1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

COMMUNICATION
a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols
a technique for expressing ideas effectively
a system of routes for moving troops, supplies, and vehicles
Communication is the transfer of information from one point in space and time to another point. The block
diagram of a communication system is shown in Figure 1.1.
SOURCE

TRANSMITTER
(modulator)

CHANNEL

NOISE

RECEIVER
(demodulator)

DESTINATION

Figure 1.1 A block diagram of a communication systems

Transmitter - couples the message onto the channel using high frequency signals
Receiver - restores the signal to its original form
Channel - the medium used for transmission of signals
Modulation - the process of shifting the frequency spectrum of a message signal to a frequency range in which
more efficient transmission can be achieved
Demodulation - the process of shifting the frequency spectrum back to the original baseband frequency range
and reconstructing the original form, if necessary
Baseband - refers to the lower portion of the over-all electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 1.2)
Baseband versus Passband (Lui, Principles and Applications of Optical Communications. Irwin, Times Mirror
Higher Education Group, Inc, Chicago, 1996)
A signal can be transmitted in different frequency bands. If the signal is transmitted over its original frequency
band, the transmission is called baseband transmission. On the other hand, if the signal is shifted to a frequency
band higher than its original baseband, it is called passband transmission.
There are several reasons to shift a baseband signal to passband. First, some transmission media have
either a large loss or high noise at low frequencies. For example, optical fibers have a cut-off frequency below
which electromagnetic waves have a high loss. Therefore, we need to convert a baseband signal to lightwave for
transmission over optical fibers. Similarly, in seawater communications, either extremely low frequency (ELF)
of a few hundred hertz or blue light in the visible frequency range is chosen because of the low attenuation (this
is why seawater is blue).
Another reason for passband transmission is to multiplex multiple signals in the same transmission
medium. For example, AM/FM radio and TV channels are multiplexed in the frequency domain by a process
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called frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where each channel is centered around a pre-assigned carrier
frequency. AM, FM, and TV are in the frequency ranges of 530-1700 kHz, 88-108 MHz, and 54-88 MHz plus
120-600 MHz, respectively. Therefore, the higher carrier frequency, the more information it can carry.
Electromagnetic spectrum
longer wavelengths
higher frequencies
Audio Radio Microwave Terahertz radiation Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-rays Gamma rays
Very
Low
Fcy
(VLF)

Audio
frequency
(AF)

Low
Fcy
(LF)

Medium
Fcy
(MF)

Very
High
Fcy
(VHF)

High
Fcy
(HF)

Ultra
High
Fcy
(UHF)
f

300 Hz
Audio
baseband

30 Hz

3 kHz

30 kHz

300 kHz

3 MHz

AM
passband

High-fidelity
audio baseband

30 MHz 300 MHz

FM
passband

3 GHz

TV
passband

Video baseband

Micro
wave

Millimeter
wave

Infrared

Visible

Ultraviolet
f

3 GHz

30 GHz

300 GHz

3 THz

30 THz

Satellite
communications

300 THz

3000 THz

Optical
frequency
passband

Figure 1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum

Table 1.1 Spectrum of Communication Systems
Frequency Designation

Transmission
Media
Optical fibers

Propagation
Modes
Laser beam

Super High Frequency

(SHF)
3 GHz 30 GHz

Waveguides

Line-of-Sight
Radio

Ultra High Fcy (UHF)

300 MHz 3000 MHz
Very High Fcy (VHF)
30 MHz 300 MHz
High Fcy (HF)
3 MHz 30 MHz
Medium Fcy (MF)
300 kHz 3000 kHz

Waveguides/ Co-axial cable

LOS Radio

Co-axial cable

LOS Radio

Co-axial cable

Skywave Radio

Co-axial cable

Groundwave Radio

Infrared
1 THz 430 THz

Applications

(LOS)

Wideband Data
Multimedia
ATM
Satellite
Microwave
Radar
Navigational
UHF TV
Mobile
Mobile
VHF TV, FM
CB Amateur Radio
Civil Defense
AM

Low Fcy (LF)

30 kHz 300 kHz
Very Low Fcy (VLF)
3 kHz 30 kHz
Audio Fcy (AF)
20 Hz 20 kHz

Wire pairs

Groundwave Radio

Wire pairs

Groundwave Radio

Aeronautical
Transoceanic Radio
Telephone
Telegraph

Wire pairs

Table 1.2 A CHRONOLOGY OF ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION

1800-1837

1838-1866

1845
1864
1876-1899

1887-1907

1892-1899
1904-1920

1920-1928
1923-1938

1931
1934
1936
1937
1938-1945
1944-1947
1948-1951
1948-1951
1950
1953

Preliminary Developments
Volta discovers the battery; the mathematical treatises by Fourier, Cauchy, and Laplace; experiments
on electrical and magnetism by Oersted, Ampere, Faraday, and Henry; Ohms Law (1826); early
telegraph systems by Gauss, Weber, and Wheatstone
Telegraphy
Morse perfects his system; Steinhill finds that the earth can be used for a current path; commercial
service initiated (1844); multiplexing techniques devised; William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) calculates
the pulse response of a telegraph line (1855); transatlantic cables installed by Cyrus Field and
associates
Kirchhoffs circuit laws enunciated
Maxwells equation predicts electromagnetic radiation
Telephony
Acoustic transducer perfected by Alexander Graham Bell, after earlier attempts by Reis; first
telephone exchange, in New Haven, with eight lines (1878); Edisons carbon-button transducer; cable
circuits introduced; Strowger devises automatic step-by-step switching (1887); the theory of cable
loading by Heaviside, Pupin, and Campbell
Wireless telegraphy
Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwells theory; demonstrations by Marconi and Popov; Marconi patents a
complete wireless telegraph system (1897); the theory of tuning circuits developed by Sir Oliver Lodge;
commercial service begins, including ship-to-shore and transatlantic systems
Oliver Heavisides publication on operational calculus, circuits, and electromagnetics
Communication electronics
Lee De Forrest invents the Audion (triode) based on Flemings diode; basic filter types devised by G. A.
Campbell and others; experiments with AM radio broadcasting; transcontinental telephone line with
electronic repeaters completed by the Bell System (1915); multiplexed carrier telephony introduced; E.
H. Armstrong perfects the superheterodyne radio receiver (1918); first commercial broadcasting
station, KDKA, Pittsburgh
Transmission theory
Landmark papers on the theory of signal transmission and noise by J. R. Carson, H. Nyquist, J. B.
Johnson, and R. V. L. Hartley
Television
Mechanical image-formation system demonstrated by Baird and Jenkins; theoretical analysis of
bandwidth requirements; Farnsworth and Zworykin propose electronic systems; vacuum cathode-ray
tubes perfected by DuMont and others; field tests and experimental broadcast begin
Teletypewriter service initiated
H. S. Black develops the negative-feedback amplifier
Armstrongs paper states the case for FM radio
Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation
World War II
Radar and microwave systems developed; FM used extensively for military communications; improved
electronics, hardware, and theory in all areas
Statistical communication theory
Rice develops a mathematical representation of noise; Weiner, Kolmogoroff, and Kotelnikov apply
statistical methods to signal detection
Information theory and coding
C. E. Shannon publishes the founding papers of information theory; Hamming and Golay devise errorcorrecting codes
Transistor devices invented by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley
Time-division multiplexing applied to telephony
Color TV standards established in the United States
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1955
1956
1958
1960
1961
1962
1962-1966

1963
1964
1965
1966-1975
1975-1985
1983
1985 to present
beyond 2000

J. R. Pierce proposes satellite communication systems

First transoceanic telephone cable (36 voice channels)
Long-distance data transmission system developed for military purposes
Maiman demonstrates the first laser
Integrated circuits go into commercial production
Satellite communication begins with Telstar I
High-speed digital communication
Data transmission service offered commercially; wideband channels designed for digital signalling;
pulse code modulation proves feasible for voice and TV transmission; major breakthroughs in the
theory and implementation of digital transmission, including error-control coding methods by Viterbi
and others, and the development of adaptive equalization by Lucky and co-workers
Solid-state microwave oscillators perfected by Gunn
Fully electronic telephone switching system (No. 1 ESS) goes into service
Mariner IV transmits pictures from Mars to earth
Wideband communication systems
Cable TV systems; commercial satellite relay service becomes available; optical links using lasers and
fiber optics; the forerunner of the Internet, ARPANET was created in 1969;
Integrated-circuit communication modules; high-frequency power MOS devices; digital signal
processing with microprocessors; filter circuits using switched capacitors and surface acoustic waves;
rate distortion theory and predictive coding applied to data compression
TCP/IP became the official protocol of ARPANET/Internet
Gigabit Networks, B-ISDN or ATM Networks, Digital TV
Third- and fourth-generation wireless systems (Advanced mobile communications)
International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT)-2000; Wireless ATM (WATM)

Wireless communications networks today are based largely on first-generation analog and second-generation
digital technologies. The specifications and standards for the new generation of wireless technologies (known as
IMT-2000) are being developed by the ITU. The third-generation wireless systems will work in a range of
service environments, from in-building to global. These systems will be offered in the 2-GHz frequency bands.
(Shafi, et al., Wireless Communications in the Twenty-First Century: A Perspective, Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 85, no. 10, October 1997, 1622-1638)
1.2 RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS
1.2.1 TUNED AMPLIFIERS

Input

Resonance
Circuit

Amplifier
Circuit

Resonance
Circuit

Figure 1.3 A simple block diagram of a tuned amplifier

1.2.1.1 Series Resonance
R

L
C

Output

Z R jL

1
1

R j L

jC
C

At resonance 0, Z = R, which is its minimum value. Hence,

1
0
0C

0L

f0

1
2

LC

1.2.1.2 Parallel Resonance

Parallel resonance circuits are used when a high-impedance tuned circuits are required.

Z
f0

1
2

LC

f
fL

fo

fH

V3
V2
V1

f1 f2 f3
5

fo

1.2.1.3 Quality Factor and Bandwidth

Inductors store energy in the magnetic field surrounding the device. Capacitors store energy in the space
between electrodes. The energy is stored during one-half of the ac cycle and returned during the other half. Any
energy lost during the cycle is associated with a dissipative resistance.
The sharpness of the response curve of any resonant circuit is determined by the maximum amount of
energy that can be stored in the circuit, compared with the energy that is lost during one complete period of the
response. This sharpness of the response curve is related the parameter called the quality factor, Q.
Q=

maximum energy stored

.
amount of enegy lost per cycle

Since energy-storage devices must lose the least amount of energy, the higher the Q of the resonant circuit
means that the capacitors and inductors used have good quality.
The width of the resonant response curve that can provide the required output is between the half-power
frequencies, fH and fL. This width is usually called the bandwidth, B.
B fH fL
The bandwidth is related to the quality factor Q by the equation
B

f0
Q

Q0 0 RC

vi

R
0L

1
2RC

R
R B

v0
hfeZ

vi
hie

Designing the circuit to have C >> Cbe + Cbc and R <<

1
,
hoe
6

1 1
1
1
R

jC 1 jRC
Z R jL
R
jL

0
1

1 jQ0
R
0

v0
hfe

R
vi
hie

0
1 jQ0

0

v0
v0
Gain at = o
Gain at = si

vi

vi

si

1 Q si 0
0 si
2
0

f
f
1 Q si 0
f 0 f si

2
0

1.2.2 OSCILLATORS

SW

A
V

+
c

X1

X2

X3
Basic Configuration of a Resonant
Circuit Oscillator
Oscillator Circuits

CC

CC

RFC
RFC

R
C

Tank
Circuit

Colpitts Oscillator

Hartley Oscillator

1.3 FREQUENCY TRANSLATION AND FILTER RESPONSES

1.3.1 Frequency Translation

v (t ) V ( f )

-W

v (t )e j ct V ( f f c )

fc
1/2

v (t ) cos c t

1
V f fc V f fc
2

fc
j/2

v ( t ) sin c t

1
V f fc V f fc
j2

- fc
1

1 ( f )
1/2

cos c t

1
f fc f fc
2

fc
j/2

1
sin c t
f fc f fc
j2

- fc
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1.3.2 Filter Response

1.3.2.1 Low Pass Filter
A

LPF
fc o , B = f L
f
- fL

fL

1.3.2.2 High Pass Filter

A

HPF
fc o = f L
f
- fH

fH

1.3.2.3 Bandpass Filter

W
A

BPF
fo = f C
B=W

f
- fH

- fc - fL

fL

fc

fH

1.3.2.4 Block Diagram Examples

1) The system below is a simplified speech scrambler used to ensure communication privacy and foil
wiretapping. Analyze its operation by sketching the spectrum at each stage, taking X(f) as shown. Draw also a
descrambler for the system.

X(f)

-5

LPF
B = 20 kHz

HPF
fC0 = 20 kHz

x(t)
f (kHz)

25 kHz

20 kHz

2) Consider the system skeched in the figure below, F1 (f) and F2 (f) as shown.
a) Sketch the transform of f3 (t).
b) Sketch the transform of g (t).
c) Draw one possible realization of a complete receiver.
9

1
-5

F1 (f)
f1 (t)
f (kHz)

F2 (f)

10 kHz

f2 (t)
-5

25 kHz

f (kHz)

3) Draw the spectrum of the different time-domain values.

a(t)

cos c t
c(t)

d(t)

HPF
fc o = f c

e(t)

90
PHASE
SHIFT

LPF
fc o = f c

f(t)

cos c t
b(t)
1.3.3 Bandpass Systems
The simplest bandpass system is the parallel resonant or tuned circuit. Since practical tuned circuits
usually have 10 < Q < 100, the 3-dB (half-power) bandwidth falls between 1% and 10% of the center frequency
value.
0.01 <

B
< 0.1
fc

10

1% <

B
fc

< 10%

For instance, the antennas in a radio system produce considerable distortion unless the frequency range
is small compared to fc. Moreover, designing a reasonably distortionless bandpass amplifier turns out to be quite
difficult if B is either very large or very small compared to fc. As a rough rule of thumb, the fractional
bandwidth B/fc must be kept within the range considered.
1.4 MODULATION
Modulation is the systematic alteration of a high-frequency carrier wave in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal. The modulating signal that varies the parameters of the carrier is
usually the baseband signal. The carrier wave after modulation is also called the modulated signal or the
transmitted signal.
A carrier wave may be represented by the equations
e(t) = Em cos ( c t + )
c(t) = Ac cos ( c t + )
where e(t) and c(t) is the instantaneous value of the carrier
Em and Ac is the maximum amplitude
c is the angular velocity of the carrier (2fc )
is its phase angle
1.4.1 Why Modulate?
Modulation is required to match the signal to the transmission medium. Some of the major reasons why
modulation is required are:
Modulation for ease of radiation
Modulation for frequency assignment and multiplexing
Modulation to reduce noise and interference
1.4.1 General Types of Modulation
Continuous Wave (CW) Modulation
- carrier is a sinusoidal waveform
Pulse Modulation
- carrier is a periodic train of pulses
Digital Modulation
- modulation of binary symbols

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