EEE 545:SATELLITE

COMMUNICATIONS

Danson Njue

Satellite speed and attitudes (1)

Speed and altitude of satellites in circular orbits

Altitude (Km)

Orbital speed (Km/s)

200

7.8

500

7.6

1,000

7.4

5,000

5.9

10,000

4.9

20,200 (Semisynchronous)

3.9

35,800 (Geosynchronous)

3.1

The speed needed to keep a satellite in orbit does not depend on the mass of the
satellite
Once a satellite has been accelerated up to orbital speed by a rocket, it does not need to
be continually powered to stay in orbit - Newtons first law of motion, which states that in
the absence of forces such as friction and air resistance, an object at rest will stay at rest
and an object in motion will stay in motion with same speed and in the same direction.
As a result, once put in motion by a rocket, a satellite will stay in motion, with the Earths
gravity bending its path from a straight line into an orbit
As such, satellites can stay in orbit for long periods of time, since they do not need to
carry large amounts of fuel to keep them moving. It also means that once in orbit, other
objects (debris) will stay in orbit essentially indefinitely, unless they are at low enough
altitudes that atmospheric drag slows them over time and they fall to Earth.

Orbital periods of satellite

Orbital Period: Time it takes for the satellite to travel around the Earth once (complete

one orbit)
As the altitude of the orbit increases, the satellite moves more slowly and must travel
farther on each orbit, hence the period increases with the altitude of the orbit
Altitude (Km)

Orbital period (Minutes)

200

88.3

500

94.4

1,000

104.9

5,000

201.1

10,000

347.4

20,200 (Semisynchronous)

718.3 (12 hours)

35,800 (Geosynchronous)

1436.2 (24 hours)

Orientation of the Plane of the Orbit

A satellites orbit always lies in a plane, and that plane passes through the center of the

Earth and the description of a satellites orbit requires specifying the orientation of this
orbital plane
Equatorial orbit: Occurs when the plane of the orbit includes the Earths equator
Polar orbit: When the inclination angle is 90 degrees, the orbital plane contains the
Earths axis and the orbit passes over the Earths poles
Inclination angle: Angle at which the plane of the orbit lies with respect to the Earths
equatorial plane

Circular and elliptical orbits

Circular Orbits:
For a satellite travelling in a circular orbit at an altitude h and speed V, the centifugal

force equals the gravitational force on the satellite.

Where m is the mass of the satellite, G is the gravitational constant, Me is the mass of the
Earth (GMe=3.99 x 1014 m3/s2) and Re is the average radius of the Earth (6.370 Km)
The speed of the satellite can be expressed as follows;

If we let r be the distance from the satellite to the center of the Earth, so that

Then V can be written as;

NB; The mass of the satellite does not appear in the above equation

Circular Orbits:
The period can be found by dividing the distance the satellite travels in one

orbit (in this case, the circumference of a circle with radius h + Re) by the
speed of satellite, V. The period Pcirc of a circular orbit is therefore given by;

Elliptical Orbits:
Assignment 1
Derive equations for the speed, V and the period, Pcirc of
a satellite travelling in an elliptical orbit

Escape Velocity
If an object is launched from Earth with a speed of 11.2 km/s or greater, the

Earths gravity is not strong enough to keep it in orbit and it will escape into
deep space. This speed is called the escape velocity
The escape speed is the minimum speed necessary for an object to escape
permanently from a gravitational field.

SATELLITE LINK
DESIGN
Satellite Link Design and Link Budget
Calculations

Satellite link
The satellite link is the most basic microwave

communications link since a line-of-sight (LOS) path

typically exists between the Earth and space.
The LOS exists in some form of an imaginary line
extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth
station and the satellite antenna and passing through the
atmosphere as opposed to the ground.
As such, such a link is governed by free-space
propagation with only limited variation with respect to time
due to various constituents of the atmosphere.

Satellite link- Attenuation

Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse

square law;
The power received, Pr is inversely proportional to the square of the

distance, d.

Other effects that produce a significant amount of signal

degradation and time variation in a satellite link include; Rain

Terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls

Other impairments produced by unstable conditions of the air and

ionosphere.

Satellite link- parameters

Important parameters of interest during design of a

satellite link include; Performance of the satellite

The configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink

Earth stations
The impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of
interest.
Efficient transfer of user information across the relevant interfaces
at the Earth stations, involving such issues as the precise nature of
this information, data protocol, timing, and the telecommunications
interface standards that apply to the service.

