Radiography

Radiography is an imaging technique that uses electromagnetic radiation

other than visible light, especially X-rays, to view the internal structure of a
non-uniformly composed and opaque object.

The
Xrays
that
pass

through the object are captured behind the object by a detector

either photographic film or a digital detector.
The detector can then provide a superimposed 2D representation of all the
object's internal structures.
X-Ray
Wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers(1016-1018 meters).
Frequencies is in the range of 1016 Hz to 1018 Hz.
X ray having short wavelength about the same size as the diameter of an
atom.It can cause ionization (adding or removing electrons in atoms and
molecules).They affect photographic film in the same way as visible light.
They are absorbed by metal and bones by ionization.
Gamma() rays
Gamma radiation is very high-energy ionizing radiation of
wavelength ranging from 10-12 meters).The frequencies are above 1020 Hz
They are classically produced by the decay of atomic nuclei.Properties of
gamma rays are same as that of X-rays
Paul Villard discovered gamma radiation in 1900.

Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the adjacent
cycles of a waveform.
Frequency
Frequency is
the number of
occurrences of a
repeating event per
unit time or it is
the number of waves passing through a point in a unit time.
The frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional.
Penetration Of Rays
The most important difference between visible light and X ray &
Gamma rays are its penetration. X ray and Gamma rays are highly
penetrating.
Sensitivity
The measure of accuracy is called the sensitivity of the radiograph.
Sensitivity in a radiograph is a function of Contrast and Definition.
Contrast is film density comparison of radio graphs.
Definition
Is the line
of
discrimination between areas of different density.

Absorption
Photons are absorbed in a solid by interacting with an electron by giving
all its energy to the electron. In effect, the photon disappears and energy is
transferred to an electron. This is known as ionization
The absorption of photons in solids depends on the number of electrons
that can accept a transfer of energy from the photon.
Scattering
Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of radiation,
such as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a
straight trajectory.
Three different forms of scattering based on origin
1. Internal scattering
2. Side scattering
3. Back scattering
Internal Scatter occurs due to collision with the molecules of the material.
Side scatter occurs when the waves scattered due to presence of sharp edges
and side walls.
Back Scatter occurs when the waves get reflected at the floor or wall after
the film
Scattering may creates fuzzy edges on radiograph which cannot be avoided,
but can be reduced by placing led plates and foils near the test piece

Penumbra
It is geometric unsharpness related to the size of the radio-graphic source
The radiograph should be perfect if the radiation is emitting from a point
source.If the source is not point sized the source will not be sharp
It cannot be eliminated completely because the point source for radiation can
not be obtained. It can be reduced by increasing the source-specimen
distance
Also placing the specimen near to the surface reduces the Penumbra.
The
Optimum
Geometrical
sharpness is obtained
when,
1) The
radiation
source is small.
2) The distance from
source-to- specimen
is relatively high.
3) The distance from specimen to film is small.
Optimum Sharpness
1. Specimen Shape
The shape of specimen in another geometric factor which affects
definition
2.

Film

Graininess
The film graininess also affects the definition of the radiograph

Structure
of atom
An atom is
composed
of
three
basic parts
1. ProtonPositive
charged

particles,heavy
2. Electron- Negative charged particles. lighter than proton
3. Neutron- Not a charged particle, same size and weight of proton

The combination of
the above determines
what kind of material
is it.
About 100 kind of
atoms known, they are
elements such as
oxygen,
nitrogen
etc..Protons
and
neutrons are packed
together to form nucleus. An atom must be neutral in total charge
Number of electrons and protons must be same but neutrons quit different
Identification Of Elements
Atomic Number or "Z" number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
Mass number or "A" is a sum of protons and neutrons.

