Semiconductor LASERS

1

84

Band structure of PIN Semiconductor LASERS

1

85

Variation of Bandgap Energy and Wavelength by

1
composition

86

Photo-Excitation in Semiconductors
87

Direct Band-Gap:
e.g. GaAs

Indirect Band-Gap:
e.g. Si, Ge

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

maximum of Valence Band (VB) is at

minimum of Conduction Band (CB)

minimum of CB is at different k-value

than maximum of VB

vertical transitions in E(k)-diagram

momentum of electron is identical
k=k

absorption process requires phonons

three particle interaction
low probability of transitions
stimulated emission is inhibited

Electrical Pumping in Semiconductor LASERS

1

88

Fabry-Prot LASER
1

89

Schematic Diagram of Edge Emitting LASER

1

90

Distributed Feed-Back (DFB) LASER: Principle

1

91

Distributed Feed-Back (DFB) LASER: Cross-section

1

92

Distributed Feed-Back (DFB) LASER: Fabrication

2

93

Distributed Feed-Back (DFB) LASER

1

94

LASER Cross-section and spectra

1

95

VCSEL: Current path and schematic light intensity profile

1

96

Micromachined VCSEL
1

97

Tunabelity

Micromachined VCSEL
1

98

LASER Comparison
1

99

LASER Comparison
1

100

LASER Comparison
1

101

LASER Comparison
1

102

LASER Comparison
1

103

LASER Comparison
1

104

LASER Comparison: Summary

1

105

LASER Comparison: Summary

1

106

Ellipsometry

Ellipsometry Principle
108

http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/Surfaces/ellipsometry2.php

Change of polarisation after interaction with sample

material properties
geometric shape of sample
properties of surrounding material

Ellipsometer at the IBSD-Machine

109

Polarizer

Analyzer

Theoretical Aspects
110

There are several ways in describing

elliptically polarized light:

a) complex quantity

Es / E p
b) azimuth Qw and eccentricity ew
c) amplitude ratio and phase shift

E p / E s tan w
Herrmann, D. : Schichtdickenmessung, Oldenburg Verlag, 1993

p s w
E p / Es tan(w ) exp(i)

Fundamental ellipsometry equation

111

in the ellipsometric experiment measures the parameters and D

expressed by the complex reflectance ratio r:

~
rp
r ~ ei tan
r
s

with the complex reflectance coefficients:

parallel complex field amplitudes

~
Erp
~
rp ~
Eip

perpendicular complex field amplitudes

~
Ers
~
rs ~
Eis

absolute reflectance coefficients:

Rp

I rp
I ip

~
rp

I rs ~
Rs
rs
I is

Angle dependency
112

FRESNEL equation for the reflection at only one surface

rp

nS cos n0 cos
nS cos n0 cos

n0 cos nS cos
rs
n0 cos nS cos

~
rp
r ~ ei tan
r
s

Htte: Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften

Desirable: measurements close at the BREWSTER angle

=> VASE: Varying Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometry

113

For an ideal, bulk-material the complex refractive index ns

can be calculated directly from Y and D by the equation:
2

1 r
tan 2
ns n0 sin 1
1 r
Other systems are too complicated
a parameterized model needs to be compiled
parameters are assumed and are released for fitting
parameters can be:
samples thickness
refractive index
absorption coefficient

Mean Squared Error

114

The problem: Ellipsometric measurements provide one pair of data (Y and D)

But one is interested in more than two properties of the sample
(thickness, refractive index, absorption coefficient,)
=> no analytical solution
The parameterized model gives theoretical values for Y and D, which
are fitted to the measured values, by adjusting the released parameters
=> aim: small MSE values
2
2
mod
exp
mod
exp

i i i i
1

MSE

exp
exp

2 N M i 1
,i

,i

N number of (Y,D) pairs

M number of released parameters
s standard deviation

Model generation - fitting

115

Fitting the Data

116

117

118

Flowchart of Ellipsometric Data Evaluation

119

depicted from Spehr, T.: Fluoreszenz und Laserttigkeit in

dnnen amorphen Schichten von Spirobifluorenderivaten

CAUCHY - Model
120

easiest model, polynomial function

n( ) n0 C0
k ( ) k0 C0

n1

k1

C1
C1

n2

with C0 = 102 and C1 = 107

and l [nm]

