ENGINEERING MECHANICS

ENGINEERING
MECHANICS
(In S.I. Units)
[Strictly as per the Latest Syllabus
Prescribed by B.P.U.T., Odisha]

By
Dr. I.S. GUJRAL

B.E. (Hons), M.E. (Thermal), Ph. D

Fellow Institution of Engineers (India)
Formerly Principal
Hitkarini College of Engg. & Technology, Jabalpur
Madhya Pradesh
Presently, Director,
Shri Ram Institute of Science and Technology,
Jabalpur (M.P.)

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Contents
Chapters

Pages

1. SYSTEM OF FORCES ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Fundamental Concepts .............................................................................................. 1
1.3. Fundamental Principles ............................................................................................. 2
1.4. Units ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.5. Systems of Forces ....................................................................................................... 4
1.6. Law of Parallelogram of Forces ................................................................................. 7
1.7. Triangle Law of Forces ............................................................................................... 7
1.8. Polygon Law of Forces ................................................................................................ 9
1.9. Lamis Theorem .......................................................................................................... 9
1.10. Resolution and Composition of Forces .................................................................... 10
1.11. Law of Action and Reaction ..................................................................................... 23
1.12. Equilibrium of Collinear Forces............................................................................... 23
1.13. Equilibrium of Concurrent Coplanar Forces .......................................................... 23
1.14. Free-Body Diagrams ................................................................................................. 24
1.15. Equations of Equilibrium ......................................................................................... 25
1.16. Analysis of Connected Bodies .................................................................................. 26
1.17. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 30
1.18. Moment of Force ....................................................................................................... 30
1.19. Varignons Theorem .................................................................................................. 32
1.20. Couple ........................................................................................................................ 33
1.21. Resolution of a Given Force into a Force Acting at
a Given Point and a Couple...................................................................................... 35
1.22. Wrench ...................................................................................................................... 35
1.23. Equivalent Couples ................................................................................................... 36
1.24. Addition of Couples ................................................................................................... 36
1.25. Resultant of a System of Coplanar Forces .............................................................. 37
1.26. Equivalent Systems of Coplanar Forces ................................................................. 38
1.27. The x and y Intercepts of the Resultant .................................................................. 39
Exercise ...................................................................................................................... 46
2. COPLANAR PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEMS .................................................................... 55
2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 55
2.2. Resultant of Parallel Forces ..................................................................................... 55
(v)

(vi)
Chapters

Pages

2.3. Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple .................................................... 57

2.4. Properties of a Couple .............................................................................................. 58
2.5. Distributed Forces in a Plane .................................................................................. 68
Exercise ...................................................................................................................... 75
3. CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA ..................................................................... 79
3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 79
3.2. Centre of Gravity of a Flat Plate ............................................................................. 79
3.3. Centroids of Areas and Lines ................................................................................... 80
3.4. Centroids by Integration .......................................................................................... 82
3.5. Moment of Inertia ................................................................................................... 108
3.6. Units and Sign of Moment of Inertia..................................................................... 109
3.7. Parallel Axes Theorem ........................................................................................... 109
3.8. Perpendicular Axes Theorem ................................................................................. 110
3.9. Parallel-Axis and Perpendicular-Axis Theorem Combined ................................. 111
3.10. Radius of Gyration .................................................................................................. 112
3.11. Moment of Inertia by Integration .......................................................................... 113
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 137
4. FRICTION ......................................................................................................................... 140
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 140
4.2. Types of Friction ..................................................................................................... 140
4.3. Laws of Friction ...................................................................................................... 141
4.4. Theory of Dry Friction ............................................................................................ 142
4.5. Angle of Friction ..................................................................................................... 142
4.6. Angle of Repose ....................................................................................................... 143
4.7. Cone of Friction ....................................................................................................... 143
4.8. Equilibrium of Ladder ............................................................................................ 158
4.9. The Wedge ............................................................................................................... 162
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 165
5. TRUSSES ......................................................................................................................... 169
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 169

A Perfect or Rigid Truss ......................................................................................... 169
Relation between Number of Members and Number of Joints ........................... 170
Assumptions ............................................................................................................ 172
Tensile and Compressive Members ....................................................................... 172
Truss Nomenclature ............................................................................................... 173
Nature of Forces in Different Members of a Truss ............................................... 173
Methods of Analysing Trusses ............................................................................... 174
Method of Sections .................................................................................................. 194
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 200

(vii)
Chapters

Pages

6. VIRTUAL WORK .............................................................................................................. 205

6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.

Definition and Meaning of Work ........................................................................... 205

Principle of Virtual Work ....................................................................................... 207
Application of Virtual Work ................................................................................... 207
Procedure for Analysis using Principle of Virtual Work ...................................... 208
Principle of Virtual Work of Mult-Degree of Freedom Systems .......................... 208
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 223

7. KINEMATICS OF RECTILINEAR MOTION ..................................................................... 227

7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
7.7.

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 227

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration ...................................................................... 228
Nature of Problems in Rectilinear Motion ............................................................ 229
Uniform Rectilinear Motion ................................................................................... 230
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion ........................................................... 231
Normal and Tangential Components of Acceleration .......................................... 241
Projectile Motion or Trajectory .............................................................................. 244
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 256

8. DYNAMICS OF RECTILINEAR MOTION ........................................................................ 259

8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
8.7.
8.8.
8.9.

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 259

Equations of Motion for Rectilinear Motion.......................................................... 259
DAlemberts Principle or Equations of Dynamic Equilibrium ............................ 260
Types of Problems to be Solved .............................................................................. 261
Constant Force Acting on a Particle ...................................................................... 262
Variable Force Acting on a Particle ....................................................................... 264
Motion of a Lift ....................................................................................................... 267
Motion Along a Rough Inclined Plane ................................................................... 271
Motion of Connected Bodies ................................................................................... 273
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 281

9. DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE-CURVILINEAR MOTION ................................................. 284

9.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 284
9.2. Equations of Motion in Cartesian Co-ordinates ................................................... 284
9.3. Equations of Motion in Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration ... 285
9.4. Equations of Motion in Polar Co-ordinates ........................................................... 285
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 298
10. CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA .......................................... 302
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.

Centre of Gravity .................................................................................................... 302

Centre of Gravity of a Right Solid Circular Cone ................................................. 303
Centre of Gravity of a Thin Hollow Circular Right Cone .................................... 304
Centre of Gravity of Solid Hemi-sphere ................................................................ 306

(viii)
Chapters
10.5.
10.6.
10.7.
10.8.
10.9.
10.10.
10.11.
10.12.
10.13.
10.14.
10.15.
10.16.
10.17.
10.18.

Pages
Centre of Gravity of a Thin Hollow Hemi-sphere................................................. 306
Centre of Gravity of the Solid Right Circular Cylinder ....................................... 307
Mass Moment of Inertia ......................................................................................... 309
Perpendicular Axis Theorem ................................................................................. 310
Parallel Axes Theorem ........................................................................................... 310
Radius of Gyration .................................................................................................. 311
Units of Mass Moment of Inertia .......................................................................... 311
Combined Parallel and Perpendicular Axes Theorem ......................................... 312
Notations for Mass Moment of Inertia .................................................................. 312
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Thin Plate ............................................................... 312
Mass Moment of Inertia of Thin Rectangular Plate ............................................ 313
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Thin Circular Plate ................................................ 313
Mass Moment of Inertia of Solid Sphere .............................................................. 314
Mass Moment of Inertia of a Thin Long Rod ........................................................ 316
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 317

11. CURVILINEAR MOTION AND ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES ..................................... 319

11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.6.
11.7.
11.8.
11.9.
11.10.
11.11.
11.12.
11.13.
11.14.
11.15.
11.16.
11.17.
11.18.
11.19.
11.20.
11.21.
11.22.

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 319

Motion of Translation ............................................................................................. 320
Curvilinear Translation ......................................................................................... 329
Differential Equations of Curvilinear Motions .................................................... 330
Conical Pendulum................................................................................................... 332
Moment of Momentum in Curvilinear Motion ..................................................... 334
Work-Energy Equation in Curvilinear Motion..................................................... 336
Introduction to Rotation of Rigid Bodies .............................................................. 338
Equation of Motion for Rigid Body Rotation ........................................................ 341
Moment of Momentum or Angular Momentum ................................................... 341
Centroidal and Non-Centroidal Rotation ............................................................. 342
Rotation under the Action of a Constant Moment ............................................... 343
Equation of Dynamic Equilibrium in Motion of
Rotation about a Fixed Axis ................................................................................... 343
Workdone by a Couple and Kinetic Energy of Rotation ...................................... 350
Angular Impulse and Angular Momentum .......................................................... 351
Freely Rolling Body ................................................................................................ 352
Plane Motion of a Rigid Body ................................................................................ 353
Motion of a Vehicle Rolling Down the Road ......................................................... 358
Motion of a Vehicle Going Round a Curve ............................................................ 361
Banking a Curve ; Super-Elevation ...................................................................... 364
Compound Pendulum ............................................................................................. 368
Centre of Percussion ............................................................................................... 369

(ix)
Chapters

Pages

11.23. Flywheels................................................................................................................. 370

11.24. Circumferential or Hoop Stress due to Rotation .................................................. 372
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 373
12. IMPACT OR COLLISION OF ELASTIC BODIES ............................................................ 379
12.1.
12.2.
12.3.
12.4.
12.5.
12.6.

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 379

Definitions ............................................................................................................... 379
Direct Central Impact ............................................................................................ 382
Oblique Impact........................................................................................................ 383
Impact Against Fixed Plane ................................................................................... 384
Loss of Kinetic Energy ............................................................................................ 384
Exercise .................................................................................................................... 396
Index ....................................................................................................................... 399

Preface
The subject ENGINEERING MECHANICS is taught in the very first year of the
undergraduate Engineering curriculum in almost all universities of the world. An engineering
student starts learning to develop his capability to model an actual problem into an engineering
problem and obtains its solution by using the fundamental principles and concepts of Engineering
Mechanics Engineering problems, to a great extent, require the drawing of the free-body diagrams
of the entire body and also of a small portion cut from it. Students are, therefore, advised to
learn drawing of the free-body diagrams. The entire book is divided into two portions-Statics
and Dynamics.
In the book SI system of units have been used. Analytical methods are emphasized
throughout this book but the graphical and also the semi-graphical methods have not been
neglected. Most of the fundamentals needed to learn the basics of Engineering Mechanics have
been discussed in the First Chapter.
Chapter on Trusses has been discussed at length. Here, certain so called checks are
presented which a student is advised to use to ascertain the correctness of his solution. If the
check fails, the student should hurriedly go through his solution to correct the mistake. A
very large number of solved examples and the unsolved problems have been given for practice.
The method of sections has also been discussed at length.
Separate chapters on Coplanar Parallel Force Systems; Friction; Centre of Gravity &
Moments of inertia of Plane Areas have been included. Standard cases of areas dealing with
centroids and moment of inertia have been given in tabular forms for ready reference.
A separate chapter on Virtual Work has been given. The concept of virtual work has been
presented in a very simple fashion.
Chapters on Dynamics include: Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion; Dynamics of Rectilinear
Motion; Dynamics of Particle-Curvilinear Motion; Center of Gravity and Mass Moment of Inertia;
Curvilinear Motion and Motion of Rotation of Rigid Bodies; and Impact or Collision of Elastic
bodies.
This book has been written to help the students in understanding the fundamentals of
the subject and to develop their ability to deal any situation.
Although this book has been written for students of Odisha Technical University but it
is hoped that the material presented in this book will be of value to the students and teachers
of all Indian universities as well. It will help students in preparing for competitive examinations
such as GATE, GRE, IES, IAS, PSC AMIE and other public sector examinations.
Many standard books on the subject have been used in preparation of this book and the
author thankfully acknowledges the same. The valuable suggestions from learned teachers of
the subject would help the author in improving the quality of this book.
I also acknowledge the moral support from my wife Smt. Kuldip Kaur and my all children
for bearing with me during the long period of writing of this book.
Author

(xi)

1
System of Forces
PART AFUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND RELATIONS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the state of rest or motion of
bodies under the action of forces. No one subject plays a greater role in the engineering analysis and application than mechanics. Modern research and advancements in the fields of stability, strength and design of structures and machines, vibration, robotics, rockets, missiles,
aeroplane and spacecraft design, automobiles, automatic control, fluid flow, engine performance, electrical machines and apparatus, transmission towers, superstructures, heavy earth
moving machines, locomotives, metro railways, super sonic aircrafts; molecular, atomic and
subatomic behaviour, etc., are highly dependent on the basic principles of mechanics. A thorough and clear understanding of this subject is an essential requirement for work in these and
many other subjects, not mentioned above.
It is divided into three parts: Mechanics of Rigid bodies, Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies and Mechanics of Fluids. Mechanics of rigid bodies is sub-divided into Statics and
Dynamics. Statics deals with bodies at rest, while Dynamics deals with bodies in motion. In
the study of mechanics bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid. Actual machines and structures
are not absolutely rigid and deform under the given loads but these deformations are negligibly
small and therefore do not affect their conditions of equilibrium or motion.
The second division of mechanics is the Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, which is further subdivided into Strength of Materials, Theory of Elasticity, Theory of Plasticity. The third
division of mechanics is the Mechanics of Fluid, which is further subdivided into Mechanics of
Incompressible Fluids and Mechanics of Compressible Fluids.
1.2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Certain concepts and definitions are basic to the study of mechanics and they should be
understood before starting the subject. The basics used in mechanics are space, time, mass,
force, particle and rigid body.
(a) Space. The concept of space is associated with the notion of the position of a body.
Space is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear or
angular measurements relative to a co-ordinate system. For three dimensional problems three
independent lengths (or co-ordinates) measured with a reference point (known as origin) are
needed. For two-dimensional problems only two co-ordinates will be required. These co-ordinates
are called the Cartesian co-ordinates or the rectangular co-ordinates. Sometime angular
1

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

co-ordinates are used. They are known as cylindrical co-ordinates for three dimensional
problems and polar co-ordinates for two-dimensional problems. There are many other
co-ordinate systems used for different problems.
(b) Time. Time is the measure of happening of an event. It is a basic quantity in the
study of dynamics.
(c) Mass. Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter in a body. In Statics mass is also
the property of a body by which it experiences force of mutual attraction to other bodies in
space. Mass is also the measure of the inertia of a body. And, inertia is the resistance to the
change of velocity of a body. In SI units, unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
(d) Force. Force is the action of one body on another. A force tends to move a body in the
direction of its action. It may be exerted either by actual contact or from a distance, as in the
case of gravitational forces and magnetic forces. A force is described by:
(i) its point of application,
(ii) its magnitude, and
(iii) its direction.
These quantities are called specifications of a force. A force, having magnitude and
direction, is a vector quantity. In SI system of units force is measured in newtons and its
symbol is N.
(e) Particle. A body of negligible dimensions is called a particle, Mathematically, a
particle is a body whose dimensions approach zero so that it may be analysed as a point mass.
Forces acting on a particle are called concurrent forces.
(f) Rigid Body. A rigid body may be defined as a definite amount of matter the parts of
which are fixed in position relative to one another. Physical bodies, such as we deal with in the
design of engineering structures and machine parts, are never absolutely rigid but they deform
slightly under the action of load which they are to carry. But, these deformations are very
small and do not affect the equilibrium of the rigid body under study in mechanics. The
deformations of bodies are studied in subjects like Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, also known
as Strength of Materials, Theory of Elasticity, Theory of Plasticity, etc.
1.3. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The study of mechanics rests on six fundamental principles based on experimental evidence. They will be discussed at length in subsequent sections as they are required. These
principles are stated below for reference only:
(1) The Parallelogram Law of Forces. It states that the resultant of two forces is
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as the sides representing these forces.
The Three Laws of Newton. Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) was the first to satisfactorily formulate the fundamental principles of mechanics. Slightly reworded to use the modern terminology, these laws are:
(2) First Law of Motion. A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight
line with a uniform velocity if there is no unbalanced resultant force acting on it.
(3) Second Law of Motion. The acceleration is proportional to the resultant force
acting on a particle and is in the direction of this force.
Expressed mathematically, it may be stated as:
F = ma

...(1.1)

where F is the resultant force acting on the particle of mass m and a is the resulting
acceleration.

SYSTEM OF FORCES

(4) Third Law of Motion. The forces of action and reaction between the bodies are
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear.
(5) The Principle of Transmissibility. This states that the external effect of a force
on a rigid body is the same for all points of application of a force along its line of action, i.e., it
is independent of its point of application. Its internal effect definitely change with the point
of application of the force.
Force P, in Fig. 1.3.1(a) will result the sliding of the block whether the force pulls the
block at A or pushes at B. The local internal effects at A and B will, however, be quite different.
P

(a)

D
(b)

D
(c)

Fig. 1.3.1. Principle of transmissibility is for (a) and (b) but not for (c)

It should be noted that the principle of transmissibility applies to the external effect of
a force on the same rigid body. Observe that since the supports at C and D have changed in
Figs. (b) and (c) therefore the principle of transmissibility will not hold good although the force
P acts along its line of action through points A and B. The support at D is changed from a
hinge at (b) to a roller at (c), this changes the external condition of equilibrium of the body.
(6) Newtons Law of Gravitation. This law states
that the two masses M and m situated at a distance r are
mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces (Fig. 1.3.2)
F and F of magnitude F given by the formula:
F = G . Mm
r2

M
r

...(1.2)

where G = Universal constant known as the constant of

gravitation.
By experiments the constant of gravitation is found to
be G = 6.673 1011 m3/(kgs2).

F
m

Fig. 1.3.2. Newtons law of

gravitation

The mutual forces F obey the law of action and reaction since they are equal and opposite and are directed along the line joining the centres of the particles M and m as shown in
Fig. 1.3.2.
The gravitational attraction of the earth on a given body is called the weight of the
body. This force exits whether the body is at rest or in motion. In SI units the unit of weight is
Newton (N). For a body of mass m near the surface of earth, the gravitational attraction on the
body may be calculated by using equation (1.1). If the gravitational force or weight has a
magnitude W, then since the body falls with an acceleration g, equation (1.2) gives
W = mg
The weight is in newtons (N) and mass in kilograms (kg) and g in
value of g = 9.81 m/s2 is generally used.

...(1.3)
m/s2.

The standard

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

In equation (1.2), let ME = mass of earth in kg

we get
F=
where,

g=

G (M E )

r2
G(M E )
r

and r = radius of earth in metres (m),

m = gm,

LM m
MN kg . s
3

= 9.81

OP . L kg O
PQ MN m PQ = 9.81 m/s .
2

1.4. UNITS
As discussed is Sec. 1.2, Mechanics deals with four fundamental quantitieslength,
mass force and time. The units used to measure these quantities can not be chosen independently
because they must be consistent with the Newtons second law of motion, expressed by
eqn. (1.1). In the present time the modern Metric System (SI) of units is used. In past, the
Foot-Pound-Second (FPS) system of units were used. In some countries Metre-Kilogram-Second
(MKS) units are used. Four fundamental quantities and units and their symbols for these
three systems are given in Table 1.1, below.
Table 1.1. Different Systems of Units
S.No.

Quantity Dimensional
symbol

SI units
Basic
units

MKS units

Symbol

1.
2.

Length
Mass

L
M

metre
kilogram

m
kg

3.
4.

Time
Force

T
F

second
newton

s
N

Basic
units
metre
kilogram
mass
second
kilogram
force

FPS units

Symbol

Basic
units

Symbol

m
kg m

foot
slugs

ft
slugs

sec
kg f

second
Pound

sec
lb

PART BCONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

1.5. SYSTEMS OF FORCES
In the study of mechanics various systems of forces are encountered. When all forces
meet at one point, they are known as concurrent forces. When all concurrent forces are lying in
one plane they belong to coplanar concurrent force system. This force system is illustrated in
Fig. 1.5.2 (b), in which all forces are situated in the xy plane and meet at a point A.
If the concurrent forces are situated in different planes in space, they belong to concurrent spatial forces. In Fig. 1.5.2(e) forces F1 and F3 are situated in xz plane; forces F1
and F4 are situated in yz plane; forces F2 and F5 do not lie in any plane. All these forces meet
at the corner C of the cube.
If all forces acting at a point lying in any plane are acting along the same straight line
they form coplanar collinear force system, as shown in Fig. 1.5.2(a).

SYSTEM OF FORCES
Force systems

Coplanar force systems

Spatial force systems

1. Collinear force system

2. Concurrent force system
3. Non-concurrent parallel
force system
4. Non-concurrent (non-parallel)
force system

1. Spatial concurrent force system

2. Spatial parallel force system
3. Spatial non-concurrent (non-parallel)
force system

Fig. 1.5.1. Various force systems

Various force systems listed in Fig. 1.5.1 are illustrated in Fig. 1.5.2 below.
y

y
F3
F3

F1

F2

F1

F2

O
(i)

(ii)
(a) Coplanar collinear force systems

F2

F3

F1

F2

F3

F4

F1

A
F4

F1 F2 F3 F4
x

O
(i)

(b) Coplanar concurrent

force system

(ii)
(c) Coplanar parallel force system

y
F3

F2

C
D

F1

B
A

O
(i)

B
F3

F4

F1

F4

F2

O
(ii)

(d) Coplanar non-concurrent force system

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

G
F3

F2
F1
C
F4

F5

F1

F2 F3

F6

E
A

F4

x
E

F5
B

z
(e) Spatial concurrent system

(f) Spatial parallel system

y
G

F
F4

F5
C

F1 F2
O

F3
x
E

z
(g) Spatial non-concurrent system

Fig. 1.5.2. Illustration of various force systems

Figure 1.5.1 gives classification of different systems of forces. Various force systems are
divided into (a) coplanar force systems, and (b) spatial force systems. Each system of forces is
further sub-divided into concurrent force systems; parallel force systems and non-concurrent
(non-parallel) force systems.
In Fig. 1.5.2 (c) all forces are parallel to each other and are situated in the xy-plane and
hence are known as coplanar parallel force system. In Fig. 1.5.2 (f) all forces are parallel to
each other but they are lying in different planes. Forces F1, F2 and F6 are lying in yz-plane;
forces F4 and F5 are situated in xy-plane and force F3 acting along the y-axis is situated in both
xy- and yz-planes. The force system shown in Fig. 1.5.2 (f) is known as spatial parallel force
system.
Coplanar non-concurrent force system is shown in Fig. 1.5.2 (d) in which forces
are situated in xy plane, but they donot act through the same point.
Spatial non-concurrent force system is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.2 (g). Here all forces
are situated in different planes and also act through different points.
The above force systems, their applications, equilibrium etc., will be discussed in
subsequent sections of this book.