For Example Helium,

Isotopes
In an atom
the number of
neutrons
in
nucleolus can be
varied since it
will not alter the charge or even the atomic properties also. The same atom
with different number of neutrons is labeled as Isotopes.
ie, Atoms with same atomic number"Z" but different mass number"A"
Isotopes Of Hydrogen

Radioactivity
Some atoms with more number of neutrons will not affect the nucleus
which are known as Stable Isotopes.Some other isotopic nucleus are
unstable and tend to disintegrate or decayed into more stable form.This is
known as Radioactivity.Unstable isotopes are known as Radioactive
materials.
Iridium, Uranium are examples of radioactive metals
Iridium Isotope
Most stable radioactive isotope of Iridium is Ir192.
Atomic Number-192
Mass Number -77
Half Life-73.827 days
Uranium Isotope
A weakly
radioactive
material.
Atomic
number-92
Mass
number-238
Half Life4.468109
yrs
Radioactive Emission
Radioactive decay occurs with the emission of particles or
electromagnetic radiation from an atom due to a change within its nucleus.
Forms of radioactive emission include alpha particles (), beta particles (),
and gamma rays ().
Alpha particles ()
Alpha particles ( ) are a type of ionizing radiation ejected by the nuclei
of some unstable atoms. They are large subatomic fragments consisting of
two protons and two neutrons

Beta particles ()
Beta particles () are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons
emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei.The beta particles emitted are a
form of ionizing radiation also known as beta rays.A positron is a particle of
matter with the same mass as an electron but an opposite charge
Gamma rays ()
Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays (), refers to
electromagnetic radiation consists of high-energy photons.
Gamma rays are ionizing radiation, and are thus biologically hazardous.
Radioactive decay
A radioactive decay occurs in any one of the following combination
1) Alpha emission only
2) Beta emission only
3) Alpha with Gamma emission
4) Beta with Gamma emission
No two radioactive isotopes have exactly same decay patters
Only Gamma rays are of use to the radiographer.
Measurement of radioactivity
The basic unit of radioactive material is the Curie.
When a radioactive material decays it is said to have an Activity of one
Curie when 37 billion of its atoms disintegrate in one second.
We are not considered with alpha and beta particles because they are short
life in air.
When a Cobalt 60 atom decays it emits one beta particle and two Gamma
rays.
When a thulium 170 atom decays, 1/1 of the atoms emit a beta particle and
one Gamma ray, and 3/; of the atoms emit beta particles with no Gamma
rays.
Specic activity of any radioactive source is the activity in Curies per gram.
Half life
Half-life is the amount of time required for the amount of something to
fall to half its initial value.
The Half - life of an isotope is the time it takes for /2 of the atoms to decay
or disintegrate.
Some isotopes decay rapidly (short Half - life) therefore they have a high
specific activity.Other isotopes decay slowly (long Half - life) and have a

low specc activity.

Every isotope has its own peculiar Half - life ranging from microseconds to
years.

Ans:
Half Life
of Ir- 75
days.
So after 75 days the amount will be half..means the curie activity should be
half, ie, 75 curie.
In second case 225 days means 375 days(half life)
after 1st half life 25curie
after 2nd half life 12.5curie
after 3rd half life 6.25curie

Radiation
Two kinds of Radiations are commonly used in radiography.
Gamma Rays and X rays. Expect for their sources they are same kind of
radiations.They do not have mass or weight, so our normal senses cannot
detect them.
A Typical gamma source is,

An
X
ray
tube,

Measurements
The energy of X Ray and Gamma rays are measured in electron volts.
It is defined as the amount of energy an electron gains after being
accelerated by 1 volt.
Thousand electron volts (KEV).
Million electron volts(MEV).
Gamma ray energy is determined by the type of source.
X ray energies are determined by the voltage applied to the X ray tube.
X ray energies are determined by the current applied to x ray filament.X rays
are generated when ever free electrons collide with matter.

Ionization
Radiation is absorbed by the material it penetrates by a process known as
ionization.Some or all of the radiation energy is lost during this process.
An ion is an atom, group of atoms, or a particle with a positive or negative
charge.