k2

lists for the n and k values for various kinds of materials exist
Material

n0

n1

n2

k0

k1

k2

SiO2

1,452

36

Si3N4

1,985

123

29

range: (500-900nm)
in general used for absorption free layers

n0 = 2,042
n1 = 136,3
n2 = 0

polarizability

121

orientation
polarisation

shifting
polarisation

electronic
polarisation

n0 = 2,042
n1 = -136,3
n2 = 0

The CAUCHY-Model is based loosely on

the LORENTZ-Oscillator -Model

LORENTZ-Oscillator
122

describes the solid as non-interacting oscillators

an external field E0 deflects the electrons from their equilibrium position

d 2x
dx
2
0
m 2 m
m0 x eElocal
e it
dt
dt
By solving the equation the real and imaginary part of the
dielectric constant e and e can be obtained.

( ) 1

NV e 2

12 2
2
(1 2 ) 2 2 2

NV e 2

( )
0 m (12 2 ) 2 2

TAUC-LORENTZ - Oscillator
123

The dielectric constants are connected to the optical constants:

(n ik ) 2 i
n2 k 2
2nk
TAUC-LORENTZ-Oscillator Modell is used for Si3N4 and amorphous semiconductors
amorphous materials lack of conservation of the wave vector
results in no sharp functions as expected for crystalline materials

AE0C ( E E g ) 2 1
2
( E ) ( E E0 2 ) C 2 E E
0

E Eg
E Eg

( )
( E ) () P 2
d
2
E E
2

e is obtained from the fitted value of e by the KRAMERS-KRONIG relation

Stress Measurement
Techniques

Motivation
125

self-organized structures of strained SiO2 thin film on top of an organic material

light scattering
loss of reflectivity

Definition Stress and Strain

126

stress :

strain :

Youngs modulus E :

Poisson-ratio :

Wafer - Bending
127

Vertikale Verspannungen

Es
t s2
Bulk , total
6 1 s t f

Es

ms
ts

tf
R0
R

1
R R0

Young modulus of the substrate

Poisson ratio of the substrate
Thickness of the substrate
Thickness of the layer
Radius of curvature before the deposition
Radius of curvature after the deposition

Advantage:
Disadvantage:

fast estimation of the global stress

inhomogeneities in the layers can not be considered
expensive method (one wafer per layer)
no local stress measurement
comparably thick films needed (m)

Wafer Bending: Data Acquisition

128

www.me.utexas.edu

Es
t s2 1 1
Es
t s2 S S0
Bulk , total

6 1 s t f R R0 6 1 s t f 2 DL

Stress Components
129

total k

k 0
tf /2

total 0 1

tf /2

y (t f / 2, t f / 2)

s0: mean stress

symmetric
s1: gradient stress anti-symmetric

Irmer, S.: Dissertation Air-Gap Based Vertical Cavity Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Fabry-Prot Filters (2005)

Cantilever Deflections
130

Fang W., Wickert, J.A.: J. Micromech. Microeng. 6 (1996) 301-309

Tensile and positive Gradient Stress

131

Data Evaluation
132

total angular rotation q is a superposition of stress components:

q0 from mean stress
q1 from gradient stress
angles q0 and q1 are calculated by
empirical equations
q is also determined by layer
thickness

Fang W., Wickert, J.A.: J. Micromech. Microeng. 6 (1996) 301-309

Bridge - Method
133

No data evaluation possible

for beams stuck to substrates
surface (compressive stress)
use shorter cantilevers
but: evaluation is prone to errors
due to uncertainties in measurements of small devices

by fixing both ends bridge structures

are obtained
only compressive stress measurable

Bridge Method - Data Acquisition

134

stress causes the bridge structure to expand

the length of the expanded bridge is difficult to calculate
=> need for a model to obtain the actual bridge length

