Engineering: 1 Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurisation............... 1-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 11.04
AIR CONDITIONING AND
CABIN PRESSURISATION
CONTENTS
1
AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION............... 1-1

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1-1

AIR SUPPLY ................................................................................. 1-1
1.2.1
Ram Air.........................................................................1-1
1.2.2
Engine Bleed Air ........................................................... 1-1
1.2.3
Compressors or Blowers. .............................................. 1-1
1.2.4
Auxillary Power Unit (APU) ...........................................1-1
1.2.5
Ground Power Trolley ................................................... 1-2
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ........................................................ 1-2
1.3.1
Combustion Heating...................................................... 1-2
1.3.2
Engine Exhaust Heating................................................ 1-3
1.3.3
Compression Heating.................................................... 1-3
AIR CYCLE AND VAPOUR CYCLE MACHINES ..................................1-4
1.4.1
Air Cycle Cooling System.............................................. 1-4
1.4.2
The Turbo Compressor ................................................. 1-5
1.4.3
The Brake Turbine ........................................................ 1-6
1.4.4
The Turbo Fan .............................................................. 1-7
1.4.5
Vapour Cycle Cooling System.......................................1-8
1.4.6
The Compressor ........................................................... 1-10
1.4.7
The Receiver Dryer ....................................................... 1-12
1.4.8
Thermostatic Expansion Valve ......................................1-13
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ............................................................... 1-14
1.5.1
Recirculation Air System ............................................... 1-18
FLOW, TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY CONTROL SYSTEMS ............. 1-18
1.6.1
Coalescer Type Water Extractor ...................................1-19
1.6.2
Bag Type Coalescer...................................................... 1-20
1.6.3
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator .................................1-21
PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS .......................................................... 1-22
1.7.1
Control And Indication................................................... 1-25
1.7.2
The Un-Pressurised Mode ............................................1-25
1.7.3
The Isobaric Mode ........................................................ 1-26
1.7.4
The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode ..................... 1-26
1.7.5
Cabin Air Pressure Regulator........................................1-26
1.7.6
Isobaric Control System ................................................ 1-27
1.7.7
Differential Control System............................................1-28
1.7.8
Safety Valves ................................................................ 1-30
1.7.9
Cabin Pressure Controllers ...........................................1-30
SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES .................................................. 1-32
1.8.1
Overheating ..................................................................1-32
1.8.2
Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 1-32
1.8.3
Excess Cabin Altitude ................................................... 1-33
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
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B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1
MODULE 11.04
AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Air conditioning systems control both the temperature and humidity of the air
within the cabin, cockpit and freight areas as well as heating or cooling it as
necessary. It should also supply adequate movement of air through the aircraft
for ventilation as well as provide a means of removing smoke (if permitted) and
odours. A typical system comprises of five principle sections:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Air supply
Heating
Cooling
Temperature control
Distribution
1.2 AIR SUPPLY

The source of air supply and arrangement of the system components depend on the
aircraft type and system employed but in general one of the following methods may be
used:
1.2.1
Ram Air
This is used in some unpressurised aircraft using either combustion heating or warm air
heating from an exhaust gas heat exchanger. The ram air supply is from an intake
directly in the airflow either on the nose, wing or at the base of the tail fin. The air after
circulating through the cabin is exhausted to atmosphere.
1.2.2
Engine Bleed Air
This is used in turbo jet aircraft in which hot air is bled of from the engine compressors to
the cabin. Before the air enters the cabin it is passed through a temperature control
system which reduces its pressure and temperature and is then mixed with ram air.
1.2.3
Compressors or Blowers.
This is used by some turbo jet, turbo prop or piston engine aircraft, the compressors or
blowers being either engine driven via an accessory drive, by bleed air or electric or
hydraulic motors.
1.2.4
Auxillary Power Unit (APU)
This provides an independent source of pressurised air. It is basically a small gas turbine
engine that provides air and other service whilst the aircraft is on the ground with its
main engines stopped. It is usually a self contained unit located in the tail section of the
aircraft where it can be run safely.
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1.2.5
Ground Power Trolley
For use in extreme climates on aircraft which do not have an APU or the APU is
unserviceable. This is a self contained air conditioning unit and can be connected to the
aircrafts cabin, to either heat or cool it depending on the climate. This unit will run until
the aircraft is independent of the trolley.
1.3 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