As long as it exists by
itself and does not combine
with another atom.
When X and gamma ray
photons penetrate matter,
they interact with the atomic particles in the material and are said to be
absorbed by the material.
Mechanism of ionization
The amount of ionization that occurs is dependent upon two principle
factors, the radiation energy, and the type of material for which the radiation
is interacting.
There are 2 principle mechanisms of ionization that are of interest in
radiography.
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect.
Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect of ionization involves the complete absorption
of the photon energy during the process of knocking an electron out of orbit.
Occurs with low energy photons(10-500 KEV.)
An ion pair is created in the interaction between the radiation photon and the
atom.The photons energy is transferred to create the ion and total absorption
has occurred. Only a part of the energy is needed to liberate the electron, the
rest is used for accelerating electron.
Compton Effect
In
this
method not all of
the
photon

energy will be utilized in liberating and accelerating an electron. There is

also energy left over to cause further ionization. Photon energies range from
approximately 50 KEV to 3 MEV
This excess energy takes on the form of a new photon having longer
wavelength.The new photon moves through a new path.
The
new
photon will
continue to
interact
with
the
material
and
its
energy may
be
absorbed in the same manner as the original photon.
The photon may continue to go through several Compton effect actions
depending on its original energy.
Finally it will go through the Photoelectric effect as the energy diminishes.
The higher the energy of the photon, the smaller the change in direction.
Scatter Radiation
Scatter Radiation is a type of secondary radiation that occurs when the
useful beam intercepts any object, causing some x-rays to be scattered.
Compton scatter is an example of scatter radiation.

Bremss trahlung process

It is the process of generating electromagnetic radiation by
the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged
particle, typically an electron by an atomic nucleus.
As a high speed electron approaches an atom, it will interact with the
negative force from the electrons of the atom, and it may be slowed or
completely stopped.
The moving particle loses kinetic energy, which is converted into a photon.
The law of conservation of energy tells us that the energy cannot be lost and
must be absorbed by the atom or converted to another form of energy.
If the electron is
completely stopped
the radiated x-ray
energy is equal to the
total kinetic energy of
the electron. The new
x-rays and liberated
electrons will interact
in a similar fashion to
produce
more
radiation at lower energy levels. Finally all that is left is a mass of long
wavelength electromagnetic wave forms that fall outside the x-ray spectrum.
Half Value Layer
It is the depth at which the energy of incident radiation will be half of its
original value at the surface.
The HVL is often
used in radiography
simply because it is
easier to remember
values and perform
simple calculations.
Particulate
Radiation
Particle
radiation is

the radiation of energy by means of fast-moving subatomic particles.It is

primarily produced by disintegration of an unstable atom and includes Alpha
and Beta particles.Particulate radiation is of secondary concern to industrial
radiographers. These particles have weight and are relatively large and are
easily absorbed by a small amount of shielding.
Neutron particulate radiation
Neutron radiation is a kind of ionizing radiation which consists of free
neutrons.It has high penetration capacity.It will be easily absorbed by
various small elements such as hydrogen.
X-Ray Equipment
The X ray generating equipment used for radiography is known as X ray
tube
Basic Requirement of x ray generation are
1. A source of electrons.
2. An electron accelerator.
3. Electron impact Receiver.

X
rays
are

generated from the target element.

Higher the velocity of electron, higher the energy of X rays.
Source:
Heated filament.
Electron accelerator: Placing a high positive charge on anode.
Target:
Tungsten element.
The tube is always evacuated.Continuous and Characteristic X rays are

generated during the process.

Continuous x rays are produced by bremss trahlung process.
Characteristic x rays are produced during collision between orbital electron
and heated electron. It has lower energy and is mainly a source of unwanted
scattered radiations.
Intensity of X ray related to the voltage applied across the x ray
tube.Intensity of x ray beam can be changed by changing either the voltage
or the current of filament.
The efficiency of X ray tube is very poor.Only a fraction of electrons striking
the target will generate the x rays. Most of the energy of the electrons are
converted into heat,it must be removed from the system properly.

Size
and shape
of the focal
spot
is
determined
by the size
and shape
of
the
electron
beam when
it strikes
the anode.
The focal
spot sizes commonly employed is 1.0mm and 1.2mm, usually for general
radiography.
The direction of x ray beam is determined by the positioning of target
and lead shield.
Transformers
To archive required high voltage iron core transformers are used.The
commonly used transformers are
1) Auto transformers.
2) Step up transformers.