Satellite link- Elements

Satellite link- Elements

Baseband

The basic direct output signal in an intermediate

frequency obtained directly from a source (TV camera,
satellite television receiver, or video tape recorder).
Baseband signals needs to be modulated to convert them
to a format which a terminal equipment can be tuned to
(e.g VHF or UHF television channels which the television
set can be tuned to receive).
Carrier
The carrier is an analog signal which is modulated by
manipulating its amplitude (making it louder or softer) or
its frequency (shifting it up or down) in relation to the
incoming signal. Satellite carriers operating in the analog
mode are usually frequency modulated.

Satellite link- Elements

LNB (LOW NOISE BLOCK DOWN CONVERTER)

A device mounted in the dish, designed to amplify the satellite signals and convert
them from a high frequency to a lower frequency. LNB can be controlled to receive
signals with different polarization. The television signals can then be carried by a
double-shielded aerial cable to the satellite receiver while retaining their high quality.
A universal LNB is the present standard version, which can handle the entire
frequency range from 10.7 to 12.75 GHz and receive signals with both vertical and
horizontal polarization.
Demodulator
A satellite receiver circuit which extracts or "demodulates" the "wanted "signals
from the received carrier.
Decoder
A box which, normally together with a viewing card, makes it possible to view
encrypted transmissions. If the transmissions are digital, the decoder is usually
integrated in the receiver.
Modulation
The process of manipulating the frequency or amplitude of a carrier in relation to
an incoming video, voice or data signal.
Modulator
A device which modulates a carrier. Modulators are found as components in
broadcasting transmitters and in satellite transponders.

Satellite link- Elements

Most transponders operate on a "bent pipe" principle,

referring to the sending back of what goes into the conduit

with only amplification and a shift from uplink to downlink
frequency, as opposed to a 'regenerative' system
whereby the signal is modified to its original format
through re-modulation.
Bidirectional (duplex) communication occurs with a
separate transmission from each Earth station.
Due to the analog nature of the radio frequency link, each
element contributes a gain or loss to the link and may add
noise and interference as well.

Satellite link- Elements

Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)

The ratio of the received carrier power and the noise power in a
given bandwidth, expressed in dB. This figure is directly related
to G/T and S/N; and in a video signal the higher the C/N, the
better the received picture.
G/T
A figure of merit of an antenna and low noise amplifier
combination expressed in dB. "G" is the net gain of the system
and "T" is the noise temperature of the system. The higher the
number, the better the system.
The link budget analysis can predict if the link will work with satisfactory

quality based on the specifications of the ground and space components.

Any uncertainty can be covered by providing an appropriate amount of link

margin, which is over and above the C/N needed to deal with propagation
effects and nonlinearity in the Earth stations and satellite repeater.

Satellite link- Design process

Define Requirements for each link
Design Each Link
Select frequency
Select modulation & coding
Apply antenna size & beam width constraints
Estimate atmospheric, rain attenuation
Estimate received noise, interference power
Calculate required antenna gain & transmitter power
Size the Payload Payload antenna configuration, size &

mass Estimate transmitter mass & power Estimate

payload mass & power

Satellite link - propagation factors

Atmospheric losses
Different types of atmospheric losses can perturb radio

wave transmission in satellite systems:

Atmospheric absorption;
Atmospheric attenuation;
Traveling ionospheric disturbances.

Atmospheric absorption
Energy absorption by

atmospheric gases, which

varies with the frequency of
the radio waves.
Two absorption peaks are
observed:
22.3 GHz from resonance

absorption in water vapour

(H2O)
60 GHz from resonance
absorption in oxygen (O2)

Atmospheric attenuation
Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation (hail,

ice and snow have little effect on attenuation because of

their low water content).
Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
A = L [dB]
where [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation

where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal through the

rain; note that this differs from the geometric path length due to
fluctuations in the rain density.

Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances

Traveling ionospheric disturbances are clouds of

electrons in the ionosphere that provoke radio signal

fluctuations.
The disturbances of major concern are:
Scintillation;
Polarisation rotation.

Scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase,

polarisation, or angle of arrival of radio waves, caused

by irregularities in the ionosphere which change over
time. The main effect of scintillations is fading of the
signal.

Illustration of the various propagation loss mechanisms on

a typical earth-space path
The ionosphere can cause the electric
vector of signals passing through it to
rotate away from their original
polarization direction, hence causing
signal depolarization.

The absorptive effects of

the atmospheric
constituents cause an
increase in sky noise to be
observed by the receiver

Refractive effects
(tropospheric
scintillation) cause
signal loss.

the sun (a very hot

microwave and
millimeter wave
source of incoherent
energy), an increased
noise contribution
results which may
cause the C/N to drop
below the
demodulator
threshold.