The method of air conditioning depends on the type of aircraft and the air supply system
used. Each system uses different methods for heating and cooling. In general there are
3 types of heating systems used.
1.3.1
Combustion Heating
A typical layout is shown in Figure 1. This is usually associated with a ram air supply and
depends for its operation on the combustion of a fuel air mixture within a cylindrical
combustion chamber. Ram air is augmented with an air blower and fuel is metered from
the aircraft fuel system through a solenoid valve. The fuel air mixture is ignited in the
combustion chamber and the burnt gases swirl through the transfer passages of the
cylinder before being exhausted to atmosphere.
This gas swirl not only aids combustion but ensures that the gases impart against the
chamber and passage walls to allow maximum heat transfer. The ram air flows over the
outside of the combustion chamber where it is absorbs the heat before it enters the
cabin.
RAM AIR
COLD AIR OUTLETS
DEMISTER
WARM AIR OUTLETS
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER

AIR SUPPLY
FUEL SUPPLY
O FF
ON
Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 1
COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

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The temperature is controlled manually by setting a control valve which is located

downstream of the combustion chamber. This controls the amount of air flow over the
combustion chamber. The slower the flow the hotter the air becomes and vice versa.
The blower operation, fuel supply and ignition is normally controlled by a single on/off
switch.
1.3.2
Engine Exhaust Heating
A typical exhaust heater is shown in Figure 2. This also is used with a ram air ventilation
system but the heating of the supply air is much more simple and direct. A heater muff
surrounds the exhaust pipe of a piston engine aircraft. The ram air enters this muff and
extracts the heat from the hot exhaust. This heated air is then passed into a chamber
where it is mixed with a separate cold air supply. Mechanically operated valves are
provided to control the flow of air supplied and therefore regulate the cabin temperature.
Carbon monoxide detectors may be used within the cabin to check for levels of the gas.
These are usually indicators filled with bright coloured crystals which turn black when
exposed to dangerous carbon dioxide levels. They are sited in view of the pilots.
CONTROL VALVE
EXHAUST MANIFOLD
FLAP
TO CABIN
OPEN
RAM
AIR
CLOSED
HEATER MUFF
CONTROL
LEVER
OVERBOARD DUMP
Exhaust System Heater

Figure 2
1.3.3
SIMPLE EXHAUST SYSTEM HEATER
Compression Heating
A typical compression heating sytem is shown in Figure 3. This system relies on the
principle whereby the air temperature is increased during compression and is used by air
supply sytems utilising either engine driven compressors and blowers and engine bleed
air. Hot air is drawn in from either an engine bleed or air blower where it is then split.
Some air goes directly to the distribution mixer control valves and the remainder goes to
a primary heat exchanger where ram air passes through the exchanger matrix to cool
the air.
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From the primary heat exchanger the cool air then goes to a compressor where it is
compressed and heated before going through a secondary heat exchanger, again being
cooled by the ram air. This cold air then passes through the turbine where it does work
driving the compressor becoming even colder, before going to the mixer control valve
where it is mixed with the hot air before being distributed to the cabin. Adjustable flow
control and temperature control valves control the cabin temperature.
AUXILLARY POWER UNIT
NON RETURN VALVE
SHUT OFF VALVES

FLOW CONTROLLER
ECU
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
NRV
SECONDARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
PRIMARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
NRV
W ATER SEPARATOR
COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

Figure 3
1.4 AIR CYCLE AND VAPOUR CYCLE MACHINES

1.4.1
Air Cycle Cooling System
This system works on the principle of the air dissipating or absorbing heat by
doing or receiving work. If it does work (expanded) its temperature will fall if it
receives work (compressed) its temperature will rise. The primary component in
an air cycle system is the cold air unit. There are a number of types in use:
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1.4.2 The Turbo Compressor

