Hydraulic Engineering

CEWB222

OPEN DRAINS
MSMA
CHAPTER 6

Dr. Mohd Hafiz Zawawi

Prof. Dr. Ir. Lariyah Mohd Sidek

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN MALAYSIA

Separate
Drainage
System (after
O'Loughlin,
1998)

Combined Sewer System (after

O'Loughlin, 1998)

Parts of an Malaysian Separate Urban Stormwater

Drainage System (after O'Loughlin, 1998)

property drainage
system,
street drainage
system,
trunk drainage
system, and
receiving waters

Rigid Boundary Channel

Rigid Boundary Channel

(Dry Period)

Rigid Boundary Channel

Trunk Drain During Dry Period

Rigid Boundary Channel

Wet Period

Rigid Boundary Channel

Trunk Drain - Wet Period

SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE

INTRODUCTION

The project is located in hilly and undulating areas, at Kg.

Beting, Kuala Pilah. Planning and achieving sustainable
development in such environment is particularly
important in regard to drainage, flash flood, erosion and
slope stability management. Therefore, the drainage
system should be designed adequately, following the
guidelines of Manual Saliran Mesra Alam MSMA (DID,
2000) to prevent the instability of bank, avoid erosion and
nuisance flooding.

(a)Minor Drains

A minor drainage system was designed to drain the

stormwater collected from roofs and properties and
attenuated through on-site detention facilities to a stable
discharge point where it will not cause overflow,
surcharge and erosion. Pipe drainage is suitable mainly
for high-density where the land supply is limited and
costly.
The use of perforated pipe drains was not proposed in the
hillside sloping areas due to the risk of increasing soil
instability, therefore normal pipe drains were proposed.
The drainage system in the hillsides areas was
incorporated with the drop structures, cascading drains
or energy dissipaters in order to avoid excessive
velocities. Alternatively, a pipe system can be
successfully used especially in small development, with
the head loss being taken up in drop pits and similar
structures.

Types Of Minor Drainage Facilities

Interceptor
Drain:

The interceptor drains are proposed at top of the slopes.

These are trapezoidal in shape and similar to the toe drains.
These drains are to be constructed with cast in situ
concrete with BRC reinforcement.

Berm
Drain:

Berm drains are proposed to collect stormwater from the

intermediate slopes. These will be V-shaped concrete
sections as shown in the drawings.

Toe Drain:

Toe drains are proposed at bottom of the slopes to collect

and convey the storm runoff safely to the bottom of the hills.
These facilities do not have any capability to improve the
runoff quality. These are concrete drains of trapezoidal
shapes with side slopes of 1:1.

Cascade
Drain:

Cascade drains are proposed at the hilly areas to match the

terrain and to reduce the flow velocity. These drains will be
in combination of concrete precast blocks and cast in situ
sidewalls with weep holes without any strut. For the depth
shallower than 750 mm, plastered brick walls are proposed
to reduce the cost.

Perimeter
Drain

Pipe drains are proposed to avoid the problem of space

availability and to increase the aesthetics of the
surroundings. Perimeter drains consists of perforated
RIBLOC SPIROLITE SERIES 2000 HDPE pipe (Type A).
Perforated drains are proposed to allow infiltration (control
at source) of the stormwaters. The proposed perimeter
drains will help reduce the old practices of rapid discharge
concept by reducing the velocity before entering into the
pipes.

Perimeter Drains

Perimeter swale

Perimeter swale

Perimeter swale

Ecological swale type B

Roadside and
Secondary Drain

These drains are provided to collect and convey runoff from the paved road surfaces and perimeter drains.
These drains are classified into two categories. The drain Type-B is SPIROLITE SERIES 2000 HDPE nonperforated pipe. These pipes are light-weight, easy to construct, last long and hydraulically efficient. The pipe
sizes shall vary between 300 to 900 mm in diameter. The drain Type-C are open channels and do not provide
facilities for significant water quality improvement option for the proposed perimeter drains

Swale

Vegetated swales are proposed at the areas with mild slopes where enough space is available. The small
size of swale was designed to collect the runoff water from the nearby area before its flow into the inlet
manholes, which are usually proposed at 12 and 50 m interval of the pipe and open drains, respectively.
Perforated HDPE pipes are proposed below the swales to allow infiltration of the stormwater, as shown in the
drawing. The swales will be shallow but wide enough to cater for the design floods. The swales have the
capabilities to improve runoff quality through filtration. They are expected to trap sediment, heavy metals,
hydrocarbons and nutrients from the storm runoff.

