Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Organisation of the Nervous System

1. The whole human nervous system can be divided into two
subsystems:
(a)the central nervous system (CNS)
i. consist of brain and spinal cord
ii. processes sensory information, making decisions and initiating
responses
(b) the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
i. is responsible for the communication between the CNS and the
rest of the body
ii. consists of:

12 cranial nerves to carry nerve impulses to and

from the brain

31 spinal nerves to carry nerve impulses to and from

the spinal cord

(c)

whose nerves carry nerve impulses from the sense organs

to the CNS are called afferent nerves

(d)

whose nerves carry nerve impulses from the CNS to the

effectors (organs, muscles and glands) are called efferent nerves

2. The nervous system performs three main functions: sensory,
integrative and motor.
3. The sensory function involves the sensory receptors.
4. Sensory receptors
detect stimuli from internal and external environment
initiate nerve impulses that carry information to the CNS.
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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

5. CNS
process and integrates the information by analysing and
storing
make decisions to initiate suitable responses.
6. Motor commands from the CNS are transmitted to the effector,
the muscles or glands, to carry out the responses.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

The Brain and Its Functions

Cerebrum
Interprets information from receptors, control voluntary actions
such as learning and thinking, store information, analyses
speech, hearing and sight. The cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain.
It is highly folded to increase the surface area, so it can contain
more neurons.
Responsible for personality, memory and also emotion.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Thalamus
Integrates information from afferent neurons and sends it to the
cerebrum for further processing.
Responsible for sorting incoming information.
Hypothalamus
Control centre of the temperature and the blood osmotic
pressure (homeostasis) as well as the coordination of the
nervous system and the endocrine system.
Cerebellum
Coordination of muscle contraction and body balance control
Medulla oblongata
Controls involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing,
peristalsis and control (cranial) reflex actions such as coughing
and sneezing.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Neurones
1. The nervous system is made up of millions of nerve cells called
neurones.
2. Neurones:
(a)are the basic units of the nervous system
(b)

transmit electrical impulses called nerve impulses

(c)each has these basic structures: cell body, axon and dendrites
3. A nerve is a bundle of axons or dendrons (nerve fibres) grouped
and wrapped in connective tissue.
4. There are three main types of neurone:
(a)afferent or sensory neurone
(b)

efferent or motor neurone

(c)interneurone or intermediate or relay neurone

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Spinal Cord
1. Two main functions of the spinal cord:
(a)It relays nerve impulses into and out of the brain
(b)

It is responsible for most of the reflex (involuntary)

actions of the body.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Transmission of Information Along the Neurone

Mode of Transmission along the Neurone
1. Conduction of nerve impulses:
(a)involves changes of charges on the inside and the outside of a
neurone.
(b)

involves ions of which the most important are sodium (Na +)

and potassium (K+)

2. Key processes which occur before, during and after an impulse
passes along a neurone
(a)when at rest, the surface membrane of a neurone is polarised
(b)

an impulse starts when a stimulation causes this polarised

membrane to depolarise section by section down the neurone.

(c)Repolarisation occurs (just behind the depolarised section)
soon after.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Synapse
1. A synapse is a gap (called synaptic cleft) across which a nerve
impulse passes from an axon terminal to another neurone (muscle
or gland cell).
2. Function of synapse:
(a)transmits information from one cell to another: from nerve to
nerve or from nerve to muscle
(b) causes nerve impulses to travel in one direction only, to
specific effectors
3. When an impulse reaches a synapse, the ending of the axon
(synaptic knob) produce and release a neurotransmitter.
4. Examples of neurotransmitter are acetylcholine, dopamine,
glutamate, aspartate, serotonin and noradrenaline.
5. The neurotransmitter binds to the receptor of postsynaptic
membrane and induces the impulse production.
6. Transmission of information across a synapse (Figure 3.13):
(a)electrical signals is converted into chemical signals in the form
of neurotransmitter
(b) chemical signal is reconverted back into electrical signals at
the postsynaptic membrane
7. Then, the neurotransmitter is quickly broken down by enzymes
to ensure the travel of nerve impulses in one direction and to
specific effectors.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

8. Transmission of nerve impulses across synapses is an active

process

which

requires

energy.

This

is

knob/terminal contains abundant mitochondria.

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why

synaptic

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

The Effect of Drug on Synapse

1.

Drug such as cocaine block the reuptake of dopamine which

causes the accumulation dopamine in the synaptic cleft.

2.

This enhance the impulse stimulation at postsynaptic membrane

to generate impulse.

3.

Some drugs block the receptor of postsynaptic membrane,

preventing the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor.

4.

Therefore, no impulse is produced at postsynaptic membrane.

