UNIT 2

Function and functional unit

1.1 Objectives of lesson 2

The aim of this unit is to achieve the following points:
to be able to set the problem and define the objectives and scope of the study;
to know how to determine the function of the system and the functional unit.

What should be assimilated:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to answer the following questions:
At the very beginning of an LCA, what are the points that have to be clarified?
What is the use of the screening approach?
How is a functional unit defined?
Can we reasonably compare bread with an umbrella? Why?
What is a reference flow?
How is product life time linked to reference flow?

1.2 LCA phases, where are we ?

First of all, lets situate ourselves in the overall LCA process. Remember the chart of
lesson 1:
Goal
definition
Inventory of
extractions and
emissions

Interpretation

Impact
assessment

The goal definition enables to set the problem, to define the objectives and the scope
of the study. The aim of this lesson is to get a deeper understanding of the first part of
the goal definition. The points that are going to be treated here are:
problem setting,
system function and functional unit.

LCA is a cyclical process in which every phase is closely linked to the others. All
results hang on the problem setting, system function and functional unit. Usually, it is
recommended to carry out the LCA in two steps:
A first screening phase covering the whole LCA and
assessing order of magnitude of emissions inventory and impacts
A detailed analysis to improve the assessment for most significant impacts
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1.3a Scope definition and actors

In the first phase of an LCA, problem setting enables to clarify the
following points:
Overall objective,
Is it a way to gain information about an existing product? Are we
developing a new product?
Target public,
Who will benefit from these information? Is it for internal benchmarking, for
consumers or for a governmental body?
Actors
Who are the concerned actors? The different stakehoders and NGOs
should be involved from the start of the study within the steering
committee.
Four stakeholders group are important to determine.

1.3b Scope definition and actors

These groups are the following:
- the mandate giver,
- the LCA executants,
- the steering committee and stakeholders,
The role of the steering committee is to guide the study and validate the
choices made in the goal definition (scenarios, functional unit, basic
hypothesis).
- the peer reviewers
Peer reviewers are required for a publically available LCA. Their role is to
check the quality of the study and the consistency between final results
and conclusions. It can be interesting to involve peer reviewers from the
beginning in order to enable the LCA executants to take into account these
remarks.
About 5 to 10% of the LCA cost should be kept for the peer reviewers
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2.1.a System function

Now that the goal and scope are defined and the stakeholders gathered, the system
function has to be determined. The system function allows the comparison of
various products/services which fulfill the same function.
For example:
portable phones have a function of communication,
paintings share a covering function.

In your opinion, what could be the system function of soap?

Washing

2.1.b System function

LCA relates the environmental impacts to a specific product function. Products or
systems can only be compared on the basis of a similar function.
One should not forget that the studied systems may have multiple functions. If their
secondary functions differs too much, the validity of the comparison becomes
questionable. It is therefore essential to care about the secondary functions as well.
In the phone secondary function could be to look cool
Painting is intended to cover and protect,
it also has to look nice.

Lets come back to soap. Do enumerate its secondary functions.

Perfuming, moisturing skin, relaxing
at least according to advertisements!

2.2 Functional unit

Based on the system function, it is possible to define the functional unit (FU) common to
all scenarios. It represents the system function which will serve as a basis for scenario
comparison: in the inventory (second step of the LCA, lesson 4), inputs and outputs are
calculated per FU.

The FU stands for what is offered. It is a quantified and additive value (not a ratio!):
FU for phones could be 1000 hours timespan of conversation,
a FU of painting is one square meter covered during.
In the soap example, what could be a valid FU?
A definite number of shower.
Lets take 50 standard showers

Remark: if a component is studied (e.g. phone batteries), FU generally refers to the

overall function (number of batteries required for 1000 hours of communication).

2.3 Reference flows

Next step of the LCA is the determination of the reference flows (what is bought). They
provide for each scenario the basic products quantities needed per FU. In our previous
examples:
a phone and electricity for charging the battery,
the quantity of painting and the brushes necessary to cover 1m 2.

Back to the soap: what would you see as being the major references flows?

the mass of soap and the volume of

hot water required to take 50 showers

The life time and the number of reuse are linked with the reference flow. For example,
two 500h communication life time phones are needed to catch up with a good quality
1000h life time phone. Thus, greater reference flows.
Reference flows, product life time or number of reuse can be key parameters for
environmental optimization.
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3.1 Light bulbs

As an illustration, lets have a closer look to light bulbs. Their main function is lighting.
Secondary functions could be aesthetics, heating, providing a nice atmosphere
The chosen FU is 600 lumen of light intensity. As usual, emission will be calculated
for the above mentioned FU.
We are going to compare a 60W, 1000 hours lifetime incandescent bulb weighting
35g, with an 11W, 6000 hours lifetime low energy fluorescent bulb of 160g.

