Autonomous Vehicle Control

An investigation into the application of Model Predictive Control

for active vehicle safety

Presented by:
James Gillard

Prepared for:
M. S. Tsoeu
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
University of Cape Town

Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of Cape Town

in fulfilment of the academic requirements for a Master of Science degree in Control
Systems Engineering

November 4, 2015

Declaration

1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use anothers work and pretend
that it is ones own.
2. I have used the IEEE convention for citation and referencing. Each contribution to,
and quotation in, this report from the work(s) of other people has been attributed,
and has been cited and referenced.
3. This report is my own work.
4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention
of passing it off as their own work or part thereof.

Signature:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. S. Tsoeu

Date:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acknowledgements

Abstract

ii

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1

Background to the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1

Overview of Vehicle Stability

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.2

Purpose of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.3

Problems to be Investigated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Scope and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Plan of development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Literature Review
2.1

Vehicle Safety Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.1

Vehicle Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.2

Path Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

2.1.3

Scaled Vehicles as Testbeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3 Vehicles and Models

14

iii

3.1

3.2

Pneumatic Tyre Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.1.1

Tyre Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.1.2

Tyre Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

Vehicle Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

4 Results

24

5 Discussion

25

6 Conclusions

26

7 Recommendations

27

A Additional Files and Schematics

31

B Addenda

32

B.1 Ethics Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

32

List of Figures
1.1

ISO Standard 8855 vehicle coordinate system

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1

Timeline showing various safety measures and road accident fatalities . .

2.2

Diagram showing different catagories of Vehicle Safety Systems . . . . . .

3.1

Slip angle, Force and Moment positive directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.2

Bottom view of the tyre contact patch subjected to a lateral slip angle. .

16

3.3

Measured tyre data with Pacejka Magic Formula fit for a range of operating
Normal Forces. Adapted from http://www.optimumg.com . . . . . . . .

18

Left: View of driven and side-slipping tyre. Right: The tyre undeer
different slip conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Left: The tyre at pure side slip, from small to large slip angle. Right: The
resultig side force generated for each case presented. . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.6

Linear and Brush Tyre models versus lateral slip angle . . . . . . . . .

21

3.7

Bicycle Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

3.4

3.5

List of Tables

vi

Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1

Background to the study

With over 89.7 million vehicles produced worldwide in 2014 [1] the automobile clearly
forms a foundation on which many aspects of our daily lives are built. Cars provide us
with true freedom of mobility as well as the ability to perform countless tasks that would
otherwise be impossible. However, the cost of this freedom is also evident. With over
30 thousand deaths relating to motor vehicle accidents in 2013, motor vehicle crashes
have become the leading cause of death among those under the age of 55 in the United
States [2]. Often these crashes are brought about through the actions of the driver or the
vehicles interaction with the environment. Excessive speed in combination with a loss
of traction due to changes in road surface friction are key components to many loss of
control type accidents. In these conditions the vehicle is operating at the very limits of
its dynamic capabilities, far from the typical conditions most drivers are used to. Without
the necessary skill or reaction speed the driver is often unable to avoid losing control,
resulting in potentially fatal crashes.
In recent years we have seen control systems introduced into almost every facet of our
everyday lives. Our desire to have higher rates of efficiency and reduced rates of failure
have resulted in a surge in the field. It should therefore come as no surprise that
automotive manufacturers have used these techniques in order to address the problems
of vehicle safety. These systems, including Anti-Lock Braking (ABS), Traction Control
(TCS), Electronic Stability Control (ESC), and Roll Stability Control (RSC) which utilize
control over the drive and brake systems of the vehicle to augment the drivers actions and
improve the handling response of the vehicle. These control systems have been shown to
1

1.2. BACKGROUND
greatly reduce the number of single vehicle crashes. In 2012 it is estimated that in the U.S.
electronic stability control (ESC) alone saved an estimated 446 lives among passenger car
(PC) occupants, and 698 lives among light truck and van (LTV) occupants, for a total
of 1,144 lives saved among passenger vehicle (PV) occupants [3].
Despite the efforts made by automotive manufacturers to ensure passenger safety accidents
still happen far too often and therefore the need for increasingly advanced control systems
is necessary. These systems need to go further in assisting the driver to not only avoid
potentially dangerous situations, but also help to maintain passenger safety even during
an extreme event. This is being done by researchers by using new technologies to provide
information about the environment, including road friction conditions, obstacles and
even pedestrians or other vehicles. The aim of this dissertation is therefore to attempt
to use low cost sensors in order to leverage the necessary measurements and determine
approximate state boundaries for the vehicle. This information can then be used to
implement control strategies which will enable the vehicle to maintain a level of dynamic
stability, even under extreme circumstances.