3) Step down transformers(filament transformer)

4) Resonant transformer.
5) Electrostatic generator.
The majority of X - ray equipment used in industrial radiography uses iron
core transformers to produce required high voltage.
Usually the transformers required are :
1. Auto transformer which will furnish 110 volts to the filament
voltage transformer.
2. Step-up transformer [high voltage transformer)
3. Step-down transformer (lament transformer)

and high

Rectification
The x ray tube anode requires Dc power supply. AC voltage is rectified
and used in all X ray tubes. Rectification is done in two methods.
1. Self rectification.
2. Rectifying tube.
Self Ratification
The self rectification is the simplest method of rectification and can be
used with X - ray tubes having an anode that is much cooler than the
cathode.
As shown below, electrons will be accelerated from the hot cathode,
during the half cycle when the current on the anode is positive. During the
other half cycle when the anode is negative, no electrons are emitted;
therefore, X - rays are produced only half of the time.
Self rectified X - ray tubes are usually the tank type units
Tube Rectification
The rectifying tube utilizes either half wave rectification or full wave
rectification. Half wave rectification as shown below, is more efficient than
self rectification. But still has the disadvantage of the current following only
half of the time.
A
Self
Rectification

A full wave rectification is shown bellow,

X Ray Control panel
A typical X - ray
control panel will
usually consist of the
following controls
Filament
current
control and meter usually calibrated in mill amperes to control filament current.
High voltage control and meter - calibrated in kilo volts and permits
adjusting voltage between
cathode and anode.
Exposure timer - usually calibrated in minutes and controls the length of
exposure.
Power on-off switch - controls application of power to X - ray unit.
Indicator lamp - indicates when the equipment is energized

Electron Accelerators
Some specially designed accelerators are used to produce high energy x
ray beams.Accelerators increases the electron speed.
Beta tron Accelerators and Linear accelerators are the commonly used
accelerators.

Beta tron Accelerators

A beta tron is a cyclic particle accelerator developed by Donald Kerst. It is
used to accelerate electrons. A magnetic field in provided and is increased
until it reaches the energy.Then the electron is guided to the target.
The X - ray tube is
doughnut
shaped
and
is
located
between the poles of a
large magnet. The
electrons are injected
into the tube and are
caused
to
circle
around within the
tube by a magnetic field.
Voltage is increased as the electrons orbit until a high energy is reached. The
electrons are then guided from their circular path and made to strike the
target and produce X - rays.
Linear Accelerators
A linear particle accelerator is a type of particle accelerator that
increases the kinetic energy of subatomic particles.
They uses high frequency wave and wave guides to accelerate the electrons.
Gamma Ray
Source
Radio
active isotope
are used as
gamma source.The commonly used radioactive isotopes in industrial
radioactive radiography are,
Cobalt-60
Iridium-192
Some other isotopes such as Rhodium 226,Cesium 137, thulium 170 etc..are
used.
Isotopes are a source of Gamma rays, however, it should be remembered that
X and Gamma rays of the same energy are exactly alike.The following is a

list of the commonly accepted advantages of using isotopes.

1) The cost of equipment and source is much less than that of X - ray
machines of comparable kilo volt range.
2) Isotope equipment is more easily transported than X ray
equipment.
3) The isotope source is small enough to pass through small openings.
4) No external power supply is necessary, permitting use in remote areas.
5) Both panoramic and directional exposures can be made.
6) The equipment is rugged and simple to operate.
7) Their size is small, making them specially suited to the areas where a
short source to film distance is necessary.
8) Some isotopes have a high penetrating power, permitting radiography
of very thick materials.

Disadvantages of using isotopes:

1. The radiation cannot be turned off and presents a greater safety
consideration than X - ray sources.
2. Isotope radio graphs generally have less contrast than those exposed by
X - ray.
3. The penetrating ability is depending upon the particular isotope and
cannot be changed or varied to accommodate different thicknesses of
materials.
4. If the isotope has a short Half- life, there is an added cost of replacing
the source.
5. The shielding necessary to properly handle an isotope may be quite
heavy.
Isotope energy and equivalent energy:
When talking about the energy of radiation given off by a radioactive
source,we talk in terms of average kilo voltage.
Example: Cobalt emits rays with energies of 1.17 MEV and 1.33 MEV,
which gives an average of 1.25 MEV. Which gives an average of 1.25 MEV
Radium = 1.22 MEV average
Cesium = 0.66 MEV average
Iridium = 0.35 MEV average
Thulium = 0.072 MEV average
The above is a little confusing because X - ray machines are rated in terms
of peak voltages and not average as is isotopes.
Since isotope rated according to their average voltage and X - rays are to
their peak voltage, the power of an isotope is determined by peak KEV or
MEV an X - ray machine would need to do the same
the equipment energy of the isotope.
X - ray equivalent energy
The reason that X - rays machines must be rated by their peak voltage and
not their average voltage like isotopes is that different X - ray machines have
different wave forms depending on the type of rectication.
To produce a high quality radiograph using isotopes, the following
considerations provide a basis for choosing the correct source:

1) Activity - the activity of a source is, in part, a measure of the number

of Gamma rays that are being produced from the isotope.
2) Equivalent energy - an ideal radio graphic source would emit exactly the
right monochromatic beam that would give the correct amount of
exposure.
3) Half - life as isotopes decay, their intensity decreases and therefore the
exposure time must he increased.
Isotopes equipment
Isotope sources present a server radiation hazard and when not in actual
use these sources must be handled carefully and stored and locked in
shielded containers.
Remote handling falls into two areas:
1. Moving the source from the center to the surface of a shielded container.
2. Moving the source from the center to a point some distance away.
Radioisotopes are readily available from commercial supplies.
Manufacturers usually rate an isotope rst by its penetrating power [X - ray
equivalent), Then by the Half - life and nally by its activity (usually
expressed in Curies, E.G 10 Curies, 50 Curies).

SUBIECT AND FILM CONTRAST

Remember that we have said that contrast is a comparison between film
densities for different areas of the radiograph.
Contrast is a combination of "Subject" contrast and "Film" contrast,
Those factors in the specimen that affect contrast are referred to as "Subject
Contrast". Those factors in the film that affect contrast are referred to as
"lm contrast".
By denition, subject contrast is the ratio of X or Gamma ray intensities
transmitted by two selected portions of the specimen.
The best possible subject contrast is achieved by utilizing rays produced by

the lowest kilo voltage (soft radiation) that will penetrate the specimen.

For example, let's assume that the half value layer of the specimen at the left
is equal to "d".
In the thick section the radiation will have to penetrate through 4 halfvalue layers and will emerge at 1/16 the original value.
In the thin section the radiation will only have to penetrate through 2
half-value layers and will emerge at 1/; the original value.
However, in the specimen the ray will only have to penetrate 1 half-value
layer and will emerge at 1/1 the original value.
In the thin section the ray will only have to penetrate 1 half value layer
and will emerge at 1/2 the original value.
Film contrast
Film contrast is defined as the inherent ability of a lm to show a density
difference for a given change in lm exposure.All film manufacturers
produce several different types of film and some types have the ability to
show more "Film Contrast" than others.

As shown above, both film types received the same amount of radiation in a
single exposure. However, the lm on the top has the ability to show better
"lm contrast".
Film contrast values of any particular lm are usually expressed as a
relationship between lm exposure and resulting density.
The relationship is expressed in the form of lm characteristic curves.
Total radio graphic contrast is dened as the combination of subject
contrast" and "film contrast" and depends upon, Radiation applied, lm type,
exposure, lm processing, specimen, scattered radiation, and kind so screens
used.
H & D curves
It is difficult for the human eye to readily distinguish between small
density differences in a radio graphic lm. The H & D curves make it
apparent that as exposure and density increase, lm contrast also increases.
On the given H & D curve, suppose that the exposure of the lm varies
from [equal EA to EB). The difference in density would increase as shown
by d3 to d4.
The H & D curve clearly shows that the density differences between
thicknesses d3 and d4, is considerably greater than the density between
d1and dz.

A particle example is shown below to demonstrate the h & d curve.

Two similar specimens are shown that differ only in their thickness note that
the change in thickness (3) is the same.
If both specimens receive the same exposure on the same type of film, the
one on the right would show the most contrast.

Obviously, lm #1 above is going to receive less radiation and be less dense

and therefore have less contrast than film # 2.
The lm characteristic curve below shows that where lm #2 received a
higher radiation level [e3 to e4). It would be denser and show more contrast.