In a typical system the turbine drives a coupled compressor (Figure 4). A
secondary heat exchanger is located in line between the compressor outlet and
the turbine inlet. A ram air supply is provided to the primary and secondary heat
exchangers. For operation of the system on the ground an induction fan or
blower may be used to augment the air supply and there may also be a ground
air conditioning unit connection.
HOT AIR INLET
PRIMARY
HEAT
EXCHANGER
SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVE
WATER SEPARATOR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 4
The hot air supply initially air passes through a primary heat exchanger where it is
pre-cooled before entry to the compressor. It is then compressed and heated by
the compressor before being cooled again as it passes through the secondary
heat exchanger.
The cooled air then drives the coupled turbine where it does work and becomes
even colder. As this air cools, moisture condenses out of it and is collected in a
water separator. The water is centifuged out in the seperator where it collects on
the outer case and is then allowed to drain overboard. To prevent this water from
freezing warm air is mixed with it via a temperature control valve when it reaches
a certain temperature. A typical turbo compressor is shown in Figure 5.
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The cold air from the turbine then enters the mixer unit where it is mixed with the
pre-cooled air supply via the temperature control valve to allow a variable warm
air supply to the air distribution system.
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
DIFFUSER
FROM
INTERCOOLER
NOZZLE BLADES
BLEED AIR
COMPRESSOR
TO INTERCOOLER
TURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit

Figure 5
1.4.3 The Brake Turbine
A typical brake turbine is shown at Figure 6. When cold air is selected the bleed
air is directed to the turbine of the cold air unit. As the air drives the turbine the
gas expands as work is being done resulting in a drop in pressure and
temperature.
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AMBIENT AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
TO
CABIN
AMBIENT AIR INLET
HEAT EXCHANGER
MIXER
UNIT
BLEED
AIR
CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit

Figure 6
To prevent the turbine from rotating too quickly and affecting the cooling
efficiency, the turbine is coupled to the compressor. As the compressor rotates
ambient air is used as a braking medium to slow the turbine. This system is an
improvement on the turbo compressor system as only one heat exchanger is
required
1.4.4 The Turbo Fan
The turbo fan is mechanically similar to the brake turbine cold air unit. In the turbo
fan the turbines drives a coupled centrifugal compressor which induces a
capacity of air, large enough to create a cooling flow of ram air through a heat
exchanger, cooling the bleed air. It also acts as acting as a braking fan to control
the turbine speed. A typical turbo fan is shown in Figure 7.
The major advantage of this system is that the air conditioning system can be
operated on the ground with engines running without the need for ram air.
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BLEED AIR
RAM AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
RAM
AIR
TO CABIN
MIXER UNIT
HEAT
EXCHANGER
COMPRESSOR
CONTROL VALVE
Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit
TURBOFigure
FAN COLD
AIR UNIT
7
1.4.5 Vapour Cycle Cooling System
The vapour cycle cooling system is used to control and reduce the temperatures
generated by electronic equipment used in modern aircraft.
This system works on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat
through a heat exchanger in the process of changing from a liquid into a vapour.
A refrigerant is a substance that absorbs heat through expansion or vaporisation.
For example if you drop some methylated spirit onto your hand it feels cold. This
is because the volatile liquid starts to evaporate as it draws the heat away from
your hand.
Liquids with low boiling points have a stronger tendancy to evaporate at normal
temperatures than those with higher boiling points. Furthermore pressure affects
the state of a liquid substance. A reduction in pressure will cause a liquid to
change state into a gas or vapour.
A typical vapour cycle system operates with 2 distinct integrated systems, a
sealed recirculating refrigerant system and an air system. A typical system is
shown at Figure 8.
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MODULE 11.04
CONDENSER
RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
AIR SUPPLY
CAPILLARY TUBE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
EVAPORATOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVES
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Schematic Vapour Cycle System

Figure 8
Refrigerant System
The system has 2 sides a high pressure side and a low pressure side. Mixed with
the refrigerant is a specified amount of lubrication oil which lubricates and seals
the compressor.
The liquid refrigerant passes from the receiver to the thermostatic expansion
valve for controlled release into the matrix of the evaporator. Heated air from the
main supply passes over the evaporator matrix and by induction transfers heat
into the liquid refrigerant which on heating becomes a low pressure vapour.
From the evaporator the LP vapour feeds into a compressor which pressurises
the refrigerant to a high pressure. This HP refrigerant then enters the condensor
where it is cooled to a liquid by ram air (or by induction fan air) passing through
the matrix where it then returns as a liquid to the liquid receiver, to repeat the
cycle.
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Air System
The main hot air supply drives the turbine, which is directly coupled to the
compressor. The air is also fed directly downstream of the system to the
temperature control valves. As the air passes through the turbine it does work
which reduces the airs temperature which is then fed to the evaporator. This air
then passes through the evaporator where it is further cooled (as the refrigerant
absorbs the heat) and is then fed to the temperature control valves. These valves
controls the air temperature being fed to the air distribution system.
All components of this type of system are usually mounted on a single removable
quick release panel (Figure 9) to allow complete pack changes when a fault
arises, instead of changing individual components. Some aircraft use this type of
system to air condition avionics bays as well as the cabin.
RECEIVER DRIER
GROUND SERVICE
POINT
FILTER
COMPRESSOR
COOLANT OUT
THERMAL EXPANSION
VALVE
COOLANT IN
TEMPERATURE BULB
EVAPORATOR
QUICK RELEASE
PANEL
RAM AIR
CONDENSER
VAPOUR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