1.2
1.2.1

Background
Overview of Vehicle Stability

In order to develop the controllers that will be discussed in this dissertation it is first
necessary to define the basic dynamics that are relevant to maintaining control of a
vehicle. Figure 1.1 below shows a vehicle with a coordinate system as defined by the ISO
Standard 8855.
In the figure it can be seen that the positive x-axis is in the forward direction of travel,
the positive y-axis is to the drivers left and the positive z-axis is pointing up from the
ground. The angular rotations about the x,y and z-axes are termed as the vehicles
pitch, roll and yaw respectively and importantly a global coordinate system has also
been defined. Finally, the angle shown in the figure represent the steering angle of the
front wheels.

1.2. BACKGROUND

Figure 1.1: ISO Standard 8855 vehicle coordinate system

When discussing vehicle stability one of the most important quantities is the vehicles
sideslip angle. This angle is defined to be the difference between the vehicles heading
angle and its velocity vector and is a measure of how sideways the vehicle is travelling.
Its obvious that at normal highway speeds a sideslip angle of zero is typical, but it
would be rather distressing to the driver if it were 90 . It is therefore logical to put some
constraint on the sideslip angle in order to maintain stability.
The vehicles yaw rate, which is the rate at which the vehicle rotates about the z-axis,
is also of particular interest to us when dealing with stability. If the yaw rate becomes
too large and is uncontrolled it can lead to the vehicle effectively spinning out, another
undesirable result.
Finally, the roll angle of the vehicle will be of particular interest in this paper. Many
production ESC systems are developed to control the first two quantities, side-slip and
yaw rate, but there are limited control systems which focus on minimizing the vehicles roll
angle at the same time. Vehicle rollover accidents are becoming more and more prevalent
with many people now driving sport utility vehicles (SUVs). The high centre of gravity
causes the vehicle to behave in a similar manner to an inverted pendulum, with its centre
of mass located well above the tire contact points on the ground. The inverted pendulum
is a well documented and researched classical control problem due to its high level of
instability and under-actuated architecture. It is therefore critical to maintain relatively
small roll angles in order to prevent the vehicle from reaching an uncontrollable level of
instability.

1.2. BACKGROUND

It is important to note that these quantities, the sideslip angle, yaw-rate and roll angle,
are all generated by tire forces as this is the only medium through which the vehicle
interacts with the external environment. It therefore becomes essential to have a good
understanding of the tire forces and their effects on the above quantities when the vehicle
is at the limits of its handling capabilities.
Other aspects that play a role in the vehicles handling properties are governed by the
very structure of the vehicle itself. Properties such as mass distribution, tyre structure
and suspension set up all form part of the cars handling. These factors will all be taken
into account by the dynamic modelling of the vehicle in coming chapters.

1.2.2

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is therefore to develop controllers capable of constraining the
yaw-rate, sideslip and roll angles to maintain dynamic safety. This work aims to allow
a vehicle to operate safely at a maximum possible speed while tracking a desired path.
Meeting these goals ensures that the control system will be capable of not only sensing a
possible emergency situation, but also reacting to it in order to maintain driver safety.

1.2.3

Problems to be Investigated

To fully explore this project the following are identified as key problems which will need
to be investigated in order to develop a working system:

Will the use of real time friction calculation enhance the control of an autonomous
vehicle
Which control methods are best suited to maintaining vehicle safety
Can the controllers be designed to work in conjunction with a driver
Given an optimal line can vehicle safety be maintained at high speed
Can these control system be used to optimize the vehicles energy efficiency
Will the introduction of friction estimation improve controller performance

