HVAC Systems

3. HVAC Processes

Refrigeration System

Basic refrigeration system could hypothetically be constructed using a drum of liquid refrigerant at
atmospheric pressure, a coil, a collecting drum, and a valve to regulate the flow of refrigerant into the
coil. Opening the valve allows the liquid refrigerant to flow into the coil by gravity. As warm air is blown
over the surface of the coil, the liquid refrigerant inside the coil will absorb heat from the air, eventually
causing the refrigerant to boil while the air is cooled. Adjustment of the valve makes it possible to
supply just enough liquid refrigerant to the coil so that all the refrigerant evaporates before it reaches
the end of the coil.

Refrigeration System
One disadvantage of this system is that after the liquid refrigerant
passes through the coil and collects in the drum as a vapor, it cannot
be reused. The cost and environmental impacts of chemical
refrigerants require the refrigeration process to continue without loss
of refrigerant.
Additionally, the boiling temperature of R-22 at atmospheric pressure
is -40.8C. At this unnecessarily low temperature, the moisture
contained in the air passing through the coil freezes on the coil
surface, ultimately blocking it completely.

Refrigeration System

Closing the Cycle

To solve the first problem, a system is needed to collect this used refrigerant and return it to the liquid phase.
Then the refrigerant can be passed through the coil again. This is exactly what happens in a typical mechanical
refrigeration system. Liquid refrigerant absorbs heat and evaporates within a device called an evaporator.
In this example system, air is cooled when it passes through the evaporator, while the heat is transferred to the
refrigerant, causing it to boil and change into a vapor. As discussed in the previous period, a refrigerant can
absorb a large amount of heat when it changes phase. Because of the refrigerant changing phase, the system
requires far less refrigerant than if the refrigerant was just increasing in temperature.
The refrigerant vapor must then be transformed back into a liquid in order to return to the evaporator and
repeat the process.

Refrigeration System

The liquid refrigerant absorbed heat from the air while it was inside the evaporator, and was transformed into
a vapor in the process of doing useful cooling. if the heat is then removed from this vapor, it will transform
(condense) back to its original liquid phase. Heat flows from a higher temperature substance to a lower
temperature substance. In order to remove heat from the refrigerant vapor, it must transfer this heat to a
substance that is at a lower temperature. Assume that the refrigerant evaporated at -40.8C. To condense back
into liquid, the refrigerant vapor must transfer heat to a substance that has a temperature less than -40.8C]. If
a substance were readily available at this cooler temperature, however, the refrigerant would not be required
in the first place. The cooler substance could accomplish the cooling by itself.
How can heat be removed from this cool refrigerant vapor, to condense it, using a readily-available substance
that is already too warm for use as the cooling medium.

Refrigeration System

Boiling Point of Water

At higher pressures, refrigerant boils and condenses at higher temperatures. This can be explained by
examining the properties of water. At atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia [0.10 MPa]), water boils and
evaporates at 212F [100C]. When pressure is increased, however, water does not boil until it
reaches a much higher temperature. At a higher pressure there is a greater force pushing against the
water molecules, keeping them together in a liquid phase.
Recall that, at a given pressure, the temperature at which a liquid will boil into a vapor is the same
temperature at which the vapor will condense back into a liquid.

Refrigeration System

This curve illustrates the pressures and corresponding temperatures at which R-22 boils and
condenses. At a pressure of 85 psia [0.59 MPa], the liquid R-22 will boil at 5.1C. As an example,
assume that a compressor is used to increase the pressure of the resulting refrigerant vapor to 280 psia
[1.93 MPa]. This increase in pressure raises the temperature at which the vapor would condense back
into liquid to 49.7C. In order to condense the refrigerant vapor at this higher temperature, a substance
at a temperature less than 49.7C is needed. Ambient air or water is generally available at
temperatures less than this.

Refrigeration System

A compressor, condenser, and expansion device form the rest of the system that
returns the refrigerant vapor to a low-temperature liquid, which can again be used
to produce useful cooling. This cycle is called the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.

