Calculus II Study Guide

To help you prepare for midterms and the final, this study guide is already updated for
the whole semesterthe idea is that if you go through the study guide on a regular basis
and make sure you understand the concepts as we go along, and keep going over it to
refresh your memory of key ideas throughout the course, youll be better able to pinpoint
what topics you need help on, and studying for finals should be a lot easier.
NOTE: To help you study, you should also look over exercises assigned for quizzes,
honour homework, and assignments, as well as examples done in lectures and tutorials.
(This may sound like a lot, but dont panicif you regularly attend class and do your
homework, then youve got this all done already). Also, dont forget any
independent-study material from assignments, as that isnt included in the study guide
below.
Good luck. Hope this helps!

7.1: Integration by Parts

First of all, realize that this section is actually pretty easy. Really, the main thing here
is to understand the formula for integration by parts: u dv uv v du , and then the
tricky part is determining what to make u and what to make dv in doing this, you do
have the LIATE rule (from left to right, tells you which functions get first pick for u), but
common sense will tell you that you want the new integral v du to be easier to evaluate
than the original one, so this dictates your choice for the functions. Once youve selected
which part is u and which is dv, the question becomes a lot easierfind du (differentiate)
and v (integrate) since youll need these in the formula, and then just plug them into the
formula. Thats it. The resulting integral must of course still be evaluated, but it should
be a lot easier. As a word of caution, there are questions that will require you to do
integration by parts more than once (or to use some other integration technique to
evaluate the new integral), and there are questions where you come around full circle to
return to the original integral, and those where you have a single function, so
dv dx refer to the lecture notes for examples. Practice these types of questionsif
you understand the concept, then integration by parts is fairly easy!!!

7.2: Trigonometric Integrals

Yes, this section involves trig, but stop worryingits pretty simple. This section is
focused on integrating functions composed of the various trig functions, which means
theyre quite easy to recognize. Most of the rules in this section apply to the natural
pairings of 1. sin(x) and cos(x), 2. tan(x) and sec(x), or 3. cot(x) and csc(x) (i.e. powers
of these functions multiplied together). [if you have to do an integral that involves trig
functions that arent a natural pairing, you can always rewrite it in terms of sin(x) and

cos(x)]. Know the rules which apply for odd and for even powers when dealing with
sin(x) and cos(x). If at least one of the powers is odd, split up the odd power so that 1
factor is left, while the remaining factors are converted using the trig identity
sin2(x)+cos2(x)=1. Once this is done, a simple u-substitution should make integration
easy. This technique applies regardless of what the other power is (it could be even, a
fraction, or even negative (i.e. a term in the denominator)just split up the odd power in
the numerator as usual. If both powers are odd, split up the lower power, as this makes
the arithmetic easier (although either one works). If both powers are even, use the
double-angle and/or half-angle formulas (these are on the formula sheet) to transform the
function into something you can integrate. For tan(x) and sec(x), things are a bit more
complicated, but the identity
1+tan2(x)=sec2(x) is whats useful here. If the power of sec(x) is even, leave a factor of
sec2(x) and convert everything else using the trig identity. Then a u-sub will work, with
u=tan(x), since du=sec2(x) and you have this available. If the power of tan(x) is odd, split
off a factor of tan(x)sec(x) and use the trig identity to convert everything else to sec(x).
Again, a u-sub now works (this time, u=sec(x) since du=tan(x)sec(x) appears in the
integral). For powers of cot(x) and csc(x), the trig identity to use is 1+cot2(x)=csc2(x) and
the rules/techniques are the same as for tan(x) and sec(x).