Subsoil Drain

These are special types of drains required for the sport fields and mini stadium. The subsoil drainage system
for the sport facilities and football field are provided to drain the surface water efficiently and ensure that the
facilities are ready to use shortly after rainfall events. The subsoil drainage consists of RIBLOC UPVC pipes
sizing from 160 mm to 200 mm. The subsoil drain pipes is designed at 6 m and 10 m intervals for stadium
and other field respectively. An adequate gradient is provided from the middle of the field into the nearest
outlet drainage system. In general the subsoil drain is surrounded with selected geotextile to avoid the
penetration of granular material into the opening of the drain material. RIBLOC pipe system having a very
uniform opening at minimum interval along the length of the pipe.

Road Side Drain

Road Side Drain

Swales

Swales

Types Of Major Drainage

Facilities
Monsoon
Drain

Community
Ponds

The major drains are provided at the areas downstream from the roadside and secondary
drains. According to the conventional practices these are used to be called as Monsoon drains.
These drains are proposed to convey larger floods safely to the downstream areas. Open
drains with natural sides and precast channel for dry weather flow are provided for monsoon
drains. In order to maintain the ecological balance in the drainage system the major drains are
proposed to be unlined but protected with reinforced mattress. If the side slopes are not
protected with the proposed facilities, erosion will occur due to the high velocities during the
floods. The channel sides are proposed to have slopes of 1:3 and to be protected with TRM
(Turf Reinforcement Matting) or equivalent, as shown the drawings. At the slope areas energy
dissipaters or drop structures will be provided to reduce the velocity of waters.

Not all the drainage outlets could be connected to the proposed regional facilities (lakes), which
were large enough to cater room for the excess runoff due to the proposed development. As
such, four wet ponds are proposed as community facilities for the control of stormwater at
community level. About four percent (4%) of the drainage catchment was allocated for the
ponds to cater room for the excess runoff from the respective sub-catchments. Multi level
risers and outlet structures are proposed to control discharge from the ponds.
The ponds and outlet structures are sized such that post-development flood peak values are
less than those of pre-development conditions. The drainage system is expected to discharge
better quality of storm runoff compared to the pre-development condition when there was no
such facility to improve the storm runoff quality

Monsoon Drain

Monsoon Drain

Detention Pond

Other Drainage Facilities

Sump

Sumps are provided mainly for the perimeter drains where the gutter from the roofs will meet the drains. It is also provided for the
open drains to reduce velocities, trap coarser particles and at the junctions of the drains. The sumps proposed in the open drains
are designed different from the conventional practices. The sumps have drop (about 300mm) below the pipes invert which will act
as catch basin and trap the coarser particles from the runoff. This is how the proposed facilities will help improve the runoff
quality. The sumps are proposed to be concrete structures with gravel pack ( 12 50 mm diameter crushed washed stone) at the
bottom, as shown in drawing. There is possibility that sumps may be filled with sand during the storms. As such frequent
inspections are recommended after the large storms

Culvert

Culverts are provided to connect the drains across the roads. In order to provide efficient hydraulic performance, reinforced
concrete pipe (RCP) culverts of Class Z are proposed for the drainage system. Precast box structures are proposed for the
culverts larger than 750 mm. Piles are proposed for the stability of the culvert structure. Energy dissipaters are provided at the
downstream of the culvert outlets where the slopes are steep and high velocity is expected. Apron walls should be provided
around the culvert to protect slopes from the erosion and failure.

Sump

Sump

Culvert

Design Criteria

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for the design of open
drainage system, such as lined drains and grassed swales.
These facilities, along with stormwater inlets are components
of the minor drainage system designed to collect minor flood
flows from roads, properties and open space, and convey them
to the major drainage system.

It should be noted that fully lined drains are not encouraged

anymore in local practice while grass lined ones as encouraged.
Developers and designers shall seek approval from the local
regulatory authority if such needs arise. Much of procedures
and experience that deal with open drainage system have been
established in Malaysian practice since late 1970s.

Design Storm
Drains and swales should have the capacity to
convey the flow up to and including the minor
system design ARI.

