Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

1. Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of energy.

Point 1.1 - Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy from the sun
(light energy) to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground
into carbohydrates such as glucose and starch. It is an endothermic reaction.
Equation of photosynthesis:
Carbon Dioxide + Water

Glucose + Oxygen

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

The solar energy collected by the plants is converted into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis.

Point 1.2 - Carbohydrates are mainly sugars and starches constituting one of the
three principal types of nutrients used as energy sources (calories) by the body.
They originate from the photosynthesis of plants. It is a product in this process.
They are converted for all life to use (animals, humans).

Point 1.3 Coal is formed from plant material buried in swampy conditions.
There is chemical energy stored in the plant material in the coal. This energy had
been converted from light energy in photosynthesis. Natural gas and petroleum are
formed from phytoplankton, zooplankton and algae buried on the sea floor under
pressure.

Point 1.4 Compounds found in coal include:

Hydrocarbons
Carbon dioxide
Organoarsenic compounds

2. There is a wide variety of carbon compounds

Point 2.1 Carbon is located in Group 4 in the Periodic Table and its electronic
configuration is 2, 4; which means it has 4 valence electrons (outer shell).

Point 2.2 - The allotrope diamond consists of carbon atoms each covalently
bonded to four other carbon atoms. In diamond, the shape around each carbon
atom is tetrahedral. The carbon atoms are arranged in six-membered rings; the
rings are buckled and not flat. The three dimensional structure means that
diamond is very hard. With its valence electrons tied up in strong covalent bonds,
diamond has no mobile electrons and so it does not conduct electricity. The
orderly arrangement of the atoms throughout the whole crystal gives its
transparency and brilliance.
The allotrope graphite is also a covalent lattice but unlike diamond each carbon
atom is bonded to only three other carbon atoms to form a planar structure. The
structure of graphite consists of flat six-membered rings. The three bonds per

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

carbon atom mean that it leaves each carbon with a free valence electron and as a
result graphite unlike diamond can conduct electricity. Graphite is packed in
layers. Because they are only weak intermolecular forces between these layers,
they can easily slide across one another and this explains the slipperiness of
graphite and its good lubricating properties.

Point 2.3 Carbon can form single, double and triple bonds with other carbon
atoms.

Point 2.4 Carbon has a valency power of 4. As shown above carbon can form
single, double and triple bonds and as a result carbon forms a huge array of
compounds.

Point 2.6

Uses - Diamond
Diamond is widely used for jewellery.
(rings, necklaces)
Diamond is used for drills and cutting
implements. (tips of drills)

Related physical properties

This is because of their brilliance sparkle
and hardness (diamond cannot be dulled
by scratches).
This is because diamond is extremely
hard and resists corrosion.

Diamond is also used in long-lasting dies

for drawing fine wire (e.g. for a light
globe filaments)

This is because diamond is extremely

hard, has a very high melting point and it
has a high resistance to any chemical
attack.

Uses - Graphite
Graphite is used as electrodes in ordinary
and alkaline dry-cell batteries.
Graphite is used as a dry lubricant (often
on door catches in motor cars) and in the
lead of lead pencils.
Graphite is used for making kitchen

Related physical properties

This is because graphite conducts
electricity.
This is because graphite is very slippery
(as the planar layers slide over one
another).
This is because graphite resists corrosion.

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

benches and other household surfaces.
Graphite is also used as a chemical plant
structural material (e.g. absorption towers
in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid
are built from graphite blocks).

This is because graphite is a good

conductor of heat, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, easily machined, has a
very high melting point, durable at high
temperatures and because it is very
resistant to chemical attack.

3. A variety of carbon compounds are extracted from organic sources

Point 3.1 - Fractional distillation involves vaporising the petroleum by heating it

to 350oC in a fractionating column. Using fractional distillation, components of
petroleum are separated by according to their boiling points. The components with
low b.p vaporise to the top of the fractioning tower and condense back.
Fraction

Gases

Less than 30

Carbon atoms per

molecule
1 to 4

Petroleum ether
Gasoline
Kerosene

30 80
70 200
175 250

5 to 6
6 to 12
12 to 16

Gas oil

250 350

15 to 18

Lubricating oil
Greases
Asphalt and tar

Greater than 350

Greater than 350
Residue

18 to 25
Greater than 20
Greater than 25

Boiling Point (C)

Point 3.2
C1

meth-

C6

C2

eth-

C7

hept-

C3

prop-

C8

oct-

C4

but-

C9

non-

C5

pent-

C10

dec-

Single bonds = alkanes

Double bonds = alkenes
Triple bonds = alkynes

hex-

Major uses
Liquefied
petroleum gas
(LPG)
Industrial solvents
Motor fuel
Jet fuel, domestic
heating
Diesel fuel,
industrial and
domestic heating
Motor oils
Lubrication
Road-making,
roofing

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

Points 3.3 and 3.4

In terms of molecular structure

Non-polar covalent bonds (C C is non-polar, C H is slightly polar but

geometry (shape) tends to cancel it out).
Only intermolecular forces are dispersion forces.
Dispersion forces increase as molecular weight (no. of C atoms) increases.