7.3: Trigonometric Substitution

The idea behind trigonometric substitution is as follows: faced with an expression of the
form a 2 x 2 , a 2 x 2 , or x 2 a 2 , make the appropriate trigonometric
substitution. All terms with x get converted to be in terms of , and similarly, dx gets
converted to be in terms of d. Trig identities are used to simplify the expression, and the
result should be something that you can integrate (although you might have to use
techniques from 7.2 or u-sub, etc.) After youve finished integrating, you must of course
return to the original variable x for an indefinite integralto do this, you can either use
trig identities again, or set up a triangle, and make use of your inverse trig knowledge
from Calc I/Intro Calcyour choice. If youre dealing with a definite integral, then you
can convert your limits of integration along the way to be in terms of the new variable,
and then you dont have to do any conversion at the endjust substitute in the new
limits. Remember that it is up to you to figure out which substitution applies for which
expression (figure this out using the trig identities sin 2 cos 2 1 and
1 tan 2 sec 2 , or by drawing a triangle). .realistically, if you choose the wrong
substitution, youll find that you wont be able to simplify using any of the trig identities,
so that should be a sign that youve made a mistake. This section is a bit tricky, so
practice! (its not hard, but some of the questions are longmake sure you fully
understand inverse trig from Calc I/Intro Calc, and 7.2 before working through this
section).

7.4: Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

This section is focused on integrating rational functions (a polynomial divided by another
polynomialfairly easy to recognize) by splitting them up into several terms which are
easier to integrate. To do this in the simplest case, when all of the factors in the

denominator are linear and distinct, we break up our rational expression into terms of the
form

A where ax b is a factor of the denominator. E.g. 3 x 6

A
B .

ax b
x2 4x 3 x 3 x 1

The beauty of this is that the expression on the right is VERY easy to integrate. So, all
that remains is to determine the unknowns A, B, etc.; to do this, we combine the terms on
the right by finding a common denominator, or cross-multiplying. Setting the numerators
equal gives us a single equation (in this case, its 3x 6 A( x 1) B( x 3) ). You now
have a choice of 2 methods to solve for A and B: 1. Equate coefficients for like terms
(e.g. x2, x, numbers, etc.) on both sidesthis leads to a system of equations which you
can solve using some basic algebra (elimination or substitution) OR 2. You can
substitute in convenient values of x to result in a system of equations which is much
easier to solve (for example, using x 1 or x 3 in the above example). Of course,
once youve found A and B, you can integrate, and youre done. There are a few more
complicated cases which you should know how to do: how to deal with irreducible
quadratic factors in the denominator, and how to deal with repeating factors. Irreducible
quadratic factors means that you cant factor a quadratic term at all (i.e. it would have a
negative discriminant); in this case, you break it up as

Ax B
where the major
ax bx c
2

difference is that we now have a linear term in the numerator. E.g.

4x 1
A
Bx C and then you proceed as before. Finally, in the case of

2
2
( x 5)( x x 1)

x5

x x 1

repeated factors, youll need extra terms for each time the factor occurs. E.g.
3x 1
A
B
C
D
and proceed as before.

3
2
3
( x 2) ( x 1)

x 1

x2

( x 2)

( x 2)

7.5: Strategy for Integration

There is NO new math in this section. However, this is a wonderful section since it
allows you to practice determining which method of integration to use for which question
(a talent which youll need!). When you get an integration question, you should check:
Can I simplify; is it of a form I know (e.g. inverse trig) for which I have a
formula?
Can I use u-substitution?
Is it a trigonometric integral? (this is easy to recognizepowers of various trig
functions)
Will a trig substitution help? (again, easy to recognize if youve memorized the
expressions in 7.3root signs with a sum or difference of squares)
Will integration by parts work?
Try again, perhaps combining several methods.
A few important points: 1. Never resort to methods such as integration by parts or trig
substitution until youre certain that simpler methods such as u-substitution dont work.
2. If nothing seems to work, perhaps try u-substitution and check where it gets youit
might get you to a form where a method such as integration by parts suddenly becomes
feasible.

7.7: Approximate Integration

Basically, were approximating the area under the curve using the sum of vertical pieces
(e.g. rectangles); this is very useful when we have numerical data, or when the given
function is too hard to integrate. In Calc I/Intro Calc, you already saw the right endpoint,
left endpoint, and midpoint rules. Here, we also introduce the trapezoid rule (which is
actually the average of the right and left endpoint methods) and Simpsons rule. We will
give you the formula for Trapezoid and Simpsons rule, but you are responsible for
knowing all of the other approximation formulas (if you really understand the concept,
then theres really nothing to memorizeyoure just adding up rectangle areas). In all
cases, you need to know what x is (same for all methods). In addition, you should be
able to use the error formulas (which will be provided) for Midpoint, Trapezoid, and
Simpsons rule to estimate the error, or figure out the number of rectangles that must be
used to achieve a desired accuracy. Please note that various notation for the error
formulas is possible (e.g. both ES N and E S denote the error for Simpsons rule) We will
NOT test you on Monte Carlo approximation.