Refrigeration System

In this cycle, a compressor is used to pump the low-pressure refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator and compress it to a higher pressure. This hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor
is then discharged into a condenser. Because heat flows from a substance at a higher
temperature to a substance at a lower temperature, heat is transferred from the hot
refrigerant vapor to a cooler condensing media, which, in this example, is ambient air. As
heat is removed from the refrigerant, it condenses, returning to the liquid phase. This
liquid refrigerant is, however, still at a high temperature.

Refrigeration System

Finally, an expansion device is used to create a large pressure drop that lowers the
pressure, and correspondingly the temperature, of the liquid refrigerant. The
temperature is lowered to a point where it is again cool enough to absorb heat in the
evaporator.

Refrigeration System

This diagram illustrates a basic vapor-compression refrigeration system that contains the
described components. First, notice that this is a closed system. The individual
components are connected by refrigerant piping. The suction line connects the
evaporator to the compressor, the discharge line connects the compressor to the
condenser, and the liquid line connects the condenser to the evaporator. The expansion
device is located in the liquid line.

Refrigeration System
Recall that the temperature at which refrigerant evaporates and condenses is
related to its pressure. Therefore, regulating the pressures throughout this closed
system can control the temperatures at which the refrigerant evaporates and
then condenses. These pressures are obtained by selecting system components
that will produce the desired balance. For example, select a compressor with a
pumping rate that matches the rate at which refrigerant vapor is boiled off in the
evaporator. Similarly, select a condenser that will condense this volume of
refrigerant vapor at the desired temperature and pressure.

Refrigeration System
Evaporator

At the inlet to the evaporator, the refrigerant exists as a cool, low-pressure mixture of
liquid and vapor. In this example, the evaporator is a finned-tube coil used to cool air.
Other types of evaporators are used to cool water.
The relatively warm air flows across this finned-tube arrangement and the cold
refrigerant flows through the tubes. The refrigerant enters the evaporator and absorbs
heat from the warmer air, causing the liquid refrigerant to boil. The resulting refrigerant
vapor (%) is drawn to the compressor.

Refrigeration System
Compressor

The compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor (%) to a pressure and
temperature high enough (&) so that it can reject heat to another fluid, such as
ambient air or water. There are several types of compressors. The type shown in this
figure is a reciprocating compressor. This hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor then
travels to the condenser.

Refrigeration System
Condenser

The condenser is a heat exchanger used to reject the heat of the refrigerant to another medium. The
example shown is an air-cooled condenser that rejects heat to the ambient air. Other types of condensers
are used to reject heat to water. The hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor (&) flows through the tubes of this
condenser and rejects heat from the cooler ambient air that passes through the condenser coil. As the heat
content of the refrigerant vapor is reduced, it condenses into liquid ('). From the condenser, the highpressure liquid refrigerant travels to the expansion device.

Refrigeration System
Expansion device

The primary purpose of the expansion device is to drop the pressure of the liquid refrigerant to equal the pressure in
the evaporator. Several types of expansion devices can be used. The device shown is an expansion valve.
The high-pressure liquid refrigerant (') flows through the expansion device, causing a large pressure drop. This pressure
drop reduces the refrigerant pressure, and, therefore, its temperature, to that of the evaporator. At the lower pressure,
the temperature of the refrigerant is higher than its boiling point. This causes a small portion of the liquid to boil, or
flash. Because heat is required to boil this small portion of refrigerant, the boiling refrigerant absorbs heat from the
remaining liquid refrigerant, cooling it to the desired evaporator temperature. The cool mixture of liquid and vapor
refrigerant then enters the evaporator ($) to repeat the cycle.

Refrigeration System

Placing each component in its proper sequence within the system, the compressor and
expansion device maintain a pressure difference between the high-pressure side of the
system (condenser) and the low-pressure side of the system (evaporator). This pressure
difference allows two things to happen simultaneously. The evaporator can be at a
pressure and temperature low enough to absorb heat from the air or water to be cooled,
and the condenser can be at a temperature high enough to permit heat rejection to
ambient air or water that is at normally available temperatures.
These major components are discussed in further detail in the Refrigeration
Compressors and Refrigeration System Components clinics.