1.3. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

1.3

Scope and Limitations

A fully autonomous vehicle system would require the use of a number of different control
systems in order to function properly. These systems include, but are not limited
to, a vision system for obstacle detection and recognition, vehicle steering, braking
and cornering control systems, path generation algorithms and finally localization and
mapping algorithms.
The scope of this project, however, is confined to the control system which will be used
to drive a remote controlled (RC) model vehicle at high speed while following a given
trajectory or path. The only available inputs that will be used are those typically available
to the everyday driver, namely: steering, braking and throttle control. The vehicle used
will be modified to resemble the dynamics of a full scale passenger vehicle as closely as
possible, with the exception to its drive system. The proposed test bed is a 1/10th scale
RC car driven by a brushless DC motor. Therefore the project will focus mainly on the
steering, braking and cornering control techniques which allow the vehicle to drive at the
limits of friction, while maintaining dynamic safety. In order to test this the vehicle will
be made to maneuver at maximum speed while avoiding excessive vehicle roll, yaw and
sideslip.
If the project time and budget allows, a simple camera system will be developed in order
to provide the robot with a visual path input, allowing it to follow a line or stay within
the bounds of a track, but there will be no work done on the recognition of obstacles.
Finally in order to push the car to the limits of friction, it is also important to know
exactly how much friction is available. Therefore, if time allows, a friction estimation
system will be designed and integrated into the controller architecture.

1.4

Plan of development

Chapter 2
Literature Review
With vehicles playing such an important role in our daily lives it should come as no
surprise that there has been a tremendous amount of research done in the field of vehicle
safety and control systems, even though it is still fairly new. The following chapter will
provide the reader with a broad overview of the current research being done, while paying
special attention to the works which closely relate to this dissertation.

2.1

Vehicle Safety Systems

This section will provide the reader with an overview of some of the safety systems
already employed by vehicle manufactures and discuss some of the prominent production
technologies currently available. This section will address the strengths and weaknesses
of particular designs.
The time-line on the following page shows a number of vehicle safety systems which
have become standard in modern light motor vehicles (LMVs) in the U.S. and compares
this to the number of vehicle accident fatalities per year. As can be seen below since
the introduction of electronic stability control (ESC) there has been a steep decrease in
fatalities per annum.

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

Figure 2.1: Timeline showing various safety measures and road accident fatalities
The decrease in fatalities with the increase in technology has sparked further interest
in vehicle safety systems, with the new aim of making passenger vehicles completely
autonomous. This means that the safety systems will not only have to localize themselves
in their environment, but also be able to operate in constantly changing situations and
react to emergency situations.
Figure 2.2 below shows the current trends in vehicle safety research as well as the
respective categories under which they fall. At the top level the systems are separated
into vehicle stabilization and path tracking. These two subsections form the basis on
which almost all vehicle safety systems are built, either on their own or as a combination
of sub-categories. The vehicle stabilization category shows systems which do not take
any path information into account, but rather rely on particular vehicle states as their
input. The second category is a fairly new type of vehicle control which takes into account
the vehicle states as well as a desired trajectory when computing the controller output.
While most of the path tracking systems are still in the research phase, manufacturers are
slowly integrating camera and/or LIDAR systems into their vehicles in order to leverage
the extra information needed to determine the vehicles position in relation to the rest of
its environment.

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

Figure 2.2: Diagram showing different catagories of Vehicle Safety Systems

2.1.1

Vehicle Stabilization

i) Yaw Stabilization

The first category in Fig.2.2 represents vehicle stabilization which does not take any path
information into account. Some of the most prominent and successful production systems
in this category are Electronic Stability Control or ESC, Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)
and Traction Control systems.
ESP helps to stabilize the vehicle yaw rate and slip angle by using differential braking,
meaning that the brakes are applied to individual wheels in order to mitigate any unwanted
yaw motion. A detailed explanation can be found in [4]. Anti-lock braking and traction
control systems also help the driver remain in control by preventing excessive wheel slip,
which allows for the maximum static friction to be used to steer or slow the vehicle instead
of allowing the tires to slide and begin using the lower kinetic friction.
Besides these systems there are a number of other stabilization techniques which have
been thoroughly researched, however, the sensors and actuators required are not yet
available in production vehicles. One of the most commonly researched topic is that of
an active suspension system. This strategy uses actuators in the vehicles chassis to apply
a force to individual wheel suspension, which leads to better road adhesion or mitigates
vehicle pitching or rolling. The results have shown great promise by limiting the vehicle
roll angle in high C.G vehicles as well as maintaining a smoother travel over uneven
surfaces [5, 6, 7].
Other systems, which are still in the research stages of their development, include more
global stabilization techniques such as the envelope control proposed by J. Gerdes et
al. [8]. Their proposed strategy uses a sliding surface technique in order to maintain
a defined envelope of safe operating conditions. Their work has shown that a control
system can be used in conjunction with a driver in order to maintain vehicle safety, where
the control system only intervenes if it has determined that the driver command results

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

in the vehicle leaving a safe operating region.