7.8: Improper Integrals

There really isnt a lot of new math here. Basically, were interested in evaluating two
types of improper integrals:
1. Those with infinite limits. 2. Those with infinite integrands.
For the first case, these are really easy to recognizethe limits are and/or cant
miss em. Since infinity is not a real number and we wont be able to substitute the limits
in after integrating, the whole point here is that we do the integration as usual (working
with the indefinite integral), but we take the limit as we approach or . So, we
integrate as we always do, but write limits when applying the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, and finally evaluate the limit (note: you may use LHospitals rule in some
cases to help evaluate the limit if you are familiar with it from Calc I, but this is not
required in this course! For some limits, its just helpful to remember that in a tug of war
between an exponential and another function, the behaviour of the exponential will
dominate) If both limits are infinite, then you must first split up the integral at any point
along the way to form 2 integrals, each with one infinite limit.
For the second type of improper integral, its a little harder to recognize, because its the
integrand which is infinitein other words, the function explodes somewhere along the
interval of integration because we divide by zero.so, every time that you do a definite
integral, you should check that the denominator of the function is never zero along the
interval of integration or at the endpoints. If it is, then its improper so you again integral
as usual, then take the limit approaching the problem point, and evaluating the limit.
If the problem point doesnt occur at an endpoint, then you must split the integral into 2
parts, approaching that problem point from the left and right.

8.1: Arc Length

2

dy
This section is really easyreally! Theres one formula: L 1 dx . Know it
dx
a
(actually, Ill give it to you). Then all you have to do is plug things into itway easy!

8.2: Area of a Surface of Revolution

2

dy
Again, this is a really easy section! Theres one main formula: S 2 y 1 dx
dx
a
which gives the surface area of revolution when we rotate about the x-axis (which is what
well focus on). Again, Im giving you the formula, and again, you just plug things into
it! Easy!
b

8.3: Applications to Physics and Engineering

In this section, we only covered the part about dams. So, Ill give you the formula
b

g d ( y) w( y) dy , and you have to apply it for the given problem.

What were

doing is trying to figure out the force on the dam, which is pressure times area. The
challenge is that the pressure depends on the depth, so we have to integrate (add up many
small horizontal strips); the other challenge is that unless the dam is a rectangle, the area
(or rather the width) of the strips changes with depth as well. Now, and g are constants,
so all you have to do is
1. set up a coordinate system (it is strongly suggested (and in fact the question may
tell you to do this) that you set y = 0 at the water line)
2. figure out what a and b are (i.e. where do we start and stop adding up the strips)
3. what d (depth) is as a function of y (d = y if you set y = 0 at the water line, so this
makes things easier!)
4. what w (width) is as a function of y (this is probably the trickiest partfor
rectangles, its totally easy since its a constant; for trapezoids and triangles, its
based on similar triangles, or assuming the width is a linear function, and then
solving a linear system of equations; for semi-circles, its based on Pythagorean
Theorem).
Know how to work with dams that are rectangles, trapezoids, triangles, semi-circles, or
other similar shapes.

8.4: Applications to Economics and Biology

In this section, we only covered the part about cardiac output. So, Ill give you the
A
, and you have to apply it for the given problem. The quantity of
formula F T
c(t )dt
0

dye A is given, as is the total time, T. For c(t), youre either given a function, in which
case youre just doing a simple definite integral, or youre given numerical data, in which
case you have to use Simpsons rule.

8.5: Probability
In this section, youre given a probability density function (pdf), and youre asked to
calculate the probability of certain events occurring. Now, the main point to know here is
how to compute the probabilities:
b

Probability of outcome lying between a and b =

f ( x )dx
a

In other words, you integrate the pdf between the 2 values you want X to lie between.
In addition, youve also learned that the mean (average value) is given by

x f ( x)dx (this is on the formula sheet)

Finally, understand the exponential distribution, and how to apply it to solve problems
1 t
relating to waiting time. The formula is f (t ) e for t 0 . I will provide you

with the formula, but you must know that is the mean waiting time. Again, be able to
find the probability of waiting a certain time.