Refrigeration System
PressureEnthalpy (Ph)chart

The pressureenthalpy (Ph) chart plots the properties of a refrigerant refrigerant pressure on the vertical axis and
enthalpy on the horizontal axis. Enthalpy is a measure of heat quantity, both sensible and latent, per kg of refrigerant. It
is typically expressed in terms of kJ/kg.
The right-hand side of the chart indicates the conditions at which the refrigerant will be in the vapor phase. The lefthand side of the chart indicates the conditions at which the refrigerant will be in the liquid phase. In the middle of the
chart is an envelope (curve). The left-hand boundary of the envelope indicates the saturated liquid condition. The righthand boundary indicates the saturated vapor condition. If the enthalpy of the refrigerant lies inside the

Refrigeration System

envelope, the refrigerant exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor. If the enthalpy of the
refrigerant lies to the right of the envelope, the vapor is superheated. Similarly, if the
enthalpy of the refrigerant lies to the left of the envelope, the liquid is subcooled. Lines
of constant temperature cross the Ph chart as shown.

P-h Chart for Water

To further demonstrate the use of the Ph chart, let us look at the process of heating and boiling water, at a
constant pressure, on a Ph chart for water. As discussed earlier, at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia [0.10 MPa])
water boils at 212F [100C]. At $, the water temperature is 180F [82.2C]. As we add heat to the water, the
temperature and enthalpy of the water increase as they move toward %. When the water reaches its saturated
condition (%), at 212F [100C], it starts to boil and transform into vapor. As more heat is added to the water, it
continues to boil while the temperature remains constant. A greater percentage of the water is transforming
into vapor as it moves toward &. When the water reaches & on the saturation vapor line, it has completely
transformed into vapor. Now, as more heat is added to the vapor, its temperature begins to increase again
toward D, 240F [115.6C].

Heat of Vaporization of Water

The distance between the edges of the envelope indicates the quantity of heat required to transform
saturated liquid into saturated vapor at a given pressure. This is called the heat of vaporization. For
example, B represents the enthalpy of saturated liquid water at 14.7 psia [0.10 MPa] and C represents the
enthalpy of saturated water vapor at the same pressure. The difference in enthalpy between B and C
970 Btu/lb [2256.3 kJ/kg]is the heat of vaporization for water at this pressure.

Evaporator

The Ph chart can be used to analyze the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle and determine the
conditions of the refrigerant at any point in the cycle. The chart in this example is for R-22. Because the
refrigeration cycle is a continuous process, defining the cycle can start at any point. This example begins in
the lower left-hand portion of the Ph chart, where the refrigerant enters the evaporator.

Evaporator

At the inlet to the evaporator, the refrigerant is at a pressure of 85 psia [0.59 MPa] and a
temperature of 41.2F [5.1C], and is a mixture of liquid and vapor (mostly liquid). This cool, lowpressure refrigerant enters the evaporator ($) where it absorbs heat from the relatively warm air
that is being cooled. This transfer of heat boils the liquid refrigerant inside the evaporator and
superheated refrigerant vapor is drawn to the compressor (&).
The change in enthalpy from A to C that occurs inside the evaporator is called the refrigeration
effect. This is the amount of heat that each pound [kg] of liquid refrigerant will absorb when it
evaporates.

Super Heat

Compressors are designed to compress vapor. Liquid refrigerant can cause damage if drawn into the
compressor. In some refrigeration systems additional heat is added to the saturated vapor (%) in the
evaporator to ensure that no liquid is present at the compressor inlet. This additional amount of heat, above
saturation, is called superheat. This superheated vapor (&) is generally 8F to 12F [4.4C to 6.7C] above the
saturated vapor condition when it enters the compressor. In this example, the refrigerant vapor is
superheated 10F [5.6C], from 41.2F [5.1C] to 51.2F [10.7C].