Typical Vapour Cycle System
Figure 9
1.4.6
The Compressor
The compressor pulls the low pressure refrigerant vapour from the evaporator
and compresses it. When the vapour is compressed its pressure and temperature
both rise.
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MODULE 11.04
Some compressors are engine driven by a v belt (Figure 10) through an

electromagnetic clutch assembly (Figure 11) which can be engaged or
disengaged as required. The clutch drive plate is keyed to the compressor shaft
and when the clutch is disengaged there is clearance between the drive plate and
the engine driven pulley. The pulley rotates but the compressor is at rest. When
the system calls for cooling the electromagnet energises and pulls and locks the
drive plate to the drive pulley and therefore drives the compressor.
COMPRESSOR
V DRIVE BELT
INLET FROM
EVAPORATOR
OUTLET TO
CONDENSER
ELECTROMAGNETIC
CLUTCH COIL
PULLEY
DRIVE PLATE
Engine Driven Compressor

Figure 10
DRIVE PLATE
PULLEY
ELECTROMAGNETIC
COIL
Electromagnetic Clutch Assembly

Figure 11
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Some compressors are driven by a hydraulic motor whose pressure is supplied

form an engine driven hydraulic pump. A solenoid valve is fitted to the hydraulic
manifold. When no cooling is required the solenoid valve is de-energised allowing
fluid to bypass the motor and return to the reservoir. When cooling is required the
solenoid valve energises, closing off the bypass, allowing the hydraulic fluid to
drive the compressor
1.4.7
The Receiver Dryer
High pressure high temperature refrigerant leaves the condenser and flows into
the receiver dryer (Figure 12). This acts as a reservoir to hold the supply of
refrigerant until it is needed by the evaporator. As the hot liquid enters the
receiver dryer it first passes through a filter which removes any solid
contaminants. It then passes through a layer of silica gel or activated alumina
which removes any water moisture from the liquid. It also acts as a separator as
some traces of vapour may be in the liquid.
The moisture is removed to prevent the system form freezing and becoming
blocked and to prevent the moisture from acting with the refrigerant which would
form hydrochloric acid which would corrode the pipelines and galleries internally.
The liquid falls to the bottom of the receiver dryer where it is picked up via the
pick up tube.
Some receivers include a sight glass that allows the checking of the refrigerant. If
bubbles are seen then the system requires re-charging.
SIGHT GLASS
TO THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
FROM CONDENSER
FILTER PADS
DESICCANT
PICK UP TUBE
Receiver Dryer
Figure DRYER
12
RECEIVER
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1.4.8
MODULE 11.04
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
The thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) is a metering device that controls the
amount of refrigerant that is allowed to flow into the evaporator by measuring the
temperature of the evaporator discharge. All of the refrigerant should evaporate
by the time it exits through the evaporator coils.
The Term Superheat
Superheat, is heat energy that is added to a refrigerant to change it from a
liquid into a vapour. Superheated refrigerant is very cold, not hot.
A TEV is shown at Figure 13. The TEV outlet attaches to the evaporator inlet.
The TEV inlet comes from the receiver dryer. A diaphragm situated on top of the
valve locates against push rods that act against a superheat spring. This action
controls the position of the needle valve. The superheat spring tension is factory
pre-set.
A temperature sensing bulb connects above the diaphragm via a capillary tube.
The bulb is located in the vapour flow at the evaporator discharge outlet. It is
insulated to allow only the outlet temperature to be sensed. The bulb and
capillary tube is filled with a highly volatile fluid which reacts readily with
temperature changes. When the bulb senses a rise in temperature the bulb liquid
expands and exerts a force against the diaphragm, the superheat spring and the
evaporator inlet pressure acting underneath the diaphragm. The amount of force
exerted is directly related to the temperature of the vapour at the evaporator
discharge.
A needle valve is located between the inlet and outlet of the TEV and its position
is determined by the balance of the forces acting above and below the diaphragm
including the pre set tension of the superheat spring.
When the system is started the evaporator is relatively warm and the bulb
pressure above the diaphragm is high. This acts against the push rods and
overcomes the superheat spring tension, to open the needle valve to allow
maximum flow to the evaporator. As the refrigerant evaporates the evaporator
outlet temperature decreases and the pressure above the diaphragm also
decreases. The superheat spring overcomes this drop in pressure and closes the
needle valve to a new position which restricts the amount of refrigerant that flows
into the evaporator to ensure that it all evaporates by the time it reaches the
evaporator outlet.
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DIAPHRAGM
PUSH RODS
INLET
OUTLET
CAPILLARY TUBE
NEEDLE VALVE
SUPERHEAT SPRING
VALVE BODY
TEMPERATURE SENSING BULB
Thermostatic Expansion valve