9.1: Modelling with Differential Equations

First of all, understand what a differential equation is (an equation which involves a
function and its derivatives), and how you might set up such an equation to model a given
physical phenomenon. Also, know what order means.i.e. the highest derivative in
the equation. Another thing to know is that to verify that a given function satisfies a
differential equation, all you have to do is substitute the given function and its
derivatives, as appropriate, into the differential equation, and verify that LHS=RHS (lefthand-side of equation equals right-hand-side of equation). You should of course know
how to solve basic differential equations that contain the derivative, but not the function
(e.g. y 3x 2 7 ), as you have done this in Calc I (antiderivatives!). In addition, you
may be given an initial condition which can be used to solve for the constant of
integration.

9.2: Direction Fields and Eulers Method

Understand that a direction field can be used to give us a graphical solution to a
differential equation by showing us the form of the solutions. So if youre given a
direction field and asked to draw a solution curve for a given initial condition, then just
draw a curve that passes through that point, but is also always following the direction
given by the arrows in the direction field. While I will NOT ask you to construct a
direction field by hand, it is important that you understand how this is done, as you may
be required to match direction fields to equations, and this requires an understanding of
what a direction field is, and how it is generated. Basically, for a differential equation of

the form y f ( x, y ) (i.e. the derivative depends on some function of x and y), a
direction field is generated by plotting an arrow representing slope ( y ) for given values
of x and y. So, to draw a direction field, you would select values of x and y, find y there
using the differential equation, and draw an arrow with that particular slope at the value
of x and y you were working with. So, if you are asked to determine if a given direction
field matches a given differential equation (which you should know how to do), look for
things like the value of x and y where you expect the slope to be zero or infinite in the
direction field. Also, is the slope expected to be always positive or negative? Also, if a
given differential equation does not have a dependence on x (or on y), then the arrows in
the direction field should not have such a dependence either. For Eulers Method, you
will be given the formula y n y n 1 hF ( xn 1 , y n 1 ) , so you just have to know how to
apply it. First, to find h, youre either told what h is in the question, or youre given the
number of steps desired (given the starting x value and the x value where you want to find
the approximation, you can find the length of the interval and then divide by the number
of steps to get the stepsize h). Now, F is just the right-hand-side of the differential
dy
on the left side, of course). So, given a starting
equation (once youve isolated for
dx
point ( x0 , y 0 ) , sub it in to find y1 (x1 of course is just x0+h). Now that you have ( x1 , y1 ) ,
you can sub it into the formula to find y2. And so on, until you reach the x value at which
you were asked to estimate the solution y.

9.3: Separable Equations

There are three important concepts in this section: knowing what a separable equation is,
setting up a differential equation, and solving a differential equation. All of the
differential equations in this section will be separable.this means that you can write it
dy
g ( x) f ( y ) in other words, the derivative is equal to some function of x times
as
dx
some function of y. You should know how to recognize if a given differential equation is
separable or not. The second important topic is setting up differential equations to model
a physical phenomenonwe are setting up an equation for the rate of change of some
quantity (as an example, lets consider the amount of salt in a tank, which we call A).
dA
). On the right-handThus, the left-hand-side of the equation is just the derivative (
dt
side, we must write how our quantity is actually changing. A change occurs based on
how much of the quantity is coming in minus how much is leaving (salt into tank salt
out of tank). Often, the amount coming in is easy to determine (rate of flow *
concentration of salt), but its the amount that leaves that requires a bit more thought, as it
of course depends on the amount currently present (i.e. A). Once youre done, you
should have a separable differential equation which is subject to some initial condition
(based on the amount of salt initially in the tank)this really isnt that hard once you get
some practice at it. Now, the third part of this section involves actually solving the
separable differential equations for the quantity of interest (e.g. finding the amount of salt
as a function of time). To solve a separable equation, move the derivative to one side and
all the other terms to the other side, and then cross-multiply/divide such that everything

dy
dy
x 5 y becomes
x 5 dx
y
dx
where all ys are now on the left, and xs now on the right). Next, integrate both sides (so
youll need to know your integration techniques from midterm 1), introducing a constant
of integration on the right. Finally, solve for y if possible (assume that you should unless
I tell you otherwise), and finally, solve for the constant of integration using the initial
condition, if provided.

to do with a particular variable is all on one side (e.g.