ii) Rollover Prevention

As mentioned in the introduction there are extremely high numbers of fatalities on the
roads each year due to vehicle accidents. With this dissertations focus on vehicle safety
it should be noted that an important aspect of this is rollover prevention. Of the nearly
32,000 fatalities on U.S. roads in 2004 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) estimated that nearly a third of all road fatalities involve vehicle rollover while
accounting for only 2.4% of all highway accidents[9].
During cornering, the vehicles roll moment causes a lateral load transfer from the inner
wheels to the outer wheels. This load transfer strongly influences the lateral dynamics
of the vehicle. Due to the nonlinear properties of pneumatic tyres, the total force
capability of the front or rear axle decreases as a result of this load transfer. To overcome
this problem some researchers have employed an active roll control system in order to
reduce the total load transfer during cornering. An active roll control system enables the
modulation of the normal force experienced at each corner of the vehicle body and hence
has the ability to limit the roll motion of the vehicle chassis.
One common method of implementing this active roll control is achieved through the use
of active suspension. Active suspension was initially introduced as a means to provide
a solution between the conflict of vehicle ride comfort and handling. Although active
suspension systems have been around for a few years, although not in production vehicles,
most of the research is based on passenger ride comfort. Safarudin et al. [10] showed how
an active suspension system can be used to mitigate vehicle rollover.
The methods investigated in this dissertation, however, will use methods more similar to
those used by [11] where an active steering controller was designed in order improve lateral
stability and manoeuvrability. The same approach will be taken in this dissertation where
only steering and throttle/braking commands will be used to mitigate rollover. By using
this approach it means that this rollover prevention system can be easily implemented
on any production vehicle without the need for any modification.

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

2.1.2

Path Tracking

Recent developments and substantial reduction in the cost of positioning and sensing
technologies such as differential global positioning systems (DGPS), Light Detection and
Ranging (LIDAR) and even stereo camera vision systems have opened up a number of
opportunities to gather more information about a vehicles surrounding environment. This
information can then be used to generate path information which can be used to either
simply stay on a given path or generate an optimal line on which to travel. This section
will briefly discuss some aspects of path planning, but the main focus will fall on the path
tracking problem.

i) Path Planning

When generating an optimal path there have been two approaches made by researchers:
a) the path is generated offline using a priori knowledge of the desired route
or
b) the path is generated online using current information to determine the optimal path
between two points.
Recursive optimisation techniques have shown that a path generated offline can even
mimic the path taken by professional race drivers by using a function which optimizes
the length of the path travelled versus the speed at which the vehicle can maintain that
path. This method nicely separates the objectives of path planning and path tracking,
which allows for a focus on one or the other. The problem with this approach, however,
is that its hardly a realistic approach to the problem.
Online path generation on the other hand only has access to current information and needs
to be able to execute quickly for the vehicle to maintain high speed. This technique is
commonly used for object avoidance where there is no way of knowing when an obstacle
may appear and is a far more realistic, although more difficult, approach. The combined
path planning and tracking approach requires that the vehicle control inputs and path
information are combined in a single optimization problem. A good example of this was
shown by Gerdes et al. [12] where a unified controller was used to simulate a race drivers
approach to selecting a line, tracking the desired path and maintaining vehicle control.
This race driver approach is a common theme when it comes to controlling vehicles at
high speed because race drivers are a perfect example of how one can control a vehicle
at the very limits of its capabilities.