Figure 13
1.5
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning
packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the
required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin
vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by recirculating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed.
All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of
maintenance. ( Figure 14).
A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew
and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling
packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by
controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a
louvre.
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TO SIDEWALL DUCTS
TO GASPER
OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
MIXER VALVES
MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE
TO COCKPIT
TO SIDEWALL
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVES
WATER SEPARATOR
TO OVERHEAD
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVE
SELECTOR LINKAGE
Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold

Figure 14
Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly throughout
the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit (Figure 17) while
another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then divided into 2 systems, the
overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems (Figure 16). The overhead system
releases air into the cabin from outlets in ducting running fore and aft in the cabin
ceiling. The sidewall duct system takes air through ducting between the sidewall
and cabin interior linings and releases it through cove light grills and louvres.
A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold
allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be used
and varies the flow between the two.
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MODULE 11.04
DUCTING
FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT
ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
Overhead Panel
Figure 15
Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with
clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air
flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess
pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the
main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream
from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay.
On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between
cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully
open the other is fully closed and vice versa.
Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the
sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo
compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air
then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is
then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.
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DISTRIBUTION BOXES
WALL FEEDER DUCTS
WINDOW DEMISTER
FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS
DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 16
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls
float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the
cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AIR VENT
FLIGHT DECK
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SILENCER
FAN ASSY
COOLING FANS
FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH
Cockpit Air Distribution

Figure 17
Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system
and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a
remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow
cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs.
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1.5.1
Recirculation Air System
To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated
back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form
the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the
air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a
fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and
filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the
mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through
the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
1.6 FLOW, TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY CONTROL SYSTEMS
Humidity control is the means of ensuring that the correct amount of water
moisture is in the air conditioning air within the cabin (Figure 18). This is to
ensure that passengers do not suffer from the low humidity levels at higher
altitudes and that excessive moisture is removed at lower altitudes.
WATER SEPARATOR
DRAIN
COLLECTOR TANK
CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR
SPRAY NOZZLE
OVERFILL DRAIN
WATER PUMP AND

CONTROLLER
TO CABIN
Typical Humidity Control System

Figure 18
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Humidity can be controlled in 2 ways:
Water Separation
This is the removal of excessive moisture from the conditioned air normally using
a water extractor or separator.
Water Infiltration
This is the addition of water into the conditioned air as it enters the cabin using a
water pump and spray nozzle.
Water Extraction
Water extraction is carried out by an extractor or separator and there are differing
designs, but its function is the same, to remove moisture from the conditioned air.
Water is produced into the air conditioning system due to the cooling and heating
effects of the air in the air cycle system. The extractor is located in the air
conditioning ducting prior to entry into the cabin. There are 3 main types of water
separator in use:
1.6.1
Coalescer Type Water Extractor
COALESCER
COLLECTOR SHELL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CONDENSER
TUBES
DRAIN
Coalescer Water Extractor