These types of drugs usually have inhibitory in center nervous
system such as painkiller.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Voluntary and Involuntary Action

Voluntary action

Involuntary action

Nature of the
control of action

Involves thought and

free will.
Allows us to
consciously control
our skeletal muscle

Does not involve

thought
Not under the control of
the will.
Cannot control such
activities, eg: pumping
of the heart and
peristalsis

Controlled by

Cerebrum which:
a) Coordinates incoming
information and then
initiate impulses
which are sent to the
effectors
b) May spontaneously
initiate actions
without any sensory
stimulation.
Inteneurones
(ascending and
descending fibres) in
the spinal cord
Always involve the
cerebrum

Spinal cord (spinal

reflex action)
Hind-brain (cranial
reflex action), example,
blinking of the eyes.

Parts of the
nervous system
involved

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Reflex arc: afferent

neurons to intermediate
neurons in spinal cord
and out through efferent
neurons (to effectors)
Hind-brain (in cranial
reflex action)

Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Receptors involved An action may be

initiated by the
stimulation of a
receptor, or by the
conscious will of the
brain itself.

A receptor is always
involved

Inborn or learned

Voluntary actions are

learned

Reflex actions are

inborn

Role

To respond with the

benefit of experience

To respond quickly to
avoid danger

Speed of action

Slow response, as the

cerebrum needs time
to think before an
action is carried out

Rapid response, as the

cerebrum is not
involved.

Response to the
same stimulus

The same stimulus

The same stimulus
may produce various
always results in the
responses; example,
same response; e.g. the
when you are hungry,
knee jerk
you may decide to eat
or not to eat, or just
need to drink water

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Examples

Raising your hand to

answer a question
Decide to stand up

Involuntary action
(reflex action involving
skeletal muscle:
(a)Knee jerk
Involuntary actions
involving
(a)Smooth muscles
(b) Cardiac muscles
(c)Glands, example,
normal blood pressure

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Reflex Arc
1. Involuntary actions are reflex actions that are being carried out
through a nervous pathway known as reflex arc.
2. Reflex arc consist of:
Receptor, sensory (afferent) neurone, interneurone (maybe
absent in some reflex arc), motor neurone and effector.
3. Reflexes are important because:
(a)provide a means of an immediate withdrawal from dangerous
stimuli.
(b)

coordinate rapid automatic responses without the need for

instructions from the brain.

4. Most reflexes involve the spinal cord, however, some reflexes
involve the brain (E.g. the opening and the closing of the pupil of
the eye.), it is an automatic response whereby we have no
control over.
5. Examples are:
(a)Hand withdrawal reflex involve three types of neurones: the
afferent neurone, interneurone and efferent neurone
(b)

Knee-jerk reflex involve only two types of neurones: the

afferent neurone and the efferent neurone.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Knee jerk reflex

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Withdrawal Reflex

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Transmission of Information in Involuntary Action Involving

Smooth Muscles, Cardiac Muscles and Glands
1. The autonomic nervous system
(a)controls involuntary actions involving the glands, the cardiac
muscles of the heart and the smooth muscles of the internal
organs such as the intestines.
(b) connects the medulla oblongata and hypothalamus with
the internal organs and regulates the internal body processes
that require no conscious effort.
2. Therefore, involuntary action does not involve the cerebral
cortex.
3. Autonomic nervous system can be divided into
(a)
(b)

the sympathetic division

the parasympathetic division

4. Both division work together, but act in opposition to maintain

homeostasis.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Sympathetic Nervous System

Promotes a "fight or flight" response, corresponds with arousal
and energy generation, and inhibits digestion

Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI)

tract and skin via vasoconstriction

Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs is enhanced

Dilates bronchioles of the lung, which allows for greater

alveolar oxygen exchange

Increases heart rate and the contractility of cardiac cells

(myocytes), thereby providing a mechanism for enhanced blood
flow to skeletal muscles

Dilates pupils and relaxes the ciliary muscle to the lens,

allowing more light to enter the eye and far vision

Provides vasodilation for the coronary vessels of the heart

Constricts all the intestinal sphincters and the urinary

sphincter

Inhibits peristalsis

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 3 Body Coordination (a)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Promotes a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of
the nerves return to regular function, and enhances digestion

The parasympathetic nerves dilate blood vessels leading to

the GI tract, increasing blood flow (this is important following
the consumption of food, due to the greater metabolic demands
placed on the body by the gut)

The parasympathetic nervous system can also constrict the

bronchiolar diameter when the need for oxygen has diminished

During accommodation, the parasympathetic nervous

system causes constriction of the pupil and contraction of the
ciliary muscle to the lens, allowing for closer vision

The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates salivary

gland secretion, and accelerates peristalsis, mediating digestion
of food and, indirectly, the absorption of nutrients

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