Radiographic Film
Radiographic film are thin plastic film coated with light sensitive
materials. A transparent polyester or acetate is used as the base of
radiographic film. Most radiographic film has a sensitive emulsion on both
sides of the acetate phase.
The outer layer of the film is a layer of gelatin which protects the emulsion
layer from scratches. The soft emulsion layer (image layer) has suspended in
it, microscopic grains of silver bromide.

These silver bromide grains when exposed to light or radiation would

become visible and turn the film black. Change in film would be noticeable
only after development. There is no partial exposure of a silver grain.More
exposed grains give a darker image.Larger the grain size, less sharper the
image.

The film should be processed before inspection. Unprocessed films may

affected by the light source.
The processing is the conversion of exposed film into useful radiograph.
In processing, the latent image is treated by different solutions to get stable
image.The radiograph film processing is termed as Tank processing.
Tank processing
Tank processing consists of treating the exposed film by different
solutions. Three elementary processing solutions are used.
1. Developer.
2. Stop bath.
3. Fixer.
Developer
The developer is a combination of chemicals each of which serve a vital
function, They are,
Accelerator
Reducer
Accelerator is chemical which make the developer solution alkaline.
Accelerator also removes the protective layer and swells the emulsion.This
allows the developer to directly interact with the image.
Another chemical in the developer is Reducer.The reducer may be a
metal or hydroquinon

Replenishment
Replenishment is used in photographic film and paper processing, where fresh
chemistry is used to replace exhausted chemistry in a continuous or per-batch fashion.
Replenishment rates are calculated by the quantity of film processed in each individual
bath; and additionally in Process E6 by the amount of film push-processed; and by film
type in Process C41 (color negative) developing.
Stop bath
Stop bath is a chemical bath usually used in processing traditional black-andwhite photographic films, plates, and paper used after the material has finished
developing.

The functions of stop bath are,

1. Stop developing the action by naturalizing the alkaline developer.
2. Neutralizes the alkaline developer before the film is put into fixer.
The chemical used in stop bath is usually glacial acetic acid.
Fixer
Photographic fixer is a mix of chemicals used in the final step in the
photographic processing of film or paper. The fixer stabilizes the image, removing the
unexposed silver halide remaining on the photographic film or photographic paper,
leaving behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the image.

There are two separate stages in the xing process.

1. Clearing time this removes all unexposed silver grains and the clouded
film starts to appear clear. However, the total time in the fixer should be
twice the time it takes to clear
the film.
2. Hardening the fixer also hardens the emulsion gelatin which helps
prevent scratching during handling. After chemical processing, the film is
washed and dried.
Radiation Hazards
The only difference between X - rays and Gamma rays is their origin, but
both have the ability to damage human tissue. The common Hazards are,
1. Break down the structure of cells to the point where they may die.
2. Cause the cells to lose their ability to reproduce.
3. Cause the cells to reproduce in an abnormal manner.
Contamination is not a major safety hazard in typical radio graphic
work.Simply keep people at a safe distance until an authorized cleanup crew
has removed the hazard.

External radiation expose comes from radiation sources outside the body,
such as X - ray machines and Gamma ray source cameras
Internal radiation exposure results when radioactive material gets inside the
body, usually by berating, swallowing, or through breaks in the skin.
The basic unit used to express exposure to Gamma or x-radiation is the
"Roentgen".The "Roentgen" is a unit which expresses radiation exposure
and is based on the "Ionizing" effect of radiation. Actually, Radiation" is
not being directly measured, but the same process by which radiation
damage tissue is put to work in the measurement of radiation.
The "Mill Roentgen" is used in the measurement of personnel exposure and
is abbreviated "MR". ("M" for Mill and R for roentgen]
One mill roentgen, is 1/1000 of a roentgen (0.001 roentgens).
Red, RBE and REM these are all units that permit us to relate radiation to
the biological effects it can cause in human tissue.
The "RAD" stands for radiation absorbed dose.
Radiation type
RBE
X and Gamma
1
Beta
1
Alpha
20
Fast neutrons
10
Permissible Radiation Dose
Any time radiation exposure is received unnecessarily; the exposure is
considered to be excessive whether or not it exceeds the allowable limits.
Radiography work becomes unsafe only when excessive radiation is
received.
Area of body exposed
REMS per calendar quarter
Whole bodyhead, trunk,
Organs, eyes, gonads
1 % REM
Hands body forearms,
Feet and ankles

18% REM

Skin of whole body

71% REM
The body is capable of repairing some radiation damage if it is given
adequate time to do so. Age is another variable which affects the amount of
damage radiation can to the person exposed. Body cells which are active in
dividing and reproducing are the most vulnerable to radiation damage.