Figure 19
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The coalescer (Figure 19) consists of layers of monel gauze and glass fibre cloth
sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is supported by the
diffuser cone and held in place by the relief valve. As the conditioned air is
passed through the coalscer the moisture in the air is converted into water
droplets. These droplets then enter the collector shell and deposited into the
collector tubes where they drain down into the collector box.
This water is either drained overboard or passed to a water tank where it can be
stored and used to infiltrate the system if required. The purpose of the relief valve
is to open if the coalescer becomes blocked to allow conditioned air into the
cabin.
1.6.2 Bag Type Coalescer
The bag is fitted over a support shell within the extractor. A swirl is imparted into
the conditioned air as it passes the support shell. The fabric bag converts the
moisture to water droplets and the centrifugal effect of the swirl on the droplets
forces the droplets onto the outer shell where it collects and then drains from the
component. There is usually a bag indicator which protrudes when the coalescer
becomes dirty or blocked. A relief valve is fitted in case the coalescer becomes
totally blocked. A typical bag coalescer is shown at Figure 20.
BLOCKAGE INDICATOR
OUTLET SHELL
BAG
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

WATER DRAIN
Bag Type Water Extractor

Figure 20
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engineering
1.6.3 Swirl Vane Type Water Separator

This extractor (Figure 21) uses either a rotating or fixed vane within the
conditioned airflow. The vane rotates at high speed or rotates the airflow at high
speed as the air passes through it and imparts a centrifugal force on the air
impinging it against the exit shell. This impact converts the moisture into water
droplets where it collects and falls into the sump area where it is then drained
away.
SEPARATOR SHELL
SWIRL VANE
WATER SUMP
DRIAN
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator
Figure 21
1.6.4
Water Infiltration
As aircraft increase in altitude the moisture content of the outside air reduces to a
level that may cause discomfort to passengers. To counteract this, water must be
added to the conditioned air. This is done by pumping water through a spray
nozzle into the ducting downstream of the extractor.
The action of the spray nozzle and velocity of the conditioned air converts the
water droplets into a moisture. The water used in this sytem is usually the water
that is collected and stored in a tank from the water extraction systems. This tank
can also be replenished from ground services if required. The tank has an
overboard drain in case it becomes overfull.Humidity sensors located in the cabin
automatically turn on the humidity controller water pump to maintain cabin
humidity at a certain level.
Page 1-21
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engineering
MODULE 11.04
1.7 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS

As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews
could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems
to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the
proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable
air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to
aid in breathing, and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb
sufficient oxygen through the lungs to operate at the same level of efficiency as at
sea level. This problem was solved by pressuring the cockpit/ cabin area. Cabin
pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to create
an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives an
environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This
is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and
possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and the pressure is
controlled by an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing,
ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure
tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing
compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some
have inflatable seals.
Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is
to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered
aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled
turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from
engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed
air
Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine.
A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed
to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the
engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off
after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through
a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed
into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22.
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MODULE 11.04
Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system.
When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock
wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system
RAM AIR
HEATING AIR
PRESSURISED AIR
RAM AIR SHUT

OFF VALVE
EXHAUST GASES
COUPLED TURBO
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTION HEATER
SONIC VENTURI
INTERCOOLER
OUTFLOW VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System

Figure 22
Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory drive
or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more than one air
compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but each have a check
valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when one system is out of action.
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MODULE 11.04
engineering
+3Turbine Powered Aircraft
The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination free and
can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some aircraft use an
independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The bleed air drives the
coupled compressor which pressurises the air and feeds it into the cabin
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 23
Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin
(Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake
ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces
a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air
is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin
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engineering
MODULE 11.04
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
JET PUMP
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Jet Pump
Figure 24
1.7.1 Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the
constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin
altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constantdifferential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount
above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the
aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and
the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
1.7.2
The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same
as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to
5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.
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MODULE 11.04
1.7.3 The Isobaric Mode