Lin, S.C.H. et al.: J.Appl.Phys., Vol. 43/1 1972

Bridge Method - Data Acquisition II

135

l l0 l

l
l

Stress-Dependency on Bridge Size

136

l>>w

short

middle

long

stress [MPa]

stress [MPa]

l~w

bridge length [m]

bridge length

for short bridges the bridges length (l) has the same order as the bridges width (w)
bridges width cannot be neglected => higher stress value
at long bridges the bridges width is not contributing to the stress value

Stress Indicator Strucutures

137

Bulk

E
d
1 2 li la

E
m

Young modulus of the layer

Poisson ratio of the layer

SiO2

Si3N4

INA
Tarraf, A.: Dissertation - Low-Cost Micromechanically Tunable Optical Devices: Strained
Resonator Engineering, Technological Implementation and Characterization (2005)

138

compressive stress

without stress

tensile stress
Irmer, S.: Dissertation Air-Gap Based Vertical Cavity Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical
Fabry-Prot Filters (2005)

139

140

Stress Compensation Methods

141

a) by varying the process parameters, stress in the deposited layer can be adjusted
Duty-Cycle:

(t HF t LF )

t HF t LF

LF compressive stress
HF tensile stress

Tarraf, A.: Dissertation - Low-Cost Micromechanically Tunable Optical Devices: Strained

Resonator Engineering, Technological Implementation and Characterization (2005)

Stress Compensation Methods II

142

b) Variation of the compensation layer thickness => different cantilever bending

c) annealing heating the sample => atoms can rearrange => less stress

Cantilever Based Sensors

I

High-Sensitive Mass Detector

144

surfaces of the cantilevers are

sensitive to distinct molecules
molecules stuck to surface
leads to a frequency shift
detection via frequency shifting:

k 1 1
k 2f

42 f12 f 02 42 f 03

higher sensitivity due to miniaturization

or higher oscillation modes

1. Mode

Examples:

1. oscillation mode:
f = 1 Hz, f0 = 30 kHz: m 10 pg
2. oscillation mode:

f = 1 Hz, f0 = 1 MHz: m 0,25 fg

Filenko, Rangelow, Techn. Physik

2. Mode
3. Mode

Application
145

fly-by at asteroid Steins

Space craft is heading

for the comet:
Churyumov-Gerasimenko
ETA: Jan. 2014

http://www.dlr.de/rosetta/
http://www.nascatec.com/deutsch/index-2-meilensteine.html

Scanning Probe Microscopy

Cantilever Based Sensors
II

SPM - Working Principle

147

http://spie.org/x8635.xml?ArticleID=x8635

Atomic Force Microscopy

148

http://store.nanoscience.com/

http://nano.tm.agilent.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/
2007/06/how-an-atomic-force-microscope-works.bmp

http://www.schaefer-tec.com

AFM operating modes

149

Ivanov, T.: Dissertation Piezoresisitve Cantilevers with an integrated bimorph actuator

http://employees.csbsju.edu

Lennard-Jones Potential:

A B
V (r ) ~ 12 6
r
r

modi:

contact

non - contact

intermittent

Force Measurements with AFM

150

force-distance - curve

the cantilever is moved towards the sample

close to the surface the cantilever snaps-in
onto the sample due to capillary forces

usually cantilever tips with a diamond or boron nitride

cover are used
force-distance curves give information on material
properties like hardness, Youngs modulus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoindentation

Lateral Force Measurement

151

additionally to the vertical movement of the cantilever its twist is measured

cantilever deflection
scanning into right direction

cantilever deflection
scanning into left direction

AFM scan - height profile

LFM scan into right direction
LFM scan into left direction
=> roughness causes the cantilever to twist due to friction forces

Chemical Force Microscopy

152

Noy, A., et al.: Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1997. 27:381421

Molecule interaction can be measured

e.g. hydrogen bonding within DNA
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:DNA_replication

Excursion: Chemical Bonds in Molecules

153

Covalent bonds
- atoms share valence electrons equally
- strong bonding between atoms
=> formation of molecules

http://media.wiley.com/Lux/05/168005.image1.jpg

http://media.tiscali.co.uk/images/feeds/hutchinson/ency/c00670.jpg

Excursion: Forces between Molecules

154

Hydrogen bonds
- strong electrostatic attraction forces
- interaction between partial negatively
charged atom of one molecule and
partial positive atom of another molecule

http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch111/olsg-ch111/statesmat/hbonds.gif