9.4: Exponential Growth and Decay

Really, this section is just a continuation of 9.3, but it presents some specific examples of
differential equations related to population growth and Newtons law of Cooling. I
would NOT ask you to memorize the solutions to these equations, as the point of this
chapter is really for you to learn to set up and solve equations yourself. So, theres
nothing really new to learn in this section as compared to 9.3just know how to set up a
differential equation, and know how to solve a separable equation subject to the given
conditions (so you can solve for any constants). Thats it.

10.1: Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

The main point of this section was to be able to convert from a set of parametric
equations to a Cartesian equation. So, youre given x f (t ) and y g (t ) , and your goal
is to obtain y f (x) . In other words, solve the x equation for t, and substitute this into
the y equation; this eliminates the parameter, and you obtain an equation for y in terms of
x. Thats it. You should also have a basic understanding of how to recognize the graph
of parametric equations without having to convert to Cartesian (e.g. match graphs of
x(t ) and y (t ) with a graph of y (x) .

10.2: Calculus with Parametric Curves

Here, we were interested in finding derivatives of a curve that is defined by parametric
dy
dy dt
dx

as long as
equations. You should know that the formulas are
0 for the
dx
dx
dt
dt
d dy

d 2 y dt dx

for the second derivative. (KNOW the first formula,

first derivative, and
dx
dx 2
dt
but Ill give you the one for the second derivative!) Once youve written down the
formula, basically all you have to do is find derivatives with respect to tsuper easy

(totally Calc I stuff)! The other concept in this section was arclength for parametric

dx dy
curves. I will give you the formula L dt , and all you have to do is to
dt dt

find the necessary derivatives, and plug them in (usually set up only)about as easy as it
gets!

10.3: Polar Coordinates

In this section, you should first have a basic understanding of what simple polar curves
look like, and how to convert between polar and Cartesian coordinates. You should also
have a basic understanding of how to plot points in polar coordinates. Next, know how to
convert a polar curve into a Cartesian equation (you should also know how to convert
from Cartesian to polar, but thats easyjust replace x with cos() and y with sin().
Anyways, to help you convert to Cartesian, you should know the formulas x r cos( ) ,
y
y r sin( ) , r 2 x 2 y 2 , and tan( )
(memorize these, or better yet, just draw a
x
circle and youll be able to figure them out easily). So, given a polar equation which has
only r and in it, the goal is to convert it to a Cartesian equation which will only have x
and y in it. To do this, the best strategy is to first convert any sec(), csc(), and cot() to
be in terms of sin(), cos(), and tan(), since these are the only trig functions the above
formulas give you any information about. Next, we typically eliminate by using the
x
above formulas to write cos( ) , etc. At this point, youll only have x, y, and r in the
r
2
equation. To get rid of r, use r x 2 y 2 ; this produces an equation with only x and y in
it, which is all we wanted. The other concept in this section is to find derivatives of polar
curves. To do this, we proceed as in 10.2 for parametric curves, using the variable
dy
dy d
instead of t. In other words, we obtain the same formula, which is

. The
dx dx
d
problem is were given an equation with only r and in it, so whats x and y? Well, we
again use the equations x r cos( ) and y r sin( ) where r is the given polar curve
equation, and then we can find the necessary derivatives.