In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight
altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve
as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or
closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude
changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude
up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which
the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes
control.
1.7.4
The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode
Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin
pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio
between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential
pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but
the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum
cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can
operate.
1.7.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the isobaric
range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in the differential
range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal operation of the
regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin altitude and cabin rate of
climb the adjustment of the barometric control.
The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type regulator
that is built into the normally closed air operated outflow valve. It uses cabin
altitude for its isobaric control and barometric pressure for the differential control.
A cabin rate of climb controller controls the pressure change inside the cabin.
There are 2 main sections to the regulator, the head and reference chamber and
the base with the outflow valve and diaphragm. The balance diaphragm extends
outward from the baffle plate to the outflow valve creating an air chamber
between the baffle plate and the outer face of the outflow valve. Cabin air flowing
into this chamber through holes in the side of the outflow valve exerts a force
against the outer face of the valve which tries to open it. This force is opposed by
the force of the spring around the valve pilot which tries to hold the valve closed.
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engineering
MODULE 11.04
STATIC ATMOSHERE CONNECTION

ADJUSTER
CONTROL
ISOBARIC METERING VALVE

ADJUSTER CONTROL
DIAPHRAGM
BAROMETRIC CAPSULE
RESTRICTOR
DIFFERENTIAL
METERING VALVE
HEAD
SOLENOID
DUMP VALVE
REFERENCE
CHAMBER
PILOT
ACTUATOR
DIAPHRAGM
BASE
OUTFLOW VALVE
BAFFLE PLATE
Cabin Pressure Regulator

Figure 25
The actuator diaphragm extends outward from the outflow valve to the head
assembly creating an air chamber between the head and the inner face of the
outflow valve. Air from the head and reference chamber exert a force against the
inner face of the outflow valve helping the spring to hold the valve closed.
The position of the outflow valve controls the amount of cabin air that is allowed
to flow from the pressure vessel and this controls the cabin pressure. The
position of the outflow valve is determined by the amount of reference chamber
air pressure that presses on the inner face of the outflow valve.
1.7.6 Isobaric Control System
The isobaric control system of the pressure regulator shown in Figure 26
incorporates an evacuated capsule, a rocker arm, valve spring and a ball type
metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is connected to the valve head by the
evacuated capsule and the other end of the arm holds the metering valve in a
closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve body tries to move
the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm allows.
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MODULE 11.04
When the cabin air pressure increases enough for the reference chamber air
pressure to compress the evacuated capsule the rocker arm pivots around its
fulcrum and allows the metering valve to move away from its seat an amount
proportional to the compression of the capsule. When the metering valve opens
reference pressure air flows form the regulator to atmosphere through the
atmospheric chamber.
ISOBARIC METERING VALVE
EVACUATED BELLOWS
OUTFLOW VALVE
Isobaric Control Operation

Figure 26
When the regulator is operating in the isobaric range, cabin pressure is held
constant by reducing the flow of reference chamber air through the metering
valve. This prevents a further decrease in reference pressure.
The isobaric control responds to slight changes in reference pressure by
modulating to maintain a constant pressure in the chamber throughout the
isobaric range of operation. Whenever there is an increase in cabin pressure the
isobaric metering valve opens which decreases the reference pressure and
causes the outflow valve to open which then decreases the cabin pressure.
1.7.7
Differential Control System
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MODULE 11.04
engineering
The differential control system of the pressure regulator (Figure 27) incorporates
a diaphragm a rocker arm, a valve spring and a ball type metering valve. One end
of the rocker arm is attached to the head by the diaphragm which forma a
pressure sensitive face between the reference chamber and the atmospheric
chamber.
ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER
METERING VALVE
DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
Differential Pressure Mode

Figure 27
Atmospheric pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm and reference chamber
pressure acts on the other. The opposite end of the rocker arm holds the
metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve
body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm
allows.
When reference chamber pressure increases to the system differential pressure
limit set above the decreasing atmospheric pressure it collapses the diaphragm
which is set at differential pressure and opens the metering valve. Air flows from
the reference chamber to atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber, which
causes a reduction in the reference pressure. This reduction in reference
pressure causes the outflow valve to open to reduce the cabin pressure to
maintain the system pressure differential.
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1.7.8
MODULE 11.04
Safety Valves
Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve

The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding the
predetermined cabin to ambient pressure differential. A negative pressure relief
valve and pressure dump valve may also be incorporated into this valve
assembly.
Negative Pressure Relief Valve
A pressurised aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher than
the outside air pressure. If the cabin pressure were to become lower than the
outside air pressure the cabin structure could fail. Outside air is allowed to enter
the cabin to ensure that this does not happen. It is basically an inward pressure
relief valve.
Dump Valve
This valve is normally solenoid actuated by a cockpit switch. When the solenoid is
energised the valve opens dumping cabin air to atmosphere. Cabin pressure will
decrease rapidly until it is the same as the outside air pressure and cabin altitude
will increase until it is the same as the flight altitude.
1.7.9 Cabin Pressure Controllers
Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude,
cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator.
The cabin altitude gauge (Figure 28) measures the actual cabin altitude. On most
aircraft this altitude is controlled and maintained to around 5000`
0
10
CABIN
ALTITUDE
4
7
Cabin Altitude Gauge