Van-der-Vaals bonds
- weak electrostatic forces
- Dipole / Dipole Interaction
- Dipole / induced Dipole Interaction
- induced Dipole / induced Dipole Interaction

Excursion: Building Blocks of Life - DNA, Proteins

155

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:DNA_replication

http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/images/ch1_nucleotide.jpg

Excursion: Building Blocks of Life - DNA, Proteins

156

DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into a protein

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/media/translation.gif

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/media/translation.gif

Excursion: Proteins
157

http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/cm1504/Image83.gif

Chemical Force Microscopy

158

Noy, A., et al.: Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1997. 27:381421

Molecule interaction can be measured

e.g. hydrogen bonding within DNA
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:DNA_replication

Molecular Stretching Experiments

159

unfolding the protein Bacteriorhodopsin

de.wikipedia.org
http://www.azonano.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=2075

AFM Resolution
160

AutoProbe Image
Topography
Ra: 11.27 nm
Rq: 3.197 nm

4.0 nm/Div

Line 1

Rp: 2.587 nm
Rv: -10.71 nm

Height Profile

nm
10.00
6.000
2.000
0

400

800 nm

200

400 nm

http://www.xintek.com/products/afm/index.htm

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

161

http://www-users.rwth-aachen.de/Christian.Meessen/hp/index.php?page=theorie

http://conf.ncku.edu.tw/research/articles/e/20080606/5.html

http://domino.watson.ibm.com/comm/pr.nsf/pages/rscd.stm-picc.html

STM Operating Modes

162

constant current

constant height

Analytical usage of STM

163

M. Pratzer: Dissertation - Untersuchung magnetischer Nanostrukturen mittels Rastertunnelspektroskopie und

Kerr-Magnetometrie am Beispiel von Fe, Co, Co-Fe und Fe-Mn Nanostrukturen (2004)

by varying the potential between tip and sample at constant distance,

the local density of states (LDOS) of the sample can be analyzed

Photoluminescence
in
Semiconductors

Absorption in Semiconductors
165

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

Optical applications & experiments:

- excitonic absorption
- fundamental absorption

Photo-Excitation in Semiconductors
166

Direct Band-Gap:
e.g. GaAs

Indirect Band-Gap:
e.g. Si, Ge

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

maximum of Valence Band (VB) is at

minimum of Conduction Band (CB)

minimum of CB is at different k-value

than maximum of VB

vertical transitions in E(k)-diagram

momentum of electron is identical
k=k

absorption process requires phonons

three particle interaction
low probability of transitions
stimulated emission is inhibited

Excitons
167

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

- Excitons are bound electron-hole-pairs

- physical description like Hydrogen-atom
- bindig energy of excitons depends on Eg
- observable only at low temperatures
-> dissociate due to thermal fluctuations

Absorption Measurement
168

Reithmaier, J.-P.: Disseratation Pseudomorphe InGaAs/Ga(Al)As Heterostrukturen: Wachstum und Charakterisierung

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

Photoluminescence in Quantum Well Structures

169

large structure

small structure

(~ 20 nm)

(~5 nm)

Eg(QW) Eg(bulk)

Eg(QW) > Eg(bulk)

Reithmaier, J.-P.: Disseratation Pseudomorphe InGaAs/Ga(Al)As

Heterostrukturen: Wachstum und Charakterisierung

- quantization occurs, when the structure size is ranging in the order of the
de-Broglie wavelength of the charge carrier
- by changing the size of the quantum well structure, the emission properties
can be changed without changing the composition of the materials

Photoluminescence in Quantum Wells

170

Reithmaier, J.-P.: Disseratation Pseudomorphe InGaAs/Ga(Al)As

Heterostrukturen: Wachstum und Charakterisierung

Zeitintegrierte Photolumineszenzspektren
171

two samples with different interfaces

Example Measured Spectra

172

non-growth-interrupted

effect of line broadening larger

for thin samples

growth-interrupted

fine-structure results from different

well width => different transition energies

Lateral Time-Of-Flight Spectroscopy

173

Mask Design for Lateral Transport Studies

174

Hillmer, H., et al.: Appl. Phys. Lett. 53 (1988)