10

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

ii) Path Tracking

When it comes to path tracking there are several methods which have successfully been
employed. Until fairly recently, however, these techniques have required a relatively
slow and constant vehicle speed which severely limited their usefulness. Again, with
recent improvements in processing power and available technologies there has been much
improvement in the speeds at which these controllers can be used.
At low speeds kinematic or linear dynamics are often used to model the vehicle due
to the lack of dynamic excitement in the vehicle itself. This approach has been shown
to be fairly effective in the classical nonholonomic vehicle control problem where speeds
dont venture much higher than 0.5m/s, but as speeds increase a more thorough dynamic
model is needed often containing a nonlinear tyre model. This is because the dynamic
characteristics of a car vary strongly with speed, especially when the performance limits
are extended by aerodynamically generated downforce, increasing the frictional coupling
between the tyres and the ground. Within an operating range around the straight
running state, a linear representation of a (good) car can be expected to be accurate. As
manoeuvring severity increases, tyre shear forces saturate in a smooth and progressive
manner. Optimal controls derived assuming linearity can be expected to work well for
gentle manoeuvring and not so well for limit operation therefore.[13]
Although a nonlinear tyre model would more accurately describe the vehicle dynamics
there have been a number of implementations using a linearised tyre model for situations
where the slip is kept fairly low. In 2003 Rosetter [14] developed a potential field
lanekeeping system which actively assisted the driver to stay in the centre of the lane.
In his work he used a linear approximation for the forces generated by the tires thereby
simplifying the overall vehicle model. Because the goal in his paper was not to have a fully
autonomous system, where the primary goal is accurate and high performance tracking,
but rather a driver assistance system it follows that a simplified model is sufficient for his
design. This control scheme was shown to work well in conjunction with a driver providing
good local stability, but is not sufficient for a fully autonomous implementation.
A more relevant example of path tracking using linearised models can be seen in the works
done by Thommyppillai et al. [15] and Beal [16]. Both of these authors used a Nonlinear
Model Predictive Control (NMPC) approach to path tracking. This method proves to
be very accurate even when performing high slip manoeuvres due to the structure of the
Model Predictive Control, or MPC, framework. MPC has been shown in a number of
cases to be a considerably robust method of control which, in this case, caters for the
neglected nonlinearity in the tyre modelling. It is for this reason, among others, that
11

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

model predictive control has been chosen as the control strategy for this dissertation.
As mentioned above the control schemes used for path tracking can often be improved
through the use of a nonlinear tyre model. Because the tyre is the only contact point
between the vehicle and the environment it is the only source of force generation. Falcone
et al. [17] include the tire nonlinearity in the formulation of their MPC controller,
however, their work focusses mainly on the linear operating region of the tyre. The
controller is tested using the standard double-lane change maneuver and proves to work
well in simulation, but its overall complexity means that computation time becomes a
problem for real-time implementation.

2.1.3

Scaled Vehicles as Testbeds

In this section we will briefly discuss using the proposed scaled vehicle, a 1/10th scale radio
controlled (RC) car, as a test bed and how it relates to full size vehicles. As mentioned
above an important part of vehicle safety is rollover prevention, however, the rollover
testing of full scale vehicles is not only an expensive endeavour, but a fairly dangerous
one too. Because this project is aimed at real vehicle safety systems it is important to
convince ourselves that the test bed closely relates to a full scale vehicle, thereby making
the controller architecture fully transferable to a larger platform. Therefore if results
from scaled vehicles tested in a controlled environment can be shown to closely relate to
the dynamic behaviour of full size vehicles, then such an approach can be an effective
means of investigating vehicle rollover.
Scaled vehicles have proven to be reliable test beds for a number of different applications
[18, 19, 20]. The main advantages of using a scaled vehicle (like the Radio Controlled
car used for this dissertation) are vehicle costs, ease of modifications and the relative
size of the testing facility required to perform various standard manoeuvres. Since the
testing area can be reduced in size it is also easier to maintain more accurate control over
the testing conditions such as road surface and obstacle placement etc. Finally a scaled
vehicle is also more easily pushed to its dynamic limits allowing researchers to observe
what happens when the vehicle reaches the nonlinear region of operation.
In the works of Lapapong et al. [21] an RC car chassis was used on a scaled rolling road
to test the validity of their dynamic model of the vehicle. Using a simple bicycle model,
which will be discussed in greater detail later in this report, they were able to closely
mimic the dynamic responses of a full scale vehicle. By comparing the frequency responses

12

2.1. VEHICLE SAFETY SYSTEMS

of both the scaled vehicle and a full scale test vehicle they found that at low frequency
the scaled vehicle closely matched the full-sized car, but concluded that due to tyre-lag
effects there was a noticeable error in their responses. By including a better model of the
scaled tyres, however, Andrew Liburdi [22] found that he was able to accurately replicate
simulation results of double-lane change and sine sweep manoeuvres which also used a
bicycle model.
The works done in testing and validating scaled vehicles for use in dynamic vehicle control
therefore shows great promise and thus allows this dissertation the freedom to use such
a vehicle provided it is accurately modelled.

13

Chapter 3
Vehicles and Models
The estimation and control systems which will later be presented in this paper take
advantage of several different models of the dynamics of the vehicle. While it is possible
to derive a model containing all the degrees of freedom as described in [23] by Shim
et al., the models presented here represent only the dynamics which are critical to the
tasks laid out in the scope and limitations section of this report. These models, while
still accurate, reduce the overall complexity and allow for a more transparent model for
analytical use. This reduction in complexity will also help to reduce the computational
burden on the processors which will be used to implement the controllers in real time.
The models presented here can be adapted to a range of vehicles, but for the work in this
dissertation the parameters used will be those of the RC test platform. These parameters
can be found in the appendix of this report.