To ensure a service of 6000 hours at 600 lumen, what do you need to buy? (your reference flows)

One economic light bulb or 6 incandescent bulbs and:

6 * 60W * 1000h = 360kWh for incandescent bulbs
11W * 6000h = 66kWh for low energy bulb
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3.2 Light bulbs

environmental key parameters
Some of the key environmental parameters can be identified without any further
calculation:

the number of lumen per watt (performance of the bulb),

the life time.
The former has to be maximized for the use phase. The latter directly influences the
environmental load for the raw material extraction and the manufacturing stage.
Further analysis is however required to assess the relative importance of these
different development stages.

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3.3 Light bulbs

economical considerations
What is your main objection for purchasing fluorescent bulbs?
Price is often raised as a main
objection, since the low energy
bulbs are more expensive.

But the purchasing cost is not the only one that has to be considered. The whole
economic costs can easily be calculated and compared on the basis of the same FU,
applying a life cycle costing approach:
an incandescent bulb is about 1$,
low energy fluorescent bulbs cost 10$ each,
electricity is about 0.1$/kWh (use phase).
Please feel free to calculate the corresponding investment costs

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3.3 LCA and design for environment:

All the results can be gathered the following way:
Products
Scenario 1

Main function

Secondary function/performances

Lighting

Aesthetics
Heating

Scenario 2
Alternative
scenarios

Product or
system

Scenario 1
Incandescent
bulb

Providing a nice atmosphere

Functional
unit=offered
service

Reference flow=
what you buy

Key parameters

6000 hours at
600 lumen of
light intensity.

60W * 6000h/FU

The number of
lumen per Watt.

360kWh/FU *
0.1$/kWh
= 36$/FU

The life time.

6 * 1$ = 6$/FU

The manufacturing
stage.

66kWh/FU *
0.1$/kWh
= 6.6$/FU

= 360kWh/FU
6 bulbs = 6 * 35g
= 210g

Scenario 2
Fluorescent
bulb

11W * 6000h/FU
= 66kWh/FU
1 bulb = 160g

Costs

1 * 10$ = 10$/FU

Contrary to apparent purchasing costs, fluorescent

bulbs therefore lead to significant economic savings
of 25.4$ per bulb for a 6000 h service.
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3.4 Light efficiency for different sorts of

bulbs
To go further in the study of light bulbs, we can consider more kinds of bulbs. In the
following figures you can see the evolution of the light bulbs and of the improvement
in their efficiency through the last two centuries.
Beware comparing an emerging technology which has not yet been optimized with a
well established one which has been improved over years.
On the second graph, you can see that efficiency of light bulbs has improved of a
factor 1000 over 100 years. Turning a new technology into an efficient one requires
time.

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4.1 Example : shoes

Now you are going to do an exercise to check if you understood the notions
explained during this lesson.
Let s compare 2 different type of shoes:
high quality (Swiss? ;-)) shoes with a life time of 2 years,
lower quality shoes with a life time of 6 months.

Now it is your turn to fill in the following form

Answers are given in the second next slide.

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4.2 Example: shoes

Products
Scenario 1

Main function

Scenario 2
Alternative
scenarios

Secondary function/performances

...

...

Product or Functional Reference flow= key parameters

system
unit=offered
what you buy
service

...
...
Scenario 1

Costs
...

...

Scenario 2

...

...

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4.3a Example: shoes

Products
Scenario 1

Main function

Secondary function/performances
To be fashionable

To protect the feet

To be comfortable

Scenario 2
Alternative
scenarios

Product or Functional Reference flow= key parameters

system unit=offered
what you buy
service
Scenario 1
High quality
city shoes
(HQS)

Scenario 2
Low quality
city shoes
(LQS)

A pair of shoes
protecting the
feet during a
definite
timespan of
"standard" use.
(2 years)

1 pair of 2-years
lifetime shoes

Quantity of materials
used,
Type of materials,
lifetime.

4 pairs of 6-months
lifetime shoes

Life Cycle
Costs
Lets say HQS are
150 US$ and LQS
are only 45 US$:
HQS:
1150=150US$
LQS:
445=180US$

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4.3b Example: shoes

Note: the shoes we are comparing are of the same kind, city shoes. It would not be
possible to compare summer sandals with boots, since they have too different
functions (protection against heat or snow).

In addition to the shoes, the shoe shine should be taken into account if its amount is
not the same for all the scenarios. This topic will be discussed in more details in Unit
3 (System boundaries).
We can see in our example that LQS are more expensive than HQS. Depending on
your assumptions you may have a different result.
Moreover the environmental burden of producing four pair of LQS has proved to be
higher than for one HQS. This is because of the materials used, for LQS mostly
plastic derivates, for HQS mostly leather.
This is clearly a win-win situation where sparing money goes with lower
environmental burden.
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5. Questions of understanding
At the very beginning of an LCA, what are the points that have to
be clarified?
What is the use of the screening approach?
How is a functional unit defined?
Can we reasonably compare bread with an umbrella? Why?
What is a reference flow?
How is life time linked to reference flow?

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6. Group exercise
The end of this session is dedicated to the group exercise.
Three by three, you now have to solve the case you subscribed for.
Thank you and see you soon...

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