Experimental Data
175

Hillmer, H., et al.: Phys. Rev. B, 39, (1989)

2D continuity equation including a diffusion term

and a recombination term with carrier life time t

2c 2c c
c
D 2 2
t
y
x

Lateral TOF State of the Art

176

Drawbacks of pin-hole mask:

- time consuming lithography steps
- not every point on the sample accessible
(inhomogeneity)

Danhof, J., et al. : Phys. Rev. B 84, 035324, (2011)

pure optical setup with confocal microscope

spatial resolution is better than 400 nm

Diffusion in InxGa1-xN/GaN Quantum Wells

177

Danhof, J., et al. : Phys. Rev. B 84, 035324, (2011)

Sample

Diffusion constant [cm2/s]

Bulk GaAs

20

Bulk GaN

56

InGaN/GaN QW

0.51 0.52

Detection of vertical transport

178

QW with different well width:

different emission energies
-one layer gives the start signal
-the second the stop signal

Hillmer, H., et al.: Phys Rev B, 43, (1991)

Detected Signal
179

Hillmer, H., et al.: Appl. Phys. Lett., 49, (1986)

Hillmer, H., et al.: Phys. Rev. B, 39, (1989)

QW2 delayed and broadened due to carrier transport and carrier capture

Time Resolved Emission

180

time resolved emission for different distances

181

Optical Gain
in
Semiconductors

Optical Gain in Lasers

182

http://www.tau.ac.il/~phchlab/experiments/Sucrose/laser%20cavity.gif

Variable Stripe Length Method

183

sample

collimating lense

movable slit
planoconvex lens

spectrometer

Svelto, O.: Principles of Lasers, Springer, (2010)

binconcave lense

excitation laser

method is based on 1D optical amplifier

edge-emitted ASE intensity is measured

I ASE ( z )

J sp ()
g

(e g l 1)

Amplified Spontaneous Emission

184

Shaklee, K.L., Nahory, R.E. and Leheny, R.F.: Journal of Luminescence, 7, pgs. 284-309, (1973)

Data Evaluation
185

Shaklee, K.L., Nahory, R.E. and Leheny, R.F.: Journal of Luminescence, 7, pgs. 284-309, (1973)

Gain Curves
186

http://www.optoelectronics.ethz.ch/images/research/GaN_gain.png

Kasap, S., Capper, P. (Eds.):Springer Handbook of Electronic and Phtonic Materials (2006)

Suhara T.: Semiconductor Laser Fundamentals, Dekker, (2004)

Absorption Measurement
187

Shifting Excitation Spot - Technique

Intensity decreases along l according to

Lambert-Beer law:
l

dI
I [1 (l )]
dl
with total collecting angle j( l),
defined by the lenses NA:

1 d / 2
(l )
(1 / 2 ) tan

2
xl

Gas-Sensors

Gas-Sensors
189

depicted from www.eesom.com

gaseous products can be

used as a Biomarker

blood circulation transfers

gaseous products to lung

metabolism => metabolic products

changes in metabolism lead to:
change in the gaseous composition of the breath
other gasses, which cannot be found in healthy breath

Biomarkers
190

typical gasses, which are found excessively in breath of diseased persons:

acetone
- diabetes mellitus
NO
- asthma
NH3
- kidney failure
ethanol, ethane, acetone - non-alcoholic fatty-liver
pentane
- oxidative stress disease
(arthritis, transplant organ rejection)

definiteness is not given completely:

i.e. acetone is a metabolism product for both diabetes and fatty-liver

Detection of Biomarkers
191

IR absorption of gaseous biomarkers

bond type

wavenumber
(cm-1)

C-H

3000

C-D

2100

C-C

1000

C-Cl

700

bond type

wavenumber
(cm-1)

2200

C=C

1640

CC

1000

Hesse, M., Meier, H., Zeeh, B.: Spektroskopische Methoden in der organischen Chemie

typical absorptions for each molecule

Cause of IR-Absorption
192

valence oscillations:
occur at high energies
absorbed energy leads to a change in
the length of molecular bonding

deformation oscillations:
are excited at low energies
the bonding length remains nearly constant
angle between other atoms in the molecule vary