Design Storm ARIs for Urban Stormwater Systems

Note 1 : Higher of applicable storm ARIs shall be adopted if development falls under two categories
Note 2: Size of trunk drains within major drainage system expected to vary, Current practices trunk drains are provided for areas larger than 40 ha,
Downstream size of trunk drain should increase to limit the magnitude of gap flows
Note 3 : Selection of design storm ARI based on the level of protection in practice, For cases where higher ARI design storm is impractical selection of
appropriate ARI should be based on assessment of cost to benefit or social factors, Lowert ARI for major system are to be made with consultation and approval
from Local Authority, Consequences of the higher ARI shall be investigated and made known, Land should still be reserved for the higher ARI for future
system upgrading
Note 4: Habitable floor levels of buildings shall be above the 100 year ARI flood level
Note 5: Reduction in discharge due to quantity control (detention or retention) measures to be included

Drainage Reserves
Most open drains will be located within road
reserve and therefore do not require a separate
reserve to allow access for maintenance.
However, open drains and swales located outside of
road reserves, such as in public walkways and open
space areas, should be provided with a drainage
reserve
In new development areas, the edge of a swale
should generally be located 0.5 m from the road
reserve or property boundary

STRUCTURAL AND COMPOSITE DRAIN

A lined drain is highly resistant to erosion. This type of
drain is expensive to construct, although it should have
a very low maintenance cost if properly designed.
A composite drain is combination of a grassed section
and a lined drain that may be provided in locations
subject to dry-weather base flows which would
otherwise damage the invert of a grassed swale, or in
areas with highly erodible soils. The composite drain
components shall comply with the relevant design
requirements specified for grassed swales and lined
drains.

Lining Materials
Lined drains shall be constructed from materials proven
to be structurally sound and durable and have satisfactory
jointing systems
Lined open drains may be constructed with any of the
following materials:
plain concrete;
reinforced concrete;
stone pitching;
plastered brickwork; and
precast masonry blocks.

Design Criteria
Geometry
The dimensions of lined open drains have
been limited in the interests of public safety
and to facilitate ease of maintenance. The
minimum and maximum permissible crosssectional dimensions

The dimensions of lined open drains have been limited in the

interests of public safety and to facilitate ease of maintenance

Varies

0.6 m
maximum

Varies
0.5 m minimum
1.2 m maximum

(a) Uncovered Open Drain

0.6 m minimum
1.2 m maximum

Varies
0.5 m minimum
1.2 m maximum

Grate or
solid cover

(b) Covered Open Drain

Recommended Composite Drain Cross

Section

Depth
The maximum depth for lined open drains
shall be in accordance with Table 14.1. A
reinforced concrete drain shall be provided for
lined open drains that exceed 0.9 m in depth.
Cover/Handrail Fence Condition

Maximum Depth
(m)

Without protective covering

0.6

With solid or grated cover

1.2

Width
The width of lined open drains may vary
between a minimum width of 0.5 m and a
maximum of 1.2 m
Side slope
Drain Lining
Concrete, brickwork and blockwork

Maximum Side Slope

Vertical

Stone pitching

1.5(H):1(V)

Grassed/vegetated, rock riprap

2(H):1(V)

Velocities and Longitudinal Slope

To prevent sedimentation and vegetative growth, the
minimum average flow velocity for minor drain shall not be
less than 0.6 m/s. The maximum flow velocity in open drain
should be restricted to a maximum of 2 m/s. However, for
flow velocities in excess of 2 m/s and less than 4 m/s, drains
shall be provided with a 1.2 m high handrail fence, or
covered with metal grates or solid plates for the entire
length of the drain for public safety.
As longitudinal slope increase the velocity increases
proportionally. Open drains longitudinal slope should be
constant and no steeper than 0.2%. Drop structures may be
required to reduce the longitudinal slope in order to control
flow velocities.

Design Procedure
The preliminary sizing estimation procedure for minor drain is given
below:
Step 1:
Estimate the design discharge, Qminor based on the
design minor ARI using suitable methods from those outlined in
Chapter 2 (Section 2.3).
Step 2:

Estimate Mannings n of the lining material.

Step 3:
Select the design cross-section. Determine the depth
and the minimum base width for the proposed system.
Determine the proposed drain capacity using Mannings Equation.
Step 4:
Compare the estimated drain capacity with the
calculated design discharge, Qminor. If the drain capacity is found
to be inadequate, then the drain cross section should be modified
to increase the capacity. Likewise a reduction in the cross section
may also be required if the drain is not to be overdesigned. In the
case of any modifications to drain cross section, repeat Step 3.

 Step 5:
Calculate the average flow velocity from
V = Q/A and check that it is within the maximum and
minimum velocity criteria for the open drain. If not,
adjust the drain dimensions and return to Step 3.
Step 6:
Determine the flow depth, y and check if y is
within required limits for the open drain type. If not,
adjust the drain dimensions and return to Step 3.
Step 7:
Add the required freeboard. If required,
calculate the top width of drain for drains with sloping
sides.
Step 8:

Calculate the width of the drainage reserve.