3.1

Pneumatic Tyre Modelling

Tyre characteristics are of crucial importance for the dynamic behaviour of the road
vehicle [24]. Since the tyres are the only contact point between the vehicle and the outside
environment it is of critical importance to have a clear understanding of their operation
and the forces they generate. The problem, however, is that modern automobile tyres are
extremely complicated products to say the least; they are a composite of various rubber
compounds, steel and often kevlar and the designs have been refined through decades of
practical development. This section will begin by defining some of the terminology used
when dealing with tyre dynamics before presenting some of the tyre models which will
be used in this dissertation.
14

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

3.1.1

Tyre Quantities

This section will briefly outline some of the important quantities and definitions with
regards to tyre modelling. The definitions used here will follow those set out by his book:
Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics [24] which was written by Hans B. Pacejka, who is regarded
as the foremost authority on tyre modelling.

i) Pure Longitudinal Slip

The upright wheel rolling freely, that is without applying a driving torque, over a flat
level surface along a straight line (ie. with no side slip) may be defined as the starting
situation with all slip equal to zero. When a driving torque is applied, however, the
condition of zero slip is no longer fulfilled and a build-up of additional tyre deformation
and possibly partial sliding at the contact patch may occur. As a result horizontal forces
are developed. This slip quantity will serve as an input into the tyre system with the
resulting output being the forces developed.

Figure 3.1: Slip angle, Force and Moment positive directions.

Figure 3.1 shows a freely rolling wheel, with some forward speed Vx (the longitudinal
component of the total velocity vector V of the wheel centre) and angular speed of
rotation can be taken from measurements. By dividing these two quantities, the socalled effective rolling radius re is defined:

re =

Vx

(3.1)

When a torque is then applied to the wheel spin axis, a longitudinal slip arises and is
defined as follows:
Vx re
=
(3.2)
Vx
15

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

The sign of is taken such that for a positive slip value, a positive longitudinal force
Fx arises, that is, a driving force. It can noted that at wheel lock up (ie. when = 0)
= 1, but for very large values of in comparison to Vx , can become very large. In
order to limit this we rather define as follows:

Vx re if V r
x
e
Vx
(3.3)
=
r
V
e
x
if V < r
x

re

This approach is not taken by Pacejka in his definition, however, for computational
purposes it becomes necessary for this further definition.

ii) Pure Lateral Slip

Lateral slip, similarly to the longitudinal slip above, is defined by the ratio of lateral
and forward components of the velocity vector V . As in Pacejka, this corresponds to the
tangent of the slip angel . Again the sign convention results in a positive longitudinal
force generated by a positive slip angle.
tan =

Vy
Vx

(3.4)

Figure 3.2 below shows the distortion of the tyre structure when subjected to a lateral
slip angle. This deformation is what leads to the lateral force generation which is then
used to steer the vehicle.

Figure 3.2: Bottom view of the tyre contact patch subjected to a lateral slip angle.
This lateral slip, , combined with the longitudinal slip, , and vertical load, Fz , (which
16

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

may be considered a given quantity that results from the normal deflection of the tire)
are all that are needed as inputs to our tyre models. These models will be described in
greater detail in the following section, however, for now we will define the output forces
as follows:
Fx = Fx (, , Fz )
Fy = Fy (, , Fz )
(3.5)

iii) Combined Slip

The notion of combined slip comes about due to the limited static frictional force available
to the tyre at any given time. ETC ETC

3.1.2

Tyre Modelling

There are a large number of factors which influence the way in which tyre force is
generated. Tread patterns specially designed to remove water from between the tyre
and the road, the rubber itself may be softer for more grip or harder for longevity, the
inflation pressure, the tyre wear and even the asymmetry of the tyre are all factors which
may change the magnitude or distribution of the force generated. Whilst all of these
factors play a role in vehicle handling it would be prohibitively complex to include all
of them. Therefore the models used in this dissertation seek to capture only the vital
characteristics of tyre-force generation, while maintaining a sufficient level of accuracy.

i) Pacejka Magic Formula Tyre Model

The Pacejka Magic Formula tyre model, named after its creator Hans B. Pacejka, is
a semi-empirical tyre model which uses a combination of data curve-fitting as well as
physical tyre properties in order to approximate the forces generated by the tyre. Pacejka
has developed a series of models over the last 25 years, the first of which was presented
in [25] where it was shown that the proposed formula was not only extremely accurate in
describing the measured data, but also characterized some of the typifying quantities such
as slip stiffness and peak values which permitted the calculation of forces and torques in
conditions which deviate from those imposed during the actual measurements. Since its
inception in 1987 it has become the most widely used tyre model and can be found in
most vehicle modelling software.