10.4: Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

Know how to compute the area of a polar curve, r f ( ) . I will give you the formula,
b

1
A r 2 d , so all you have to do is plug everything into it and integrate. If limits of
2
a
integration are given, then its easy; if not, and if youre asked to find the area enclosed
by one loop of the curve, then set r 0 to find the limits of integration, and choose two
adjacent angles which satisfy the criteria r 0 . If youre finding the region between two
curves, then you have to find where the two curves intersect by setting their formula for r
equal to one another and solving for . Once you have these (p.s. this might be a good

time to review trig values at special angles), then it just comes down to plugging in and
integrating from that point on. It is often the case that you might end up with an even
power of cos( ) or sin( ) to integrate, so just use half-angle formulas (which are on the
formula sheet, and which youre familiar with from 7.2 anyways). The other concept in
2

dr
this section is again arclength: L r d (this is the third arclength formula
d
a
you have, but theyre all labelled on the formula sheet, so dont worryjust find the
necessary derivatives and substitute everything inIll typically only ask you to set it
upsuper easy!)
2

14.1: Functions of Several Variables

This section was really meant to serve as an introduction to functions of several variables.
You should know how to evaluate them for given values of the variables (i.e. substitute
into the function), and how to find the domain. To find domain, you simply make sure
that you include only those values of the variables for which the function is defined. To
help you find the restrictions, make sure youre not taking square roots of negative
numbers, or ln of negative numbers or ln of 0, and make sure youre never dividing
by zero, etc. I will not ask you to graph/sketch any multivariate functions or their contour
plots, although you should be able to match basic contour plots with 3-d plots of a
function, and sketch a contour plot given a 3-d plot.

14.3: Partial Derivatives

Know how to find partial derivatives with respect to a given variable; to do this, consider
all other variables as constants, and find the derivative as usual. Make sure you recognize
the notation for partial derivatives, so that you know what the question is askinggiven
f
z
z f ( x, y ) , then f x ,
, and
all mean the same thing, namely, the partial derivative
x
x
of the function with respect to x. Also, know how to find higher order derivatives. For
example, f x y means that you first take the partial derivative with respect to x, and then,
once youre finished, differentiate the resulting function with respect to y. Remember
that, according to Clairauts Theorem, f xy ( a, b) f yx ( a, b) for the functions that well
deal with in this course.

14.5: The Chain Rule

Know how to apply the chain rule for a function f ( x, y ) where x and y both depend on
one or more other variables as well (also, you could be given a function f which depends
on more than 2 variables). To figure out the resulting chain rule formula, it helps to draw
the tree structure which shows which variables are functions of which other variables. If
we want to e.g. find the partial derivative of f with respect to t, and it is x and y that
depend on t, then we must go through those two branches (x and y) to get to t. Really, the
only tricky part is setting up the formula using the tree structureonce you have that,

then its just a matter of finding a few partial derivatives, which is the same as 14.3.
Again, not hard, just practice!

14.6: Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector

Understand the meaning of a directional derivative (i.e. finding slope in a given
direction). Know how to find the gradient vector (e.g. for a function of 2 variables, its
components are just the partial derivatives in the x and y directions, respectively). Know
how to compute directional derivatives (this means finding the gradient, possibly finding
the direction vector and/or converting the given direction vector into a unit vector, and
then taking the dot product). Finally, know that the gradient vector is perpendicular to
the level curves of a function, and it represents the direction of the steepest slope. Thus,
if you are asked to find the direction of greatest change of a function, just find the
gradient, and this vector gives the direction. If you are asked for what the value of the
maximum rate of change actually is, just find the magnitude of the gradient vector.

14.7: Maximum and Minimum Values

This section is an extension of the work that we did in Calc I/Intro Calc to find max/min,
and the concepts are totally the same. Know that local max/min occur at critical points,
which you find by solving f x 0 AND f y 0 . Once you find the critical points, you
may be asked to classify them as a local max/local min/saddle point. If asked to classify
them, you have the 2nd derivative test to help you. The formula
D

f xx

f xy

f yx

f yy

f xx ( x, y ) f yy ( x, y ) f xy ( x, y )

is provided on the formula sheet, and then 1)

If D 0 and f xx 0 at your point, youve got a local min. 2) If D 0 and f xx 0

at your point, youve got a local max. 3) If D 0 , then youve got a saddle point. (By
the way, if D=0, the test gives no info)

15.1: Double Integrals over Rectangles

In this section, we are finding numerical approximations to double integrals. This is
similar to what you did in Calc I/Intro Calc and 7.7, except that we add up the volumes of
rectangular columns rather than the areas of rectanglesin other words, we multiply the
area of the base of the rectangular columns (xy) by the height of the function at the
specified sample points (either bottom-right, bottom-left, top-right, top-left endpoints, or
midpoints). I will specify the number of partitions to use, and you must compute x and
y accordingly, and then find the resulting approximation. You are responsible for
knowing the formulas...really, its just adding up the volumes of several rectangular
columns together. You should also know how to find the average value of a twodimensional integral (find the integral, and divide by the area of the whole rectangular
region youre integrating over).