A 13 year old person is more vulnerable to radiation damage than a 25 year

old.
The six variables which inuence the effect radiation doses have on an
individual are:
1. The amount of the body exposed
2. The part of the body exposed
3. The time span over which dose is received
4, The age of the individual exposed
5. The biological difference among individuals
6. The radiation level.
Radiation Effects
Body cells that are easily damaged are considered to have a high "radio
sensitivity".
Below is a partial list of body cells, listed in order of decreasing radio
sensitivity.
1. White blood cells
2. Immature red blood cells
3. Cells lining the gustedintestinal canal
4. Cells of the reproductive organs
5. Skin cells
6. Cells of the blood vessels
The biological effects caused by an overdose of radiation can be divided into
two types:
1. Somatic - these are the physical effects on the body.
2. Genetic - these are effects that may be passed to the next generation or
two later descendants as hereditary characteristics.
It is possible to receive up to 25 REMS in a short period of time without
showing detectable effects. A dose of up to 50 REMS would be detectable in
the blood.
The period between exposure and the appearance of the symptoms is
called the "latent period".
An overdose of about 200 REMS may take up to a week before symptoms
appear. Then symptoms such as loss of hair, diarrhea, and loss of appetite
will appear.However, in modern radiographic facilities, there is no reason to
ever receive an overdose, as long as safety precautions are constantly
observed.

Radiation Measuring Equipment

Since our sense cannot detect radiation, several devices are commonly
used in the field of radiography.These devices are classied as,
1. survey meters
2. personnel monitoring devices
Personnel monitoring devices
Personnel monitoring devices as shown below are attracted to the
clothing of the radiation worker. These devices are designed to give
cumulative readings of exposure .in roentgens and work on the principle of
"ionization"
A quartz fiber dosimeter, is a type of radiation dosimeter, a pen-like device that
measures the cumulative dose of ionizing radiation received by the device. It is usually
clipped to a person's clothing and worn to measure one's actual exposure to radiation

When a particle of ionizing radiation passes through the chamber, it collides with
molecules of air, knocking electrons off them and creating positively and negatively
charged atoms (ions) in the air. The ions of opposite charge are attracted to the electrode
and neutralize some of the charge on it. The reduced charge on the electrode reduces the
force on the fiber, causing it to move back toward the electrode. The position of the fiber
can be read through the microscope. Behind the fiber is a scale graduated in units of
radiation, with the zero point at the position of the fiber when it is fully charged

There are basically two types of pocket dosimeters, both of which are similar

in appearance and operation, direct-reading type and non direct- reading

type
A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size and shape of a
fountain pen. By pointing the instrument at a light source, the position of the fiber may be
observed through a system of built-in lenses. The fiber is viewed on a translucent scale
which is graduated in units of exposure. Typical industrial radiography pocket dosimeters
have a full scale reading of 200 milli roentgens

The non direct reading type dosimeter or "pocket chamber" must be read
using a special charger and reading device.

The lm badge measures ionizing radiation by use of special photographic

film.When radiation strikes the film, ionization within the film emulsion
darkens or "exposes" the film. After the lm badge has been worn for a
period of time (one week to a month), a comparison is then made between
the film from the lm badge and the characteristics of a similar lm called
the "control film.
The control lm is exposed to a known amount of similar radiation and
the comparison to the lm badge gives the amount of exposure in
roentgens.The interpretation is performed by using a densitometer and must
be done by specialized companies that perform this service.
The advantage of the lm badge is that it provides a permanent record of the
worker's exposure and is considered to be the most reliable personnel
monitoring device.