=> knowledge of typical oscillations can be used to tailor the sensor

Spectroscopy
193

conventional set up of a spectrometer

Lambert-Beer-Law:

I I 0e ecd
I
Ext . lg e c d
I0

http://barolo.ipc.uni-tuebingen.de

measures the absorption of white light

molecule can be identified very precisely
large measurement set up
long processing time

Intracavity Absorption Spectroscopy

194

Baev, J.M., et al.: Laser Intracavity Absorption Spectroscopy, Appl. Phys. B. (1999)

high spectral sensitivity

multimode laser with homogeneously broadened gain is employed
emission spectrum is highly sensitive to narrow-line absorption
in the cavity due to the large effective absorption path length
light scattering and reflections need to be very small at the optical components

ICAS Multi Mode

195

Sonksen, J.: Patent DE 10 2004 037 519 B4 Sensor Process and Device for Determining a Physical Value A Proof of Concept, Dissertation, 2010

Advantages:
- very precise and sensitive due to multi mode competition
- broad spectral range for detection
Disadvantages:
- expensive and delicate setup
- not down-sizable

ICAS Single Mode

196

Sonksen, J.: Patent DE 10 2004 037 519 B4 Sensor Process and Device for Determining a Physical Value A Proof of Concept, Dissertation, 2010

Advantages:
- less complicated setup
=> output-signal at photodiode is proportional to intensity
- minaturization possible
- no in-situ calibration of gain flatness needed
Disadvantages:
- low sensitivity due to limited gain bandwidth
- limitation to rather low spectral bandwidth

ICAS Mode Competition - Principle

197

log. Intensitt

Absorption

log. Intensitt

ICAS Mode Competition Technical Implementation

198

Sonksen, J., Hillmer, H., et al.:Controlling and Tuning the Emission of

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier for Sensor Application by Means of Fiber
Bragg Gratings

SOA Semiconductor Optical Amplifier:

inhomogeneous broadening gain medium
stable multiwavelength oscillation at Bragg condition of FBG can be obtained
FBG provide narrow light emission
oscillation wavelength of laser can be tuned
and stabilized by thermal expansion
for regular scanning the sensor can be implemented
into a cell phone data acquisition during phone call

Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy

199

Berden, G., Engeln, R.: Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy, Wiley, 2009

Laser pulses are injected into a optical resonator (cavity)

Part of the puls is reflected back and forth inside the cavity, other part is transmitted
Decay of the laser pulses after the resonator detectable
Decay-time t is measured; change in decay-time gives absorption a(n)

d k k0
1
1 0
( )

L
c
c c 0 c 0

DNA - Sensors
200

Advantages of DNA-Sensors:
a) DNA provides large combinatorial complexity of structure
b) high stability of DNA molecules
c) molecular structure can be replicated exactly in large amounts

http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu

http://www.bio.davidson.edu

DNA Gas-Sensors
201

White, J., et al.: Solid-State, Dye-Labeled DNA Detects

Volatile Compounds in the Vapor Phase, Plos Biology, Vol. 6. 1 (2008)

DNA Gas-Sensors II
202

CNT => low selectivity; but: large surface to volume ratio

DNA => can easily be fixed to CNT; high selectivity

Zuniga, C., et al.: Nanoenabled microelectromechanical sensor for volatile

organic chemical detection, Appl. Phys. Lett., 94, 223122, (2009)

Magneto-Resistance

Read Head in HDD

204

Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) is used in nearly

all read heads of hard disc drives to read out the
information

de.wikipedia.org

Discovery of GMR
205

www.nzz.ch

P. Grnberg

A. Fert

Nobel Prize in Physics 2007

Tsymbal, E.Y., Pettifor, D.G.: Perspectives of Giant Magnetoresistance in Solid State Physics Vol56, p.113-237

Definition of GMR
206

Tsymbal, E.Y., Pettifor, D.G.: Perspectives of Giant Magnetoresistance in Solid State Physics, Vol. 56, p.113-237