Compressor

The compressor draws in the superheated refrigerant vapor (&) and compresses it to a pressure and
temperature (') high enough that it can reject heat to another fluid. As the volume of the refrigerant is
reduced by the compressor, its pressure is increased. Additionally, the mechanical energy used by the
compressor to accomplish this task is converted to heat energy. This causes the temperature of the
refrigerant to also rise as its pressure is increased.

Heat Compression

When the refrigerant vapor is discharged from the compressor, its temperature is substantially higher
than its saturation temperature (the temperature at which the refrigerant would condense). The increase
in enthalpy from & to ' is due to heat added by the compressor, or the heat of compression. In this
example, the refrigerant leaves the compressor at 280 psia [1.93 MPa] and 191.5F [88.6C]. At this higher
pressure, the corresponding saturation temperature is 121.5F [49.7C]. The refrigerant vapor leaving the
compressor is therefore 70F [38.9C] above its saturation temperature. This hot, high-pressure
refrigerant vapor then travels to the condenser.

Condenser

Inside of the condenser, heat is transferred from the hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor (') to relatively cool
ambient air. This reduction in the enthalpy of the refrigerant vapor causes it to de-superheat. It becomes
saturated vapor, condenses into saturated liquid, and further sub-cools before leaving the condenser (*) to go
to the expansion device. First, the refrigerant vapor is cooled (the line from ' to () to its saturation temperature
of 49.7C. Next, as additional heat is removed by the condenser, the refrigerant vapor condenses to its
saturated liquid condition (the line from ( to )). This saturated liquid refrigerant now passes through the area of
the condenser called the sub-cooler. Here, the liquid refrigerant is further cooled (the line from ) to *), in this
example, to 43.3C. Because the saturation temperature at the condensing pressure is 49.7C, the refrigerant
has been subcooled 6.4C. With the temperature of the refrigerant in the condenser this high, air at normal
ambient conditions can be used to absorb the heat from the refrigerant. From the condenser, the highpressure, subcooled liquid refrigerant (*) travels to the expansion device.

Expansion Device

The primary purpose of the expansion device is to drop the pressure of the liquid refrigerant to equal the
evaporator pressure. At this lower pressure, the refrigerant is now inside the saturation envelope where it
exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor. The high-pressure liquid refrigerant (*) flows through the expansion
device, causing a large pressure drop. This pressure drop reduces pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant to that of the evaporator ($). At the lower pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant is higher
than its boiling point. This causes a small portion of the liquid to boil, or flash. Because heat is required to
boil this small portion of refrigerant, boiling refrigerant absorbs heat from the remaining liquid refrigerant,
cooling it to the evaporator temperature. Notice that there is no change in enthalpy during the expansion
process. The purpose of sub-cooling the liquid refrigerant in the condenser is to avoid flashing the refrigerant
before it reaches the expansion device. If a valve is used as the expansion device, the presence of refrigerant
vapor can cause improper operation and premature failure.

Expansion Device

The temperature of the refrigerant entering the expansion device (*) is 110F [43.3C] and its pressure is
280 psia [1.93 MPa]. (The refrigerant condensed at 121.5F [49.7C] and was subcooled to 110F [43.3C].)
The enthalpy of the refrigerant at this condition is 42.4 Btu/lb [98.6 kJ/kg]. As mentioned previously, there
is no change in enthalpy during the expansion processit is the same at both * and $. The refrigerant
leaves the expansion device ($) at evaporator conditions, 85 psia [0.59 MPa] and 41.2F [5.1C]. At this
pressure, the enthalpy of saturated liquid is 21.8 Btu/lb [50.7 kJ/kg] and the enthalpy of saturated vapor is
108.2 Btu/lb [251.7 kJ/kg]. Because there is no change of enthalpy during the expansion process, the
mixture of liquid and vapor leaving the expansion device must have the same enthalpy as the liquid
entering the expansion device. This is true if 76.2% of the refrigerant is liquid and 23.8% of the refrigerant
is vapor. This is determined as shown below:

Expansion Device

Refrigeration Cycle

This cool mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant leaving the expansion device then enters the
evaporator ($) to repeat the cycle. The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has successfully
recovered the refrigerant that boiled in the evaporator and converted it back into a cool liquid to be
used again.