Figure 28
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MODULE 11.04
engineering
The cabin rate of climb indicator (Figure 29) tells the pilot the rate that the aircraft
is either climbing or descending. The normal climb rate is 500` per minute and the
decent rate is 400` per minute. The control can be automatic or manual
depending on aircraft type
.5
UP
1
CLIMB
1.5
1000 FT PER MIN
2
2
DOWN
.5
1
1.5
Cabin Rate Of Climb

Figure 29
The differential pressure gauge (Figure 30) reads the difference in pressure
between the cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is
normally controlled and maintained to around 7psi. This depends on the aircraft
type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure gauge may
be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 31).
0
10
PX
10
DIFF PX PSI
FF
DI
I
S
P
4
7
6
Differential Pressure Gauge

Figure 30
CABIN 1
10 ALTITUDE
2
Dual Gauge
Figure 31
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MODULE 11.04
engineering
1.8 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES

Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning devices
to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of the protection
devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight, landing or take off where the
extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too much for the crews to
deal with safely.
With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of the air
conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot air leaks
from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or components.
1.8.1
Overheating
Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch

downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning signal to
the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural
chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector switch.
Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option to
reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by a fault
in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot may be able
to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on the cockpit
controller.
Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An
overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated automatically or manually. Once
the fan has cooled down it may be possible to re-select if required.
Fans may also be protected from over or under speeding which will also have an
effect on the system temperatures. Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault
when over or under speed limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the
cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural
chimes.
1.8.2
Duct Hot Air Leakage
Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct
protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as
engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxillary power units if fitted.
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engineering
MODULE 11.04
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the
wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When
the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel
with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be
isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air
valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use.
1.8.3 Excess Cabin Altitude
If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and passengers
could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This dangerous condition is
obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew. Most aircraft give a warning on
the CWP with associated audio and visual warnings when the cabin altitude
reaches 10000`.
1.8.4 Smoke Detection
Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin, avionics bay and cargo areas to
monitor systems which if become faulty may generate smoke on overheating or
are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a signal to the the CWP
with associated lights and audio warnings. They may also automatically switch on
extractor fans which will remove the smoke overboard and away form the cabin
and cockpit areas. In this event, the pilot may have a switch or control lever to
operate a valve to isolate the cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the
aircraft to prevent any smoke from getting to the cockpit.
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MODULE 11.04
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
Page 1-34

Engineering: 1 Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurisation............... 1-1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION............... 1-1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1-1

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

1.2 AIR SUPPLY

Engine Bleed Air

Auxillary Power Unit (APU)

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

Ground Power Trolley

1.3 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

COLD AIR OUTLETS

WARM AIR OUTLETS

ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER

Typical Combustion Heater System

COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

The temperature is controlled manually by setting a control valve which is located

Engine Exhaust Heating

Exhaust System Heater

SIMPLE EXHAUST SYSTEM HEATER

AUXILLARY POWER UNIT

NON RETURN VALVE

SHUT OFF VALVES

Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

1.4 AIR CYCLE AND VAPOUR CYCLE MACHINES

Air Cycle Cooling System

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

1.4.2 The Turbo Compressor

SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER

Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

AMBIENT AIR OUTLET

AMBIENT AIR INLET

Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

RAM AIR OUTLET

Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

Schematic Vapour Cycle System

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

VAPOUR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

Some compressors are engine driven by a v belt (Figure 10) through an

Engine Driven Compressor

Electromagnetic Clutch Assembly

Some compressors are driven by a hydraulic motor whose pressure is supplied

The Receiver Dryer

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

Thermostatic Expansion Valve

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

TEMPERATURE SENSING BULB

Thermostatic Expansion valve

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT

ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS

B1 Mod 11.04 _34B192C.doc Issue 3 Feb 2002

WALL FEEDER DUCTS

FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS