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INTRODUCTION: Of interest in both acoustical research and electronic music is the synthesis of natural
sound. For the researcher, it is the ultimate test of acoustical theory, while for the composer of electronic music
it is an extraordinarily rich point of departure in the
domain of timbre, or tone quality. The synthesis of natural sounds 'has been elusive; however, recent _research in
computer analysis and synthesis of some tones of musical instruments [1] has yielded an insight which may
prove to have general relevance in all natural sounds: the
character of the temporal evolution of the spectral cornponents is of critical importance in the determination of
timbre,
judge to be their lively quality. In contrast, it is largely the fixed proportion spectrum of most synthesized
sounds that so readily imparts to the listener the electronic cue and lifeless quality.
The special application of the equation for frequency
modulation, clescribed below, allows the production of
complex spectra with very great simplicity. The fact
that the temporal evolution of the frequency components of the spectrum can be easily controlled is perhaps
the most striking attribute of the technique, for dynamic spectra are achieved only with considerable difficulty using current techniques of synthesis. At the end
of this paper some simulations of brass, woodwind, and
In natural sounds the amplitudes of the frequency eomponents of the spectrum are time-variant, or dynamic,
The energy of the components often evolve in complicated ways; in particular, during the attack and decay
portions of the sound. The temporal evolution of the
spectrum is in some cases easily followed as with bells,
whereas in other cases not, because the evolution occurs in a very short time period, but it is nevertheless
perceived and is an important cue in the recognition of
timbre. Many natural sounds seem to have characteristic spectral evolutions which, in addition to providing
their "signature," are largely responsible for what we
FREQUENCY
526
MODULATION
Frequency modulation (FM) is well-understood as applied in radio transmission, but the relevant equations
have not been applied in any significant way to the
generation of audio spectra where both the carrier and
JOURNAL
OFTHEAUDIOENGINEERING
SOCIETY
AMPLITUDE
%
frequencies.
This increasing
bandwidth
as I increases,
shown in Fig. 1, with a constant-modulating
frequency.
x:o
'[
FREQ.
a.
is
amplitudes by ofBessel
the carrier
and of
sideband
components
areThe
determined
functions
the first
kind and
nth order, Jrt(I), the argument to which is the modulation index. The first six Bessel functions, Jo through Is,
1=1 .
_t
T i
'
b.
'_
z:z .51
i=3 .s_
c-4m
.t
t
t /
c-zm
Ttt
f:
c
index
are shownin
I, Jo(I), Fig.
yields
2. an
Theamplitude
0th orderscaling
Besselfunction
coefficient and
for
the carrier frequency; the ist order, Il(I), yields a scaling
coefficient for the first upper- and lower-side frequencies;
J*
T ,
c+2m
,
C.
the 2nd
order,
quency,
or frequency
sum of the
itt..
c-5m
I,
deviation
BW _.
_' 0,_]-_!
t I t ,
,,_
c+Sm
to show
increasing
and
fre-
2(d+m).
I i
!_I I I I
oeL__J_J J___l_j-l--rT-:Yt
_
' j
_ /
'_ 071__:y=T22
J-C_rr,_r
' _-'_
J'_o_-_ -'_i
I
,
._ _,1 ill
i [_i
t j
-_o_
e.
bandwidth
._
with in-
u._
__--
l
t
___.t
t
I
!
I
_!---1--
i , I : J I I I I l
--.x--_ _-.
, --5% ....
l--i-i_X_-----T
F''J'-o.''*''_.... /:c,,d co,,_;o
..... r._ ,--'_'i_-;1_
mo,., t,on,nde ,,
frequencies
are in the
frequency,
audio
m, and
band
and
'2
'
<
_ -0 'OJ______!__J--_J
J/--J-- _'-'jj-_ --'71 1 _-J
g_
_ o'3J__j__[_[
modulating
the carrier
cc_04! F ;_)__--_
wave,
varies
or modulating
frequency.