Example
A - 6.9C, 0.62 MPa, 96.8 kJ/kg
B - 6.9C, 0.62 MPa, 252.4 kJ/kg
C - 12.5C, 0.62 MPa, 256.6 kJ/kg
D - 87.8C, 1.93 MPa, 298.7 kJ/kg
E - 49.7C, 1.93 MPa, 262.4 kJ/kg
F - 49.7C, 1.93 MPa, 107.5 kJ/kg
G - 41.9C, 1.93 MPa, 96.8 kJ/kg
H - 6.9C, 0.62 MPa, 52.8 kJ/kg

a. How much superheat is in this system?

b. How much sub-cooling is in this system?
c. What is the refrigeration effect of this system?
d. At the inlet to the evaporator, what percentage of the refrigerant exists as a vapor?

HVAC Systems
4. HVAC plants

Compressor Types

The traditional reciprocating compressor has been used in the industry for decades. It contains
cylinders, pistons, rods, a crankshaft, and valves, similar to an automobile engine. Refrigerant is
drawn into the cylinders on the down-stroke of the piston and compressed on the upstroke.

Compressor Types
Scroll and helical-rotary (or screw) compressors have become more common, replacing the
reciprocating compressor in most applications due to their improved reliability and efficiency.
These three types of compressors (reciprocating, scroll, and helical-rotary) all work on the
principle of trapping the refrigerant vapor and compressing it by gradually shrinking the volume
of the refrigerant. Thus, they are called positive-displacement compressors.
In contrast, centrifugal compressors use the principle of dynamic compression, which involves
converting energy from one form to another in order to increase the pressure and temperature of
the refrigerant. The centrifugal compressor uses centrifugal force, generated by a rotating
impeller, to compress the refrigerant vapor.

Scroll Compressor

Similar to the reciprocating compressor, the scroll compressor works on the principle of trapping the
refrigerant vapor and compressing it by gradually shrinking the volume of the refrigerant. The scroll
compressor uses two scroll configurations, mated face-to-face, to perform this compression process. The
tips of the scrolls are fitted with seals that, along with a fine layer of oil, prevent the compressed
refrigerant vapor from escaping through the mating surfaces.
The upper scroll, called the stationary scroll, contains a discharge port. The lower scroll, called the driven
scroll, is connected to a motor by a shaft and bearing assembly. The refrigerant vapor enters through the
outer edge of the scroll assembly and discharges through the port at the center of the stationary scroll.

Scroll Compressor

Scroll Compressor
During the first full revolution of the shaft, or the intake phase, the edges of the scrolls separate,
allowing the refrigerant vapor to enter the space between the two scrolls. By the completion of
first revolution, the edges of the scrolls meet again, forming two closed pockets of refrigerant.
During the second full revolution, or the compression phase, the volume of each pocket is
progressively reduced, increasing the pressure of the trapped refrigerant vapor. Completion of the
second revolution produces near maximum compression.
During the third full revolution, or the discharge phase, the interior edges of the scrolls separate,
releasing the compressed refrigerant through the discharge port. At the completion of the
revolution, the volume of each pocket is reduced to zero, forcing the remaining refrigerant vapor
out of the scrolls.
Looking at the complete cycle, notice that these three phasesintake, compression, and
dischargeoccur simultaneously in an ongoing sequence. While one pair of these pockets is
being formed, another pair is being compressed and a third pair is being discharged.

Scroll Compressor
In this example scroll compressor, refrigerant vapor enters through
the suction opening. The refrigerant then passes through a gap in
the motor, cooling the motor, before entering the compressor
housing. The refrigerant vapor is drawn into the scroll assembly
where it is compressed, discharged into the dome, and finally
discharged out of the compressor through the discharge opening. In
the air-conditioning industry, scroll compressors are widely used in
heat pumps, rooftop units, split systems, self-contained units, and
even small water chillers.