17

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

The formula was termed magic because there is no particular physical basis for the
structure of the equations chosen, yet they fit a wide variety of constructions and operating
conditions as seen in [25]. Using the formula each tyre is characterised by 10-20 coefficients
for each important force it can produce at the ground contact patch, typically lateral and
longitudinal force, and self-aligning torque, as a best fit between experimental data and
the model. These coefficients are then used to generate equations showing how much
force is generated for a given vertical load on the tire, camber angle and slip angle [24].
The general form of the equation as found in [24] is as follows:
Fy = D sin[C arctan B E(B arctan(B))]
With stiffness factor:
CF
B=
CD
peak factor:

(3.6)

D = Fz
and cornering stiffness:
CF = BCD
The shape factors C and E as well as the friction coefficient may be estimated or
determined through regression techniques.
The following figure shows the approximate force generation vs measured tyre data:

Figure 3.3: Measured tyre data with Pacejka Magic Formula fit for a range of operating
Normal Forces. Adapted from http://www.optimumg.com

18

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

Although the Magic Formula is the most accurate model of vehicle tyres it is computationally
intensive and highly nonlinear. It will therefore not be used in the controller design for
this project, but rather as a tool in simulation to verify that the proposed controllers
perform as intended. The required test data needed for this empirical model will be
taken from [26] where scaled pneumatic tyres were tested and compared to their full scale
counterparts. In his paper Polley found that the force producing characteristics of scaled
DuBro pneumatic tyres exhibited similitude with full-scale tyres. He then went on to
solve for the various constants to be used in the Magic Formula; these constants will
therefore be used in this dissertation.

ii) Brush Tyre Model

The brush tyre model, see [24], describes the structure of a tyre using a row of elastic
bristles which touch the road plane and can deflect in a direction parallel to the road
surface. The assumption is that the slip (both longitudinal and lateral) relies on the
compliance of bristles or tread elements of the tyre which represents the elasticity of
the real tyre carcass and tread. As can be seen in the figure below, when the wheel speed
vector V shows an angle with respect to the wheel plane, side slip occurs. When the
wheel velocity of revolution multiplied with the effective rolling radius re is not equal
to the forward component of the wheel speed Vx = V cos , we have fore-and-aft slip.
Under these conditions slip occurs and the corresponding forces are developed.

Figure 3.4: Left: View of driven and side-slipping tyre. Right: The tyre undeer different
slip conditions.
As depicted in Fig. 3.4 the tread elements move from the leading edge (right hand
19

3.1. PNEUMATIC TYRE MODELLING

side of figure) to the trailing edge. The tip of each element will remain adhered to the
ground as long as static friction allows, that is, it will not slide across the road surface.
Simultaneously the base point, which is fixed to the tyre carcass, moves backward with
the linear speed of rolling (re ) with respect to the wheel axis located at the contact
patch centre labelled C in the pictures.
The resulting deflection of the tyre bristles varies linearly with distance from the leading
edge and the tips form a straight contact line which is parallel to the wheels velocity
vector V . The maximum force generated bby this tyre model is dependent on 3 variables
namely: The constant coefficient of friction , the vertical (normal) force distribution Fz
and the stiffness of the tread elements cp y. The pressure distribution, and consequently
the maximum deflection, are assumed to have a parabolic distribution and therefore as
soon as the straight contact line intersects this parabolic distribution sliding will start.
This intersection can more easily be seen in figure 3.5. The remaining part of the contact

Figure 3.5: Left: The tyre at pure side slip, from small to large slip angle. Right: The
resultig side force generated for each case presented.
line will coincide with the parabola for the maximum possible deflection. At increasing
slip angle, the side force that is generated will increase. The distance of its line of
action behind the contact centre is termed the pneumatic trail t. As the slip increases,
the deformation shape becomes more symmetric and, as a result, the trail gets smaller.
This is because the point of intersection moves forward, thereby increasing the sliding
range and decreasing the range of adhesion. This continues until the wheel speed vector
runs parallel to the tangent to the parabola at the foremost point. Then, the point of
intersection has reached the leading edge and full sliding starts to occur. The shape has
now become fully symmetric and the side force attains its maximum.
20

3.2. VEHICLE MODELLING

iii) Linear Tyre Model

As can be seen in figure 3.5 and 3.3 there is a range of values for slip over which tyre force
is generated fairly linearly. It can therefore be assumed that for small values of slip the
force can be approximated by a constant C or C multiplied by the respective slip value.
Despite the complex design of tyres and the influence stick-slip friction, their behaviour
at low levels of lateral force is dominated by the elastic nature of the rubber. This model
will therefore yield good results up to approximately half the maximum force of the tyre
as shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.6: Linear and Brush Tyre models versus lateral slip angle
This model will be used in the design of the MPC controller as the linear approximation
of the force can easily be included in the state-space representation of the vehicle model.

3.2

Vehicle Modelling

In this section we will define the two vehicle models which have been used in this
dissertation for controller design. The first is a linear bicycle model which has been used
extensively in vehicle handling studies and the second is a two track roll model which
reduces the vehicle roll dynamics to a simple inverted pendulum. While these models do
not capture all of the dynamics of a real vehicle, they do provide us with enough detail
to design the required controllers as well as maintaining a minimum complexity.

21

3.2. VEHICLE MODELLING

i) Bicycle Model

The bicycle model shown in fig. 3.7 is a simplified chassis model for a four wheel vehicle.
Since the model only focuses on planar dynamics of the vehicle the four wheels are
combined into just a single track, thereby neglecting roll dynamics. This model is a
three state model only and is used to describe the rotational (yaw) motion as well as the
longitudinal and lateral velocities of the vehicle.
Beyond neglecting the roll dynamics, there are a few other key assumptions made. The
mass of the vehicle is considered to be located entirely in the rigid base of the vehicle
chassis. Furthermore, the slip and steering angles for the left and right wheels are
considered to be the same; this assumption is made based on the vehicle travelling at
typical driving speeds and traversing corners of moderate radius. The forces can therefore
be lumped together as a single equivalent wheel as shown in the figure. For the purposes

Figure 3.7: Bicycle Model

of friction estimation and lateral force generation a constant longitudinal velocity is often
used [16], however, we have seen in the previous section that the longitudinal tyre forces
play a large role in how the lateral forces are generated and therefore unlike [16] we will
include these effects. The equations of motion of the bicycle model are derived from first
principles by writing force balance equations in the vehicle x and y - coordinate frames
as well as a moment balance equation about the z - axis.
max = Fxf + Fxr ,

may = Fyf + Fyr ,

22

zz = aFyf + bFyr
I

(3.7)

3.2. VEHICLE MODELLING

The vehicle sideslip angle is calculated as

tan1

Uy
Ux

(3.8)

By taking into account the vehicle steering angle we can rewrite the acceleration and
moment equations which define the vehicle states
1
ax + Vy = [Fxr Fyf sin ]
m

(3.9)

1
[Fyf cos + Fyr ]
m

(3.10)

ay + Vx =

1
=
[aFyf cos bFyr ]
Izz

(3.11)

where the parameters m , Izz and are the mass of the vehicle, the yaw moment of inertia
and the steering angle of the front wheels respectively. The forces Fxr , Fyr and Fyf are
the forces generated by the tyres at the front and rear axles and are highly nonlinear
at elevated levels of lateral acceleration. Therefore either a nonlinear brush model or
Pacejka model may be used to describe the force generation characteristics. However, for
simplicity of design and to keep this bicycle model linear, we will consider the case where
the slip angles remain fairly small and we can therefore use a linear model to describe
the force generation. In either case we require the front and rear slip angles of the vehicle
tyres. These are given as follows:
f = tan1

Vy + a

Vx

r = tan1

Vy b
Vx

r =

r Vx
Vx

(3.12)

It can be noted at this point that since the vehicle is rear wheel drive only there is no
effect longitudinal forces developed at the front of the vehicle. The steering input, , is
also included in these expressions

ii) Two-Track Yaw-Roll Model

23

Chapter 4
Results

24

Chapter 5
Discussion

25

Chapter 6
Conclusions

26

Chapter 7
Recommendations

27

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30

Appendix A
Additional Files and Schematics

31

Appendix B
Addenda

B.1

Ethics Forms

32