The amount
around its average, or peak frequency
deviation, is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating wave. The parameters of a 'frequency-modulated
-0z_\J,
____'-/J/I
i_f
- n
_ o7
-_ 0_-
_. , 3.
e = Z sin(at
wave of peak
and modulating
+ I sin_t)
(1)
,x, _
I/I
J I'q
[ J'"/l_' k_W_l -,-_
J I
T]
_ I
0 N1odu_a_,ion
7
8 }9 i0Index
t1.12
i I [ i I I I I !
t-I
I
i
_ _ I--F-Y-,_I
md== modulating
frequency
peak deviation.
3 a._I_LL_I
i\I1 i__1
t I-a_-_-.[T-T-i_.11_
_i
t_
t
/FA_\q_-T4-'-_
_ u.
.----,
--7---
FM, 'fre
the
instantaneous
frequency
a carrier wave
th eIn side
queue
irs form the
spec trumof directly.
where
upper-
Fig. 1. Example
the
the second
c+4m
'
, t I t,
for
lower-side
so larger
forth. the
The index
higher must
the order
of the frequencies;
side frequencyand the
be
for that side frequency
to have significant amplitude.
The total bandwidth is approximately
equal to twice the
d.
_=".
J2(I),
_ I
13 14 15
15 17 18
I I t [ I [ I
t I I t ]IFT-FD'_I
__J
/-I
I/+,,)5-J
_
_
_
_
/ i
_ n[
I I I I :\_X_} f {,/_
-c_-_- -_
't
*_ ---,q-__/---7_
--_/-q-71
,7-5, :
(-o]_.-_.
__-p?-i-Wj--j
_
0
I Z 3
4 5
6 7
t I I
J_l _
J / J
j lx_ Xx i//I j,
'.....
J
I
/_2_5Z
8
g 10 II 12 13
lvlodula_, ion Index
07,'
e = the instantaneous
amplitude
lated carrier
a:
the carrier frequency in rad/s
of the
modu-
the ratio of
/gI = d/m----the
the modulatingmodulation
frequency index,
in rad/s
the peak deviation
to the modulating
fre-
must
also be zero
I is
It is obvious
that and
when,there = is 0nothemodolation.
frequency When
deviation
greater than zero, however, frequencies
occur above and
_
._'
i
._]
II
0.6_l
'J
If
_l
J ! i I I i _EL
I Fo.r?,'_-or_r _,_-b_'
_--_i--_'____'J
'_ 0'2
I [ lj_._/
_
jl
......
M_
'
'
......
18
j
i
,N,.j
co,_,*e,*_z _+____
I
t
1,__
!
/'_
[_
--
_-01 -_
1_ ,]
'..
_R
! _-_-_7
t ' / I i X! _ i
_ n'_
*_
_--I_ I .'_-_-_
I___1_.-_--_,
-_'_-I
'
-i
--'
' "
-=
l
_-x0
I z 3 4 5 _- 7 8 _ _0 _ _z I_ 14 15 ts _7 _s
t.:o4_]___o_,I i [)__[
as I increases from zero, energy is "stolen" from the carrier and distributed
among an increasing number of side
21, NUMBER
, _I I I
I I I L-FY
the amplitudes
527
JOHN M. CHOWNING
will add to the first upper-sidefrequency with unlike
signs, decreasingthe energy at 200 Hz. The spectrum,
adjusted for the reflected frequency components and
withthe bars all up to revealthe spectralenvelope,is
AMPLITUDE
I
_,
I
_=4
III
_ FREQ.
c+m
,_
[ -2mc-m [
c-3m
.own
HARMONIC
AND INHARMONIC
in the
J0(l)
+Jl(1)
+ Jo(I)
+Ja(I)
SPECTRA
I' c+zmc+3m
sinat
[sin(a+
/_)t--sin(a-fi)]
[sin(a + 2fi)t + sin(a -- 2fi) ]
[sin(a+ 3/g)t-- sin(a-- 3fi)]
+ .................................................... ). (2)
It can be seen in Eq. 2 that the odd-order lower-side
frequencies, sin.(a-fi), sin(a-3fi), etc., are preceded by a
negative sign, and that for an index greater than 2.5, the
Bess.el functions (Fig. 2) will yield a negative scaling coefficient for some components. Ordinarily, these negative
signs are ignored in plotting spectra, as in Fig. 1, since
they simply indicate a phase inversion of the frequency
component, --sin(O) = sin(--0). In the application of
FM described below, this phase information is significant
and must be considered in plotting spectra.