Helical-Rotary (Screw) Compressor

Similar to the scroll compressor, the helical-rotary
compressor traps the refrigerant vapor and compresses
it by gradually shrinking the volume of the refrigerant.
This particular helical-rotary compressor design uses two
mating screw-like rotors to perform the compression
process.
The rotors are meshed and fit, with very close
tolerances, within the compressor housing. The gap
between the two rotors is sealed with oil, preventing the
compressed refrigerant vapor from escaping through the
mating surfaces. Only the male rotor is driven by the
compressor motor. The lobes of the male rotor engage
and drive the female rotor, causing the two parts to
counter rotate.

Helical-Rotary (Screw) Compressor

Refrigerant vapor enters the compressor housing through the intake port
and fills the pockets formed by the lobes of the rotors. As the rotors turn,
they push these pockets of refrigerant toward the discharge end of the
compressor. After the pockets of refrigerant travel past the intake port
area, the vapor, still at suction pressure, is confined within the pockets by
the compressor housing.
Viewing the compressor from the opposite side shows
that continued rotation of the meshed rotor lobes drives
the trapped refrigerant vapor (to the right), toward the
discharge end of the compressor, ahead of the meshing
point. This action progressively reduces the volume of
the pockets, compressing the refrigerant. Finally, when
the pockets of refrigerant reach the discharge port, the
compressed vapor is released and the rotors force the
remaining refrigerant from the pockets.

Helical-Rotary (Screw) Compressor

In this example helical-rotary compressor, refrigerant
vapor is drawn into the compressor through the suction
opening and passes through the motor, cooling it. The
refrigerant vapor is drawn into the compressor rotors
where it is compressed and discharged out of the
compressor. In the air-conditioning industry, helicalrotary compressors are most commonly used in water
chillers ranging from 70 to 450 tons [200 to 1,500 kW].

Centrifugal Compressor

The centrifugal compressor uses the principle of dynamic compression, which involves converting
energy from one form to another, to increase the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant. It
converts kinetic energy (velocity) to static energy (pressure). The core component of a centrifugal
compressor is the rotating impeller.

Centrifugal Compressor
The center, or eye, of the impeller is fitted with blades that draw
refrigerant vapor into radial passages that are internal to the impeller
body. The rotation of the impeller causes the refrigerant vapor to
accelerate within these passages, increasing its velocity and kinetic
energy.
The accelerated refrigerant vapor leaves the impeller and enters the
diffuser passages. These passages start out small and become larger
as the refrigerant travels through them. As the size of the diffuser
passage increases, the velocity, and therefore the kinetic energy, of the
refrigerant decreases. The first law of thermodynamics states that
energy is not destroyedonly converted from one form to another.
Thus, the refrigerants kinetic energy (velocity) is converted to static
energy (or static pressure). Refrigerant, now at a higher pressure,
collects in a larger space around the perimeter of the compressor
called the volute. The volute also becomes larger as the refrigerant
travels through it. Again, as the size of the volute increases, the kinetic
energy is converted to static pressure.

Centrifugal Compressor

This chart plots the conversion of energy that takes place as the refrigerant passes through the
centrifugal compressor. In the radial passages of the rotating impeller, the refrigerant vapor accelerates,
increasing its velocity and kinetic energy. As the area increases in the diffuser passages, the velocity, and
therefore the kinetic energy, of the refrigerant decreases. This reduction in kinetic energy (velocity) is
offset by an increase in the refrigerants static energy or static pressure. Finally, the high-pressure
refrigerant collects in the volute around the perimeter of the compressor, where further energy
conversion takes place.

Centrifugal Compressor

In this example centrifugal compressor, refrigerant vapor is drawn into the compressor and enters the
center of impeller. This particular centrifugal compressor uses multiple impellers to perform the
compression process in stages. The impellers rotate on a common shaft that is connected to the motor. In
the air-conditioning industry, centrifugal compressors are most commonly used in prefabricated water
chillers ranging from 100 to 3,000 tons [350 to 10,500 kW]. They are also used in field-assembled water
chillers up to 8,500 tons [30,000 kW].

Open compressor
In addition to the different methods of compression, compressors
can be classified as open, hermetic, and semi hermetic. A
reciprocating compressor will be used to explain these terms.
An open compressor is driven by an external power source, such
as an electric motor, an engine, or a turbine. The motor is coupled
to the compressor crankshaft by a flexible coupling. Since the
shaft protrudes through the compressor housing, a seal is used to
prevent refrigerant from leaking out of the compressor housing.
This motor is cooled by air that is drawn in from the surrounding
space. The heat removed from the motor must still be rejected
from the space, either by mechanical ventilation or, if the space is
conditioned, by the buildings cooling system.

Hermetic compressor
A hermetic compressor, on the other hand, seals the motor within
the compressor housing. This motor is cooled by the refrigerant,
either by refrigerant vapor that is being drawn into the compressor
from the suction line or by liquid refrigerant that is being drawn from
the liquid line. The heat from the motor is then rejected by the
condenser. Hermetic compressors eliminate the need for the shaft
couplings and external shaft seals that are associated with open
motors. The coupling needs precise alignment, and these seals are a
prime source of oil and refrigerant leaks. On the other hand, if a
motor burns out, a system with a hermetic compressor will require
thorough cleaning, while a system with an open compressor will not.

Semi-hermetic compressor
Similarly, the motor for a semi-hermetic compressor is
also contained within the compressor housing and is
cooled by the refrigerant. The term semi-hermetic
means that the sealed housing is designed to be opened
to repair or overhaul the compressor or motor.

Compressor Capacity Control

The capacity of a compressor is defined by the volume of evaporated refrigerant that can be
compressed within a given time period. The compressor needs a method of capacity control in
order to match the ever-changing load on the system.

Compressor Capacity Control

Capacity control is commonly accomplished by unloading the compressor. The method used for
unloading generally depends on the type of compressor. Many reciprocating compressors use
cylinder unloaders. Scroll compressors generally cycle on and off. Helical-rotary compressors use a
slide valve or a similar unloading device. Centrifugal compressors typically use inlet vanes or a
variable-speed drive in combination with inlet vanes. In addition, all four types of compressors
could use variable speed to control their capacity.

Scroll Compressor Cycle On & Off

Scroll compressors do not have valves or unloaders. A piece of equipment that uses scroll
compressors generally unloads by using multiple compressors and turning them on and off, as
needed, to satisfy the evaporator load.

Cycling Scroll Compressors

Cycling multiple scroll compressors is very similar to the use of cylinder unloaders on a single
reciprocating compressor. As an example, a large 40-ton [140.6-kW] reciprocating compressor
may have eight cylinders with unloaders on six of them, allowing it to unload in equal steps of 10
tons [35.2 kW] each, with a minimum nominal capacity of 10 tons [35.2 kW]. A similar 40-ton
[140.6-kW] unit using scroll compressors would include four separate 10-ton [35.2-kW] scroll
compressors. Just as the reciprocating compressor unloads in equal intervals by unloading a pair
of cylinders, the scroll compressor unit unloads in the same 10-ton [35.2-kW] intervals by shutting
off individual compressors.

Cycling Scroll Compressors

At design conditions, the capacities of the evaporator and this
four-compressor unit balance at a suction temperature of 43F
[6.1C] and a capacity of 44 tons [154.7 kW] (A). As the cooling
load decreases below this balance point, assuming a constant
condensing pressure, the capacity of the unit decreases with
the falling suction temperature along the four-compressor
curve until it reaches B. Here, the first scroll compressor is shut
off and the capacity of the unit decreases immediately to 30
tons [105.5 kW] (C) along the three compressor curve.

As the load continues to decrease, the individual compressors

shut off in a similar manner until the suction temperature
reaches a minimum set point and the final compressor is shut
off. The minimum capacity of the four-compressor unit in this
example is 8 tons [28.1 kW].