RGMR

RAP RP

RP

Occurrence of GMR
207

RKKY

sin(2k F d 0 )
(d 0 ) const.
( 2k F d 0 ) 2

Coupling

a) RKKY-Coupling:
Rudermann-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida

Interlayer thickness d(ML)

Bergmann-Schaefer: Band 6 Festkrperphysik, 2. Aufl.

b) GMR may also occur by using ferromagnetic materials with different

coercivities
the magnetic moments switch at different values of the applied magnetic
field
c) using a spin-valve: magnetization of one ferromagnetic layer is pinned by
the exchange coupling; the other is free to rotate with the applied magnetic
field => used in read heads

Explanation GMR
208

Tsymbal, E.Y., Pettifor, D.G.: Perspectives of Giant Magnetoresistance in Solid State Physics Vol56, p.113-237

Mott model:
a) conductivity is described by two largely independent conducting channels
b) the current is carried by s electrons due to low effective mass and high mobility
c) the scattering of electrons occur at d bands
(in magnetic materials the d bands are exchange split)
d) probability of scattering into the d bands is proportional to the density in their density

Applications GMR
209

ABS-Sensor in cars

http://physics.unl.edu/~tsymbal/tsymbal_files/GMR/gmr_files/page0003.html

AMR-Sensors
210

Anisotropic Magnetic Resistance was discovered

in1857 by William Thomson in ferromagnetic
fields
resistance changes with the angle between
magnetic field and current
resistance is largest for magnetic field parallel to
current and lowest in perpendicular orientation
www.sensitec.com

http://www.emg.tu-bs.de/forsch/mag_sens/ms_amr_de.htm

Resolution, Limits and Beyond

Optical Microscopes

http://www3.pic-upload.de/18.07.10/6syw5txumc2r.jpg

Flourescence Microscope
http://web.uvic.ca/ail/techniques/epi-fluor.jpg

Light Microscope

http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/light-microscope-diagram-3.gif

212

http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/fotostrecke-51431-2.html

Abbe - Limit
213

Abbe Limit:

2n sin

2 NA

Three possibilities to increase the resolution:

a) decreasing the wavelength l

b) increasing the aperture angle a
c) increasing the refractive index n

(UV-light / TEM)
(lenses)
(immersion oil)

NA

de.wikipedia.org

Light microscopes: lmin ~400 nm (violet light)

=>Achievable limit for light microscopes: Lateral: ~200 nm / Axial: ~500 nm

Limiting Factor: Diffraction

214

Light emitted by a point source is diffracted => spreadening

Described by Point-Spread-Function (PSF)
Detectable images of the point source show side-images => Airy pattern
Diffraction of light, emitted/reflected by a point sources, leads to a spreadening

diffraction of single point source

diffraction of single slit

Resolution - Definitions

Rayleigh Criterion:

d min 0,61

Dawes Criterion:

d min

Sparrow Criterion: d min

215

NA

0,51
NA

0,47

NA
http://www.olympusfluoview.com/theory/images/resolutionfigure2.jpg

Resolution between two objects can be defined

as the minimal separation distance between these,
at a given contrast value.

http://www.olympusfluoview.com/theory/resolutionintro.html

Flourescence I - Franck-Condon-Prinzip
216

Born-Oppenheimer approximation:
the atomic nucleus cannot follow the fast
movement of the electron
in E(r)-diagrams the excitation of an electron
is displayed by a vertical transition

transitions occur especially at similar wave

functions

Flourescence II - Jablonski-Diagram
217

tabsorb: ~10-15 sec

tfluores: ~10-9 10-8 sec
tISC: ~10-6 10-3 sec
tIC:
~10-12 sec
tvib-rel: ~ 10-12 sec

Confocal Microscope
218

http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/images/0/0f/Confocalbasic.jpg

http://images.pennnet.com/articles/lfw/thm/th_155239.gif

Axial Resolution Confocal Microscope

219

http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/imageformation/depthoffield/index.html

higher lateral resolution possible, since diverging parts are filtered by pinhole
Rlat:

0,4

NA

=> ~100 nm

optical axial resolution is not increased significantly

Confocal vs. Widefield Microscopy

220

http://www.olympusfluoview.com/theory/images/confocalintrofigure1.jpg

3D Imaging Confocal Microscope

221

3D

image

http://www.olympusfluoview.com/theory/images/confocalintrofigure6.jpg

axial resolution limited by the vertical positioning system of the scanning unit

Confocal Microscopy 4p -Setup

222

light is collected from both hemispheres (2p) => 4p-Microscope

de.wikipedia.org

coherent light is focussed onto single spot => interference patterns

axial resolution is increased: 100-150 nm

4p-Microscope - Resolution
223

3 types of operatin principles:

a) coherent illumination from both sides, detection from one side
or incoherent detection from both sides (Type A)
b) coherent detection from both sides, but only illumination from one side (Type B)
c) coherent illumination an detection from both sides (Type C)

http://www.mpibpc.mpg.de/groups/hell/other_publications/GIT_4_04.pdf
Bewersdorf, J.: 4Pi konfokale Fluoreszenzmikroskopie mit ein Photonen Anregung, Dissertation, 2002

STED Microscope
224

STED: Stimulated Emission Depletion

lateral resolution down to one flourophore possible; technical state of the art: 5,8 nm

TIRF-Microscopy
225

TIRF: Total Internal Reflection Flourescence

http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/techniques/fluorescence/tirf/images/olympusfigure1.jpg

Scanning Nearfield Optical Microscopy

226

http://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/images/physik_pi/fuchs/research/snom/snom_instrument_2.jpg

Fillard, J.P.: Near Field Optics and Nanoscopy, World Scientific, 1996

Scanning Nearfield Optical Microscopy II

227

Fillard, J.P.: Near Field Optics and Nanoscopy, World Scientific, 1996

http://images.pennnet.com/articles/lfw/thm/th_0711lfwoew02f1.gif

http://www.zenobi.ethz.ch/snom-tip.jpg

resolution of apertureless tip is higher, but setup is more delicate

apertured tips show artifacts, but are easier to handle

Main Important Topics for Examination

228
-Interferometry:
concept of coherence 44
basic principles 47
interferometer types 48-50 + the integrated analogues 60
applications 54-55
white light interferometry 56
-Fiber Sensors:
sensor types 64-65
Fiber-Bragg-Gratings 67
applications 68-69
-X-Ray Diffraction:
x-ray generation 71
understanding the Bragg condition 73
components of x-ray diffractometer 74-76
Debye-Scherrer and Laue Method (differences) 77-78, 80
Ewald sphere 81-82
x-ray diffraction in thin films 86-87
x-ray data evaluation (super lattice, mismatch) 88-92 (s.a. 14-20)
-RHEED:
basics 94
RHEED Technique 96
Ewald Sphere Lattice Rods 98
rocking curves 100
Intensity oscillations 101
-Ellipsometry:
principle 104 + polarization of light 21-23
fundamental equation of ellipsometry 106
angle dependency 107
flow chart 114
understanding of Cauchy model 115-116
-Stress-Measurement:
wafer bending 122-123
origin of stress and effects of stress 124-125
bridge method principle idea 128-131
indicator structures 132-133
stress compensation ideas 136-137

-Cantilever Based Sensors:

operation idea 139
-Scanning Probe Microscopy:
working principle 142-144 + 155
application 145-147
scanning tunneling microscopy 157-158
-Electron Microscopy:
principles 160-161
scanning electron microscopy 162-165
transmission electron microscopy 170
-Photoluminescence
emission characteristics of quantum wells 181,183
lateral and vertical transports 186-192
-Optical Gain:
variable stripe length method 195
amplified spontaneous emission 196
data evaluation 197-198
-Gas Sensors:
idea of gas sensors 201-205
Intracavity absorption spectroscopy 206-208
mode competition 209
Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy 211
advantages of DNA in gas sensors 212
-Magneto Resistive Effects:
Explanation of GMR and AMR and applications 218,220-222
-Resolution, Limits and Beyond
Abbe-Limit 225
Resolution Definitions 227
Jablonski Diagram 229
Confocal Microscope 230, 231-233
4pi-Microscope 234, 235
Stimulated Emission Depletion 236
Total Internal Reflection Flourescence 237 (s.a. 31-33)
Scanning Near Field Optical Microscope 238, 239