These bonds explain the following properties

Melting and Boiling Point

Melting & boiling point increases as number of C atoms increases (as

molecular weight increases, dispersion forces increase)
Melting & boiling points of the alkanes are higher than the corresponding
alkene (lower molecular weight of alkene lower dispersion forces)

Solubility

Insoluble in water (non-polar), soluble in non-polar solvents

Volatility
Volatility is the ease at which a substance can be converted to a vapour.
Volatility decreases as molecular weight increases. (Molecular weight
increases dispersion forces increases)
Other

Density < 1 g/cm3 (ie. floats on water)

Do not conduct electricity (no free electrons)
Generally unreactive (except combustion)

Homologous series:
Family of compounds that can be represented by one general formula
Common functional group
Similar structures & chemical properties
Gradation in physical properties based on order of molecular weight (eg. boiling
point)
Functional Group:
Atom or group of atoms that determines the chemical behaviour of the compound.
Eg.

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

Alkanes single bonds
Alkenes double bonds
Alkynes triple bonds

Point 3.5 Because alkanes and alkenes contain weak dispersion forces, they are
very volatile. (i.e. vaporise very easily have low boiling points). As a result
safety precautions must be taken:

Well-maintained cylinders and fittings for gaseous hydrocarbons

Added odours for early detection of leaks
Sturdy containers for liquids
Minimise the quantity in everyday use
Do not handle these liquids in confined places
Keep hydrocarbons away from naked flames or sparks
Use fume hoods

4. Combustion provides another opportunity to examine the conditions under

which chemical reactions occur.

Point 4.1 Indicators of chemical reactions:

Gas evolved
Precipitate formed
Significant temperature rise
Disappearance of a solid
Odour produced
Light produced
Colour change

Point 4.2 Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction because it releases

heat and new products are formed.

Point 4.3 In chemical reactions, bonds are broken and rearranged to form new
bonds. Reactants are altered to produce new products. Therefore the molecular
configuration is changed.

Point 4.4 - Energy is absorbed from the surroundings to break the bonds
(endothermic). Energy is released when bonds are formed (exothermic).

Point 4.5 Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed to start a
reaction. On an energy profile diagram, activation energy is the space between
peak and reactants.

Point 4.6 Energy profile for exothermic reaction: reactants higher than products.
Energy profile for endothermic reaction: reactants less than products.

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

Point 4.7 The ignition temperature of a substance is the temperature above

which spontaneous combustion will start. (I explained activation energy
earlier). There are both minimum temperatures required for molecules to start
reacting.

Point 4.8 Partial combustion occurs in fossil fuels when they are burnt in
limited oxygen for example when the sleeve of a Bunsen burner is partly or fully
closed. In the case of petrol in cars in cities when a temperature inversion occurs
ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) as well as other oxides of nitrogen are
produced causing photochemical smog. This can be avoided by allowing more
oxygen and in the case of the Bunsen burner opening the hole.

Point 4.9

Preliminary Chemistry Energy Module Notes

5. The rate of energy release is affected by factors such as types of reactants.

Point 5.1
Slow:
Slow combustion occurs when we use big lumps of fuel and limit the supply
of air (oxygen gas). This means that burning occurs only on the surface of the
big lumps and its speed is controlled by the limited supply of air.
Spontaneous:
Spontaneous combustion occurs when a substance catches on fire without the
application of heat from the outside. The oxidation between the two
substances in contact starts the fire.
An explosive reaction reacts much more rapidly than a normal combustion
reaction. The conditions in which it reacts under are: an excess amount of
heated air and high pressure. For example in petrol engines a spark is used to
ignite a heated mixture of petrol and air. In this case, the conditions used to
promote a very rapid reaction.

Point 5.2 Collision theory: molecules must collide (energy) and at

orientation (must collide at right position). The more successful collisions
there are between the molecules, the faster the reaction rates.

Point 5.3 The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the
particles. If you lower the temperature, the lower the kinetic energy of the
particles.

Point 5.4 A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction

without undergoing permanent chemical change in the reaction. The role of
catalysts in chemical reactions is to increase the rate of reaction by helping
break chemical bonds in reactant molecules and provide a 'different pathway'
for the reaction. The catalyst used in the Haber process (production of
ammonia) is iron (iron substrate).

Point 5.5 The role of catalysts is to lower the activation energy of a reaction.
Lowering the activation energy increases the rate of reaction. For endothermic
reactions, more activation energy is needed than in exothermic reactions.

Point 5.7 - Explosions occur when reactions become extremely rapid. This
usually occurs when there is good contact between reactant particles and
when the reaction is highly exothermic with high activation energy. It is
related to the collision theory because the molecules of each substance are
basically colliding into each other (as a result of the heated conditions). The
substances may or may not react it depends if they collide the right way
around and if they collide with enough energy for the bonds to break.