Swales

Grassed Swales in Malaysia

Advantages
easy to incorporate into landscaping;
good removal of urban pollutants;
reduces runoff rates and volumes;
low capital cost;
maintenance can be incorporated into general
landscape management; and
good option for small area retrofits.

Disadvantages
not suitable for steep areas;
limited to small areas;
risks of blockages in connecting
pipework/culverts;
sufficient land may not be available for
suitable swale designs to be incorporated; and
standing water in vegetated swales can result
in potential safety, odour, and mosquito
problems.

Design Consideration and

Requirements
Drainage Area
Grassed swales engineered for enhancing water quality cannot effectively
convey large flows. Therefore, swales are generally appropriate for
catchments with small, flat impermeable areas. If used in areas with steep
slopes, grassed swales must generally run parallel to contours in order to
be effective
Space Requirement
Grassed swales must be effectively incorporated into landscaping and public
open spaces as they demand significant land-take due to their shallow sideslopes. Grassed swales are generally difficult to be incorporated into dense
urban developments where limited space may be available

Site Slope
Grassed swales are usually restricted to sites with significant
slopes, though careful planning should enable their use in
steeper areas by considering the contours of the site (CIRIA,
2007). The longitudinal terrain slope should not exceed 2% as
low runoff velocities are required for pollutant removal and to
prevent erosion. Longitudinal slopes can be maintained at the
desired gradient and water can flow into swales laterally from
impermeable areas.
Subsurface Soils and Groundwater
Where grassed swales are designed to encourage infiltration,
the seasonally high groundwater table must be more than 1 m
below the base of the swale. Where infiltration is not
required, the seasonally high groundwater level should be
below any underdrain provided with the swales (CIRIA, 2007).

Geometry
The preferred shapes for swales are shown in
Figure below. The depth shall not exceed 1.2 m. A
vee or triangular shaped section will generally
be sufficient for most applications; however, a
trapezoidal or parabolic swale shape may be used
for additional capacity or to limit the depth of the
swale. Swales with trapezoidal cross sections shall
be recommended for ease of construction. A
parabolic shape is best for erosion control, but is
hard to construct.

 For a trapezoidal shape, the bottom width

should be between 0.5 m and 3.0 m. The 0.5
m minimum bottom width allows for
construction considerations and ensures a
minimum filtering surface for water quality
treatment. The 3.0 m maximum bottom width
prevents shallow flows from concentrating
and potentially eroding channels, thereby
maximizing the filtering by vegetation.

 Side slope shall not be steeper than 2(H):1(V)

while side slope 4(H):1(V) or flatter is
recommended for safety reason. However,
side slope of 2(H):1(V) in residential areas are
strongly discouraged. The larger the wetted
area of the swale, the slower the flow and the
more effective it is in removing pollutants.

Recommended Swale Cross Sections

Longitudinal Slope
Slope of swales should normally be between 0.1% (1 in 1000) and
no greater than 0.5% (1 in 200). Underdrains may be required for
slopes below 0.2% (1 in 500), while drop structures such as rock
check dams in the channel may be required for slopes greater than
0.2% to reduce the drainage longitudinal slope such that the design
flow velocities do not exceed the permissible limits.
Freeboard
The depth of a swale shall include a minimum freeboard of 50 mm
above the design stormwater level (based on maximum design
flows) in the swale to allow for blockages.
Velocities
Maximum acceptable flow rate velocities for conveyance of peak
design flow (maximum flood flow design) along the swale shall not
exceed the recommended maximum scour velocity for various
ground covers and values of soil erodibility, or ideally be less than 2
m/s, unless additional erosion protection is provided.

Underdrain
A swale should have the capacity to convey the peak flows from the
design minor ARI without exceeding the maximum permissible
velocities. If this is not practical or there is insufficient space for a
swale, designer should consider dividing the flow into surface and
subsurface conduits Underdrains can also be placed beneath the
channel to prevent ponding.
It is important for biofiltration swales to maximise water contact
with vegetation and the soil surface. Gravely and coarse sandy soils
will not provide water quality treatment unless the bottom of the
swale is lined to prevent infiltration. (Note: sites that have
relatively coarse soils may be more appropriate for stormwater
quantity infiltration purposes after runoff treatment has been
accomplished). Therefore, the bed of a biofiltration swale shall
consist of a permeable soil layer above the underdrain material.

EXERCISE
REFER TO CHAPTER 14 MSMA 2nd EDITION

MSMAs Proposed Solutions