By Wayof demonstration,Fig. l e is plotted, but with
the phase information included, in Fig. 3. The carrier and
the first upper-side frequency are plotted with a down-
= Nx/N 2
and N_ and N2 are integers. These ratios result in harmonic spectra. If in addition, all common factors have
been divided out of N_ .and N2, then the fundamental
frequency of the modulated wave will be
f0 = c/N1 = m/N2.
The position of the side frequencies in the harmonic
series can be determined from the following relations,
k = N1 -*-nN2
where
k = the harmonic number
and
n = the order side frequency.
AMPLITUDEA
T
_=4
.s
ward
bar representingthe phase inversionresulting
from
the negativeBesselcoefficients.The
importance in noting
II
-100
'
c+m
/ c-zm l-
lo
Cl.
2oo
_ c+2m
lOOH_
I
I
[
[
frequencies
and valuesof the indexwhichwill produce
domain of the spectrum. These negative components residebandcomponents
that fall in the negativefrequency
result from this mix is vast and includes both harmonic
andinharmonic
positive domain. spectra.
The variety of frequency relations which
flectaround0Hzand"mix"withthecomponentsinthe
A simple but very useful example of reflected side
frequencies occurs if the ratio of the carrier to modulatingfrequencies
is unity.For the values
FREQ.
_
_,
.5
,
"
* i
*
!
_
c-2m
:
c-3m
i [ c+m
[0
I [ T 1
1
_.
b.
c = 100 Hz
/
1 f
' *, ,
c zc 3c 4c 5cE6c
loc
c.
Fig. 4. Fig. 4a shows spectrum with components which lie
in the negative frequency domain; b shows plot from a in
which the
frequencies
in the negative
domain
are reflected
around
0 Hz
with an inversion
of phase
and added
to the
components in the positive domain; e is plot of the magnitude of the components of b.
[l,
o
JOURNAL
OF THE AUDIO
ENGINEERING
SOCIETY
I=o
I=_
t
o
I
f
m
I [
zf 3f
[t
4f
c
I
sf
I:
T I I
I
6f ?f of 9f
This
the ratio
fundamental
can c/m
be seen
may
in theAdjusted
not
spectra
be present
plotted
in
in the
Fig. spectrum.
5,sidewhere
the
= 4/1.
for
the reflected
frequencies, the spectra show the filling out of the harmonics with an increasing
index. The fundamental
only be-
FREQ.
a.
comes
significant
the
index
is greater
two.
Inharmonic
result
from
ratios
of this
irrational
numbers,
e.g., spectra
c/mwhen
= will
1/%/2,
_r/_/3,
1/e. than
In
case,
the reflected side frequencies
will fall between the positive components,
thus forming a spectrum whose com-
>
'
b.
,
I=2
1=3
I"
an
I
TI !
'r
c -Sm
I *
c+3m
spectrum
where
the
ratio
c/m
1/_/2
_.
c.
adjusted
determines
the number of components
which will have
side
frequencies,
index
(d/m)
significant
amplitude.while the modulation
_
d.
DYNAMIC
SPECTRA
&
1=4
T _'
/ /
_ _
e.
Fig. 5. Plot of spectrum where the ratio of c/m is 4/1.
As
the reflected
side frequencies
begintheto index
affect increases,
the spectrum
when l =lower
3, where
the fundamental, c--3m, is noticeably greater than the 7th harmonic,
c+3m. In e, the symmetry around the carrier is no longer
apparent,
Except for n = 0, the carrier,
k for each order, corresponding
side frequencies.
simple ratios.