15.2: Iterated Integrals

Here, know how to compute double integrals. You start with the inner integral and work
your way out. When you integrate with respect to x, then you consider y to be a constant,
3 2

and vice versa. E.g.

y dy dx : the inner integration is over y between the limits of 1

0 1

and 2 (so we regard x as a constant when we do this), and the outer integral is over x
between the limits of 0 and 3 (at this point, y has been evaluated, so its actually just a
number, and this becomes a single-variable integral). Fubinis Theorem guarantees that
when we integrate over a rectangular region, for the functions well deal with in this
course, the order of integration can be switched if desired.

15.3: Double Integrals Over General Regions

The integration here is exactly the same as in 15.2...no real new math. The difference is
that rather than having a rectangular region of integration where the bounds on the inner
and outer integral are all numbers and Fubinis theorem applies, the bounds on the inner
integral may involve functions of the other variable (i.e. the one that appears in the outer
integral). What were doing is integrating over a non-rectangular region; in this case,
Fubinis theorem doesnt apply...if we decide to switch the order of integration (which we
may need to do to make the integration easier, for instance), we have to figure out the
appropriate new bounds for both the inner and outer integral. The hard part here is
figuring out the bounds...to do this, draw a diagram and figure out if it would be easier to
add a bunch of vertical strips (in other words, integrating with respect to y first), or
horizontal strips (in which we integrate with respect to x first). For vertical strips, the
inner integrals bounds denote the function that defines the top and bottom of each strip;
the outer integrals bounds tell us the x-value at which we start and stop adding up the
strips. For horizontal strips, the inner integral in terms of x tells us the function x f ( y )
that defines the left and right endpoint of each strip. The outer integral tells us the y
value at which we start and stop adding up the strips. Once youve figured out the
bounds (its tricky, so get lots of practice at this!), the rest is just like in 15.2 (sure, when
you do FTC for the inner integral, youll be subbing in a function rather than a number,
but the math is still exactly the same).

11.1: Sequences
First of all (and perhaps most importantly), stop convincing yourself that this chapter is
so hardits not. Now, you should of course understand the concept of a sequence of
numbers, and what it means to find the limit. To find the limit of a sequence, you take
lim an . If you get a numerical value, then the sequence is convergent, and the value you
n

got is the limit. If not (i.e. you get or the value oscillates and hence doesnt exist),
then the sequence is divergent. Easy as that. To help you evaluate these limits, you are
of course expected to know basic limit rules from Calc I/Intro Calc (LHopitals Rule is
NOT required since it isnt covered in Intro Calc).

11.2: Series
Again, understand the basic concept of a series, which is just a sum of terms. You should

know and be able to recognize a geometric series

ar

n 1

a ar ar 2 (although

n 1

you may have to manipulate it a bit to get it into this form). Next, be able to determine if
a given geometric series converges or diverges. This depends on the value of r | r | 1
means convergent, while | r | 1 means divergent, since the terms are getting bigger. If

a
(actually,
its convergent, then you should know that the sum is given by ar n 1
1 r
n 1
this is on the formula sheet). Also in this section, know the Divergence Test (If lim a n
n

does not exist or if lima n 0 , then the series

n

is divergent, since well be adding up

n 1

infinitely-many non-zero terms, so the sum will explode). Note that its not called the
DIVERGENCE test for nothingit can only be used to prove divergence, not
convergence. If lim a n 0 , this tells you that the test is inconclusive.
n

11.6: Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests

There are two different tests in this section: the ratio test, and the root test, but both have
the same criteria/conclusionsif the result of the test is a number greater than 1, the
series diverges; if the result of the test is less than 1, the series converges; if the result of
the test is 1, the test is inconclusive. Both tests are actually testing for absolute
convergence (hence, dont forget the absolute values), but if a series converges
absolutely, then it is convergent, which is all were interested in anyways. Know how to
a
apply the ratio test, which involves finding lim n1 . To find a n 1 , take an and change
n a
n
all occurrences of n to n+1. Then divide by a n , simplify (lots of terms usually cancel
out), and then take the limit as n . For the root test, were taking lim n a n , so this
n

test works best when all of the terms have an nth power.