Cycling Scroll Compressors

Excessive starting and stopping of scroll compressors is not a concern. The reciprocating
compressor system on Figure 35 includes a single large compressor with a single large motor. In
contrast, the scroll compressor system has four small compressors, each with its own small motor.
These small motors are designed to cycle, just like those used with small reciprocating
compressors.

Screw Chillers - Side Valve

The helical-rotary compressor used as the example in this clinic is
unloaded using a slide valve that is an integral part of the compressor
housing. Other helical-rotary compressor designs may use a variety of
methods to vary capacity. Some of these methods are similar in
function to the slide valve presented in this clinic. One major
determining factor is whether the compressor is designed to unload
in steps, like a reciprocating compressor, or if it has variable
unloading. The position of the slide valve along the rotors controls
the volume of refrigerant vapor delivered by the compressor, by
varying the amount of rotor length actually used for compression. By
changing the position of the slide valve, the compressor is able to
unload to exactly match the evaporator load, instead of unloading in
steps like the reciprocating compressor discussed earlier.

Screw Chillers - Side Valve

At full load, the slide valve is closed. The compressor pumps its
maximum volume of refrigerant, discharging it through the
discharge port. As the load on the compressor decreases, the
slide valve modulates toward the open position. The opening
created by the valve movement allows refrigerant vapor to
bypass from the rotor pockets back to the suction side of the
compressor. This reduces the volume of vapor available for the
compression process. It also reduces the amount of rotor
length available for compression. In this manner, the volume of
refrigerant that is pumped by the compressor is varied,
unloading it to balance the existing load.

Centrifugal Chillers - Inlet Vanes

A common method of modulating the capacity of a centrifugal
compressor is to use a set of vanes installed at the inlet of the
compressor impeller. While a survey of other centrifugal
compressor designs shows that there are other methods of
capacity control, many of them function in a manner similar to
the inlet vanes presented in this section of the clinic. Inlet vanes
pre-swirl the refrigerant before it enters the impeller. By
changing the refrigerants angle of entry, these vanes lessen the
ability of the impeller to take in the refrigerant. As a result, the
compressors refrigerant pumping capacity decreases to
balance with the evaporator load.

Inlet Vane
These curves represent the performance of a typical centrifugal
compressor over a range of inlet vane positions. The pressure
difference between the compressor inlet (evaporator) and
outlet (condenser) is on the vertical axis and compressor
capacity is on the horizontal axis. The surge region represents
the conditions that cause unstable compressor operation. As
the load on the compressor decreases from the full-load
operating point (A), the inlet vanes partially close, reducing the
flow rate of refrigerant vapor and balancing the compressor
capacity with the new load (B).
Less refrigerant, and therefore less heat, are transferred to the condenser. Since the available heat
rejection capacity of the condenser is now greater than required, the refrigerant condenses at a lower
temperature and pressure. This reduces the pressure difference between the evaporator and the
condenser. Continuing along the unloading line, the compressor remains within its stable operating range
until it reaches C. Inlet vanes on a centrifugal compressor allow it to unload over a broad capacity range
while preventing the compressor from operating in the surge region.

Variable Speed

Alternatively, the capacity of a compressor can be controlled by varying the rotational speed of the compressor
motor. This is accomplished using a device called an adjustable-frequency drive (AFD) or variable-speed drive.
On a reciprocating compressor, this would vary the speed at which the crankshaft rotates, thus controlling the
rate at which the piston travels back and forth inside the cylinder. On a scroll compressor, this would vary the
speed at which the driven scroll rotates. If applied to a helical-rotary compressor, this would vary the speed at
which the rotors rotate. Applied to a centrifugal compressor, this would vary the speed at which the impeller
rotates.
Although variable-speed capacity control could be applied to all four types of compressors discussed in this
clinic, it is most often applied to centrifugal compressors. Because speed variation reduces both the flow rate of
refrigerant through the compressor and the pressure differential created by the compressor, it is used in
conjunction with inlet vanes. This requires fairly complex control strategies to balance refrigerant flow rate,
pressure differential, and load.