Some useful
inherent and, as will be shown, most useful characteristic: the complexity of the spectrum is related to
the modulation index in such a way that as the index
increases, the bandwidth
of the spectrum also increases
(see Fig. 5) If, then, the modulation index were made
to be a function
of time, the evolution of the bandwidth of the spectrum could be generally described by
the shape of the function. The evolution of each of the
AMPLITUDE
5t ........../_
generalizations
to
oL--lllllX_l
--[[--4-_--]%
_x
x_Fl:tEO.
series.
2) If N 2 = 1, the spectrum contains all harmonics and
the fundamental is at the modulating frequency, e.g.,
1/1,2/1.
1) The carrier is always the Nlth harmonic
in the
3) When Ns is an even number, the spectrum contains
only
odd
numbered
harmonics,
e.g.,
1/2,1/4,3/2,
3/4,5/2.
4)
If N e = 3, every third
the series, e.g., 1/3,2/3,4/3,5/3.
harmonic
is missing
from
%
3f
_
4f
x,N
5[
'_MODULATiON
m_x
(time)
Fig. 7. Dynamic spectrum where the ratio c/m -' 1/1
and the modulation index increases from 0 to 4 continuously.
The increasing bandwidth is easily seen, but because the spectrum includes the reflected side frequencies, the evolution of
the individual components is not always intuitively clear.
components of the spectrum, however, is determined by
the shape of the Bessel functions. Therefore, if the index increases with time the overall bandwidth will also
AMPLITUDI
T=s
.5
_'q'lllllXxlCx N_
_.
f
2f
cim
I [I l T
1 T.
' I ,'I *'
I
' T
I _'
_ FREQ.
INHz
, c
, ,
I
I
46 l&
' "
"
'
'
18o', ,
50o
?OD soo
I 31o
24o
Fig. 6. Inharmonic
spectrum where the ratio c/m _
1/ 2 and the modulation
index =
nents,represented
herewiththe
bar5.atThe
thereflected
top, fallcompoin be-
Besselfunction
at that index
Fig. FM
7 is spectrum
a threedimensional
representation
of range.
a dynamic
where c/m = 1/1 and the modulation
index increases
'
21,
NUMBER
529
JOHN M. CHOWNING
_t _ ! _i
, ?,,,/ /
I
MODULATION
lI
5(f (((((((i i
0
IO
II
12
MOOULATIGM
1_
15
16
17
la
19
I_IDEX
o'
"
20
INOr_X
Fig. 8. Bessel functions, ./., through J,_ and indexes 0 through 20. This representation allows a rapid determination of
the bandwidth resulting from a given index.
of the individual components, to the extent that it is
difficult to visualize the amplitude functions with any
precision. It is possible to gain an intuitive feeling for
their tendency of change, which in the research presented
here, has proven to be largely sufficient, s
Certainly the complexity in the evolution of each of
the components of the spectrum makes an important
contribution to the lively quality of FM sounds. Because this complexity is a function of the laws of the
equation, it is surprising that while the evolution of the
components is rigidly determined, they can still produce
such rich and varied subjective impressions,
In visualizing the effect of sweeping the modulation
index, a careful study of Fig. 8 is helpful [3]. This is a
three-dimensional
representation
of the orders Jo through
lxs for an index range of 0 through 20 and is a sufficient range of orders and indexes for many useful dynamic spectra. Contour lines A, B, and C represent constant values of the functions at Jrt(l) = .01, .001, and
.0001 respectively.
Line A then, indicates which order
I
.1
2t_
u.g.2
,)
/ u.g.3
OUTPUT
Fig. 9. Simple
notation.
FM
circuit
as represented
in MUSIC
530
1
P3
Pa
1
P5
P?.P6 (PS-PT)-P6
NOTE CARRIERDEV(
DEV2
AMPLITUDE
DURATION
FREQ.
g.5
partetosbyth
sradar
a
sinusoid.
This instrument
is capable
producing
plex
FM spectra
such as the
one in ofFig.
4 wherecornthe
values are now assigned to parameters.
P4 ---- 1000
= amplitude
of
modulated
P7 = 400 Hz = frequency
frequency
deviation,
for l =
I-' g'2
.g. 3
4.
parameters
function:
for
this instrument
Pa = Duration
a phase angle which decreases with time! This condition occurs when either the ratio of the carrier to the
modulating
frequency
is very small or the modulation
index is very large. The oscillator,
u.g. 3, in Fig. 9
above, must be able to produce a wave which resulB
from taking the sine of an angle which decreases as
Ps = Modulation
index
as a func-
will have
the following
In the case above, which is typical for this application of FM, the instantaneous
frequency
of the moduluted carrier at times becomes
negative. That is, from
Eq. 1, the sum of at, a ramp function,
and I sin /gt, a
sinusoid with amplitude
1, can produce
a curve which
has a negative slope at certain 1ooints and, therefore,
_ u.g._
omPUT
Fig. I0. FM circuit to produce dynamic spectra. Two
function generators are added, u.g. 4 and u.g. 5, to produce
an amplitude envelope and a modulation index envelope
which causes the bandwidth to vary.
frequency
PG = 100 Hz = modulating
carrier
(arbitraryscaling)
Pu = 100 Hz = carrier
P6
FREQ.
MODULATING
P4 = Amplitude
of the "note"
of the output
wave
P5 = Carrier frequency
P6-----Modulating
frequency
P7----Modulation
index 1, lz
index 2, 12,
in MUSIC to al-
290 IF(SUM--XNFUN)
287 SUM=SUM--XNFUN
substitute
and for
substitute
290 IF(SUM.GE.XNFUN)
GO TO 287
IF(SUM.LT. 0.0) GO TO 289
GO TO 293
292 J6mLi+J3--1
GO TO 293
287 SUM=SUM--XNFUN
GO TO 288
289 SUM:SUM+XNFUN
GO TO 288
292 J6__-LI+J3--1.
21,
NUMBER
Po = 100 Hz
P7 = 2
Ps = 8
first, PT and Ps -- PT are multiplied
by Po to convert
to
JOHN M. CHOWNING
_.oo
.?5
.50
following
premises:
.25
I
t/6
i i_
t/3
t/z
t=
.6 SEC.
1) The frequencies in the spectrum are in the hatmonicseries and for some woodwindtones are predominantly odd numbered harmonics,
ulation
of higherharmonics
this class of timbres
developedaround
the
2) The
mayisdecreasein
significance
with the attack.
In the first example, the carrier frequency is three times
the modulating frequency, or c/m ----3/1, and the amplitude and index function is shown in Fig. 12. Since
during the attack the index increases from 0 to 2, the
carrier (3rd harmonic) will be apparent at the onset of
the tone and then quickly decrease as the side frequencies fill out the spectrum. The parameters are:
Brass-like Tones
Risset demonstrated in his revealing analysis of trumpet tones [5] a fundamental characteristic of this class
of timbres; the amount Of energy in the spectrum is distributed over an increasing band in approximate proper~
tion to the increase of intensity. A simulation of this
class of timbres is developed around the following
premises:
1) The frequencies in the spectrum are in the harmonic series,'
2) Both odd and even numbered harmonics are at
some times present,
3) The higher harmonics increase in significance with
intensity,
4) The rise-time of the amplitude is rapid for a typicai attack and may "overshoot" the steady state.
Oscillators, u.g. 4 and u.g. 5, in Fig. 10, control the amplitude and modulation index (deviation indirectly), and
both use the time domain function shown in Fig. 11.
The parameter values for a brass-like tone can be:
Pa
P4
P5
P6
P,
Ps
= .6
----1000 (amplitude scaling)
= 440Hz
----440 Hz (ratio of c/m = 1/1)
= 0
= 5.
Tones
P5 =
Po =
P7 =
Ps =
900 Hz
300 Hz
0
2.
=
=
=
=
500 Hz
100 Hz
0
1.5.
7
o
\
SEC
.1
.s
2,
vious amplitude function, but modulating the index according to the function
shown in Fig. 16. The parameters are:
. SEC
.5
Pa:
.2
P, = 80 Hz
P6 = 55 Hz
P7 = 0
Ps -- 25.
is apparently
Percussive Sounds
A general characteristic
of percussive sounds is that
the decay shape of the envelope is roughly exponential
as shown in Fig. 14. A simulation of this class of
timbres would be developed around the premises:
1) The spectral
components
are not usually in the
harmonic
series,
2) The evolution of the spectrum is from the complex
The change of the index causes a burst of energy distributed over a wide frequency
band at the onset, followed by rapid decrease of the bandwidth to a sinusoid
which has the perceptual effect of a strong resonance. It
should be noted that a complex amplitude modulation
also occurs in this case. Because the Bessel functions
are quasi-periodic
around 0, the components undergo
an asynchronous
modulation
due to the rapid sweep of
the index over the wide range.
to thesimple,
l_
SEC
[_x
,_SEC
15
0
Fig. 14. Exponential
timbres,
decaying
envelope
for
bell-like
=
=
=
=
=
=
15 seconds
1000
200 Hz
280 Hz
0
10.
l l_
0
Fig. 15. Modification
drum-like sound.
.o5
Pa = 300 Hz
Pa = 300 Hz
._
of exponential
envelope
to obtain
=
=
=
_
=
.2
200 Hz
280 Hz
0
2.
P7
Ps
P10
Pu
Pxe
'=
=
=
=
=
1
3
.2
.5
2100Hz
components
centered around
=-7/1),
where the index
and at an amplitude ratio of
a formant region added to
CONCLUSION
The technique of FM synthesis provided a very simple
temporal
control over the bandwidth
of spectra whose
component
frequencies
can have a variety of relationships. Because "nature" is doing most of the "work," the
technique is far simpler than additive or subtractive
synthesis techniques which can produce
similar spectra.
Perhaps the most surprising aspect of the FM technique,
is that the seemingly limited control imposed by "nature"
533
JOHN M. CHOWNING
P+
1
p'-3'
P5
PY.P6' (P8-PY)'P6 p_
P6
PlO
AMP.
SCALE
+_
J
'
P11 P12
DEV. FREQ.
2
SCALE CARRIER
,.g.7 ,%
g.9
Y,.
] _.g.lO
There is, however,greatinformativevaluein first limiting oneself to the simulation of natural timbres since we
have such well-formed perceptual images against which.
one can measure success. What can be learned in this
process are those subtle attributes of natural spectra
which so distinctively separate them from most synthetheunknowntimbralspacethanthey areintheknown.
vastly
enrichedand
domain
which
sized spectra
whichincan
thenthebecomposer
applied tocanthework.
unknown,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
"composed" timbral space with the result of a
g.u
_,.
OUTPUT
Fig. 17. FM circuit which allows greater control over the
spectrum. The additional carrier wave uses the same modulating wave but the deviation can be scaled up or down by
the multiplier. A formant peak can be placed at an arbitrary
[1] Jean-Claude Risset and Max V. Mathews, "Analysis of Musical Instrument Tones," Physics Today, vol. 22,
no. 2, pp. 23-30 (1969).
[2] Frederick E. Terman, Radio Engineering, pp. 483489 (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1947).
[3] Murlan S. Corrington, "Variation of Bandwidth
with Modulation Index in Frequency Modulation," Selected Papers on Frequency Modulation, edited by Klapper (Dover Publications, 1970).
[4] Max V. Mathews, The Technology of Computer
Music (The MIT Press, Boston, 1969).
[5] Jean-Claude Risset, op. cit.
applica-
REFERENCES
THE AUTHOR
534