11.8: Power Series

A power series is a representation of a function as a sum of power functions. In this
section, we are interested only in finding when a given power series converges. To do
this, we apply the ratio or root test. This means that this section is EXACTLY the same
as 11.6, except that there is the variable x as part of the series. In section 11.6, when we
applied the ratio or root test, we got a number as a result, and that number was either less,
greater, or equal to 1. Now, since we also have a variable as part of the answer, the value
of the variable can affect whether or not the series converges. There are three
possibilities that may occur when we apply the ratio or root test for a power series: 1.
We get an answer of 0. Well, 0 is obviously less than 1 for all x, so that means that the
power series converges for all xin other words, its radius of convergence is . 2. We

get an answer of . Well, thats obviously greater than 1 for all x, so this is always
divergent, and the radius of convergence is then 0. 3. Finally, its possible that we get
some answer involving x centred around some point e.g. 4 x 5 . In this case, this
1
; so here, the radius of
4
1
1
convergence is (i.e. x can move up to a distance of in either direction from the point
4
4
at which the power series is centred, which is in this case 5, and the series will still
converge).
converges when 4 x 5 1 , which means that x 5

11.10 (incl 11.11): Taylor and Maclaurin Series

To try to represent a given function as a power series, we use the Taylor series formula.

f ( n ) (a)
You should know that, within the radius of convergence, f ( x)
( x a) n is
n!
n 0
the Taylor series formula (while this will be on the formula sheet, its something that you
should know/memorize anyways for your future studies). The Maclaurin Series is the
exact same thing, but for the special case a 0 (so, for a Taylor series question, I would
give you a value of a, but if I tell you to find the Maclaurin series, then you should
know that this means a 0 ). To find the Taylor/Maclaurin series, plug in the appropriate
value of a into the formula. The only tricky part is to figure out f ( n ) (a) , which is the
nth derivative of f, evaluated at ato find this, find the first few derivatives of the
functionthere should be some sort of clear pattern (dont multiply out the numbersit
makes the pattern harder to finde.g. 2*2*2 is easier to work with than 8 here, because
you can tell that theres an extra factor of 2 each time you differentiate for instance); use
this to establish a formula for the nth derivative, and then evaluate at a. Finally, plug
everything into the above formula. Not as difficult as you think, just practice! You can
also use the first few terms of a Taylor/Maclaurin series to approximate a function, which
can be useful in evaluating difficult integrals or replace a function with its series
representation to evaluate tricky limits. Finally, the only other thing in this section is to
be able to find an estimate of the error (remainder) obtained when you approximate a
function by only a finite number of terms in the Taylor series. The formula is

Rn ( x)

M
n 1
x a , which gives an upper bound on this error, and it will be
(n 1)!

provided on the formula sheet. Here, f ( n 1) ( x ) M for x a d . Thus, to find an

upper bound on the error, you need to substitute in the given value of n (i.e. the order of
the approximation) and a maximum value for how far x may get from the centre of the
series a (this is x a ) on the given interval. To find M, find the form for the n+1
derivative of the function, and determine how big it can get on the given interval for x.
After substituting everything in, you can solve for Rn ( x) . Alternatively, you may be
given a desired accuracy and instead be asked to solve for n.

NOTE: For Chapter 11, watch your notation. You must demonstrate that you
understand the theorems. The tests for convergence/divergence all have different criteria,
so if you perform a test and get a numerical answer, and then just say it converges or
diverges, you will NOT receive full marksyou must explain why it converges or
diverges based on your test result. E.g. For Divergence Test, if you get 5 when you take
lim a n , then you must state that 5 is not equal to 0, hence it diverges, etc.
n