The ionosphere has its principal impact on

signals at frequencies well below 10 GHz while
the other effects noted in the figure above
become increasingly strong as the frequency
of the signal goes above 10 GHz

Atmospheric propagation impairments

Propagation impairment

Physical cause

Prime importance

Attenuation and sky noise

increase

Atmospheric gases, clouds, rain

Frequencies above 10GHz

Signal depolarization

Rain, ice crystals

Dual-polarization systems at C and Ku

bands (depends on system
configuration)

Refraction, atmospheric multipath

Atmospheric gases

Communication and tracking at low

elevation angles

Signal scintillations

Tropospheric and ionospheric

refractivity fluctuations

Tropospheric at frequencies above 10

GHz and low elevation angles;
ionospheric at frequencies below 10
GHz

Reflection multipath, blockage

Earths surface, objects on surface

Mobile satellite services

Propagation delays, variations

Troposphere, ionosphere

Precise timing and location systems;

time division multiple access (TDMA) systems

Intersystem interference

Ducting, scatter, diffraction

Mainly C band; rain scatter may be

significant at higher frequencies

Link-Power Budget Formula

Link-power budget calculations take into account all the gains and

losses from the transmitter, through the medium to the receiver in a

telecommunication system.
It also takes into account the attenuation of the transmitted signal due
to propagation and the loss or gain due to the antenna.
The decibel equation for the received power is:
[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
Where:
[PR] = received power in dBW
[EIRP] = equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW
[GR] = receiver antenna gain in dB
[LOSSES] = total link loss in dB
dBW = 10 log10(P/(1 W)), where P is an arbitrary power in
watts, is a unit for the measurement of the strength of a signal relative
to one watt.

Link Budget parameters

Transmitter power at the antenna
Antenna gain compared to isotropic radiator (dBi)
EIRP
Free space path loss
System noise temperature
Figure of merit for receiving system
Carrier to thermal noise ratio
Carrier to noise ratio

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

(EIRP)
An isotropic radiator is one that radiates equally in all directions.
The power amplifier in the transmitter is shown as generating PT watts.
A feeder connects this to the antenna, and the net power reaching the

antenna will be PT minus the losses in the feeder cable, i.e. PS.
The power will be further reduced by losses in the antenna such that the
power radiated will be PRAD < PT.

Antenna Gain
We need directive antennas to direct the power in the

wanted direction.
Gain of antenna is the increase in power in a given
direction compared to isotropic antenna.

P( )
G ( )
P0 / 4
P() is variation of power with angle.
G() is gain at the direction .
P0 is total power transmitted.

Link-Power Budget Formula Other Variables

Link-Power Budget Formula for the received power [PR]:

[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]

The equivalent isotropic radiated power [EIRP] is given by:

[EIRP] = [PS] + [G] dBW, where:

[PS] is the transmit power in dBW and [G] is the transmitting antenna gain in dB
[GR] is the receiver antenna gain in dB
[LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL], where:

[FSL] = free-space spreading loss in dB = PT/PR (in watts)

[RFL] = receiver feeder loss in dB
[AML] = antenna misalignment loss in dB
[AA] = atmospheric absorption loss in dB
[PL] = polarisation mismatch loss in dB
The major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is the free-space spreading loss.
The above

formula assumes an idealized case

Complete formulation
Other effects accounted for in the transmission

equation are as follows:

La = Losses due to attenuation in atmosphere
Lta = Losses associated with transmitting antenna

Lra = Losses associated with receiving antenna

Lpol = Losses due to polarization mismatch
Lother = (any other known loss - as much detail as available)
Lr = additional Losses at receiver (after receiving antenna)

Pt Gt Gr
Pr
L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr

Complete formulation
Some intermediate variables are also defined:

Pt =Pout /Lt

EIRP = Pt Gt

Where:

Pt = Power into antenna

Lt = Loss between power source and antenna

EIRP = effective isotropic radiated power

Pt Gt Gr
Pr
L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr
There are many ways to express the link budget
transmission equation. The user has to pick the
one most suitable to each need.

EIRP x Gr

L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr

PoutGt Gr

Lt L p La Lta Lra L pol Lother Lr

Link Power Budget

The transmission formula can be written in dB as:

Pr EIRP Lta Lp La Lpol Lra Lother Gr Lr

This form of the equation is easily handled as a

spreadsheet (additions and subtractions!!)

The calculation of received signal based on transmitted

power and all losses and gains involved until the receiver
is called Link Power Budget, or Link Budget.
The received power Pr is commonly referred to as

Carrier Power, C.

Link Power Budget

Tx

EIRP

Transmission:
+ Power
- Transmission Losses
(cables & connectors)
+ Antenna Gain

All link factors are accounted for

as additions and subtractions

- Antenna Pointing Loss

- Free Space Loss
- Atmospheric Loss
(gaseous, clouds, rain)
- Rx Antenna Pointing Loss

Reception:
+ Antenna gain
- Reception Losses
(cables & connectors)
-Other losses

Rx

Pr

Easy Steps to a Good Link Power Budget

First, draw a sketch of the link path
Doesnt have to be artistic quality
Helps you find the stuff you might forget
Next, think carefully about the system of interest
Include all significant effects in the link power budget
Note and justify which common effects are insignificant here
Roll-up large sections of the link power budget
TXd power, TX ant. gain, Path loss, RX ant. gain, RX losses
Show all components for these calculations in the detailed budget
Use the rolled-up results in build a link overview
Comment the link budget
always use units on parameters (dBi, W, Hz ...)
Describe any unusual elements (eg. loss caused by H20 on
radome)

Simple Link Power Budget

Parameter
Frequency
Transmitter
Transmitter Power
Modulation Loss
Transmission Line
Loss
Transmitted Power

Value
Totals
11.75
40.00
3.00
0.75

Units
GHz
dBm
dB
dB

36.25 dBm

Transmit Antenna
Diameter
Aperture Efficiency
Transmit Antenna
Gain

0.5
0.55

m
none
33.18 dBi

Slant Path
Satellite Altitude
Elevation Angle

35,786
14.5

km
degrees

Slant Range
Free-space Path Loss
Gaseous Loss

41,602
206.22
0.65

km
dB
dB

Rain Loss (allocated)

Path Loss

3.50

dB
210.37 dB

Parameter
Receive Antenna
Random Loss
Diameter
Aperture Efficiency
Gain
Polarization Loss
Effective RX Ant.
Gain

Value

0.50
1.5
0.6
43.10
0.20

Received Power

Summary
Transmitted Power
Transmit Anntenna
Gain
EIRP
Path Loss
Effective RX
Antenna Gain
Received Power

Totals

Units

dB
m
none
dBi
dB
42.40 dB

-98.54 dBm

36.25
33.18

dBm
dBi
69.43 dBmi
210.37 dB
42.4 dBi
-98.54 dBm

Why calculate Link Budgets?

System performance tied to operation thresholds.
Operation thresholds Cmin tell the minimum power

that should be received at the demodulator in

order for communications to work properly.
Operation thresholds depend on:
Modulation scheme being used.

Desired communication quality.

Coding gain.
Additional overheads.

Channel Bandwidth.
Thermal Noise power.

Closing the Link

We need to calculate the Link Budget in order to verify if

we are closing the link.

Pr >= Cmin
Link Closed
Pr < Cmin
Link not closed

Usually, we obtain the Link Margin, which tells how tight

we are in closing the link:

Margin = Pr Cmin
Equivalently:

Margin > 0
Margin < 0

Link Closed
Link not closed

Carrier to Noise Ratios

C/N: Carrier/noise power in RX bandwidth (dB)
Allows simple calculation of margin if:
Receiver bandwidth is known
Required C/N is known for desired signal type

C/No: Carrier/noise power density. (dBHz)

Allows simple calculation of allowable RX bandwidth if
required C/N is known for desired signal type

System Figure of Merit

G/Ts: RX antenna gain/system temperature
Also called the System Figure of Merit, G/Ts
Easily describes the sensitivity of a receive system
Must be used with caution:
Some (most) vendors measure G/Ts under ideal conditions only
G/Ts degrades for most systems when rain loss increases
This is caused by the increase in the sky noise component
This is in addition to the loss of received power flux density

System Noise Power

System noise is mainly caused by thermal noise

sources
External to RX system
Transmitted noise on link
Scene noise observed by antenna
Internal to RX system

The power available from thermal noise is:

N kTs B (dBW)

= Boltzmanns constant
= 1.38x10-23 J/K
Ts is the effective system noise temperature, and
B is the effective system bandwidth

where k

Noise factor/figure
TX: signal is far larger than noise hence the effect of noise

causes limited problem.

RX: signal and noise have similar values which causes a major
problem.
Noise Factor/Figure is a means of measuring the noise added
by a device.

Na: noise added by the device.

G: device gain.
F: is the so-called noise factor.
NF(dB) = 10 log10 (F) is the noise figure.
This quantity is relative to the input noise level
The standard reference is kT0, with T0 = 290oK.