Survey Meters
Survey meters are designed to give an instantaneous reading in roentgens
or mill roentgens per hour, at any distance from the source. Survey meters
differ from personnel monitoring devices in that the survey meter measures
radiation rate.
The ionization chamber meter is like the pocket dosimeter in that it uses a
chamber to collect the ion pairs produced by the ionizing rays of Gamma
and X radiation.The ion chamber consists of two electrodes which are
insulated from each other and have opposite charges.
When ionizing radiation enters the chamber, ion pairs are created. The
positive ions flow to the negative electrode and the negative ions ow to the
positive electrode. A current ow is created through the circuit which is
measured by a meter which gives radiation rate in roentgens or mill
roentgens per hour.
Radiation
Protection
The protective
measures against
radiation
are
primarily
designed to hold
exposure to or
below
the
allowable
limit.This
is
necessary because
there is no way to undo or retract radiation damage after it has occurred.
There are three basic means of providing protection from radiation:
1. Time-controlling the length of time a person is exposed to radiation.
2. Distance-controlling the distance between personnel and the source.
3. Shielding-placing absorbing materials between personnel and source
Time refers to the duration of radiation exposure.The relationship of time to
exposure is directly proportional. The longer you stay in a radiation exposure
you receive.

Distance
Radiation exposure decreases drastically as the distance from the source
increases.The mathematical law has known as the "inverse square law"
states the relationship of distance to varying radiation intensity.

The law states that radiation intensity varies intensely as the square of the
distance from the source.
The inverse square relationship means that if you double the distance, you
will receive only Blithe amount of radiation.
The inverse square formula is shown below,
l1 the known intensity at a
known distance (d1).
D1 the distance from a
source where intensity is known (11).
l2 the unknown intensity at second known distance.
D2 the distance from a source at which you want to find the unknown
intensity.
Remember: the inverse square law is valid only for radiation in an open
area.The inverse square law assumes that all radiation will travel in a straight
line, but this is not always true.
Shielding
Shielding is the third means of providing personnel safety.The damaging

effects of radiation come from, the fact that radiation knocks electrons in
atoms out of orbit.The same principle allows us to use solid materials as
shields. The shielding material absorbs the radiation energy when the rays
collide with electrons in the material.The more dense the material, the better
it shields against radiation
In practical applications, lead and concrete (or combinations) are the most
common shielding materials.

Radiography Equipment
To get a proper imaging in radiography certain equipment setup is
necessary,
Screen
The primary function of any film holder or cassette is to maintain a lighttight environment for the radiographic film.Flexible or rigid holders are
used.
The flexible film holder is commonly used and is made of cardboard
plastic,or rubber.

Intensifying screen is used in the cassette to intensify the effect of the Xray photon by producing more number of light photons.It decreases the
current (mA) required to produce a particular density and hence decrease the
dose significantly.
There
are
basically
three
types of

radiographic screens that enable us to use the radiation beam more

effectively.
1. Lead foil intensifying screen
2. Fluorescent intensifying screen
3. Flour metallic intensifying screen

Lead foil intensifying screen

The lead foil screen consists of a thin lead sheet (0.005" - 0.010") usually
mounted on a cardboard base.The lead screens are placed in front and in
back of the unexposed lm as shown below.

The lead screen in the front serves two important purposes.

1. Filters out the low energy radiation.
2. Increases the photographic action on the lm
The lead screen in the back of the lm, often a thicker sheet (0.010")
serves to absorb the radiation back scatter. Lead screens act as intensifiers
because xand Gamma rays cause electrons to be liberated from the lead.
(Remember the computation effect)
If the lead screen is very close to the lm, the electrons expose the
film(ionization) and the ray is effectively intensied. Both the front and back
lead screen add to the formation of the image on the film due to the effect of
the scattered electrons.
However, any space between the screen and lm allows room for the
electrons to spread causing "fuzzy" images.The lead screen essentially
intensifiers the high energy rays and absorbs the law energy rays
The intensication effect is most effective above 150kv below
150kv.Lead screens must be free of holes, scratches, wrinkles or pits. Flaws
such as these may appear on the radiograph and be mistaken as a
discontinuity in the specimen.Screens that have been damaged and cannot be
properly cleaned should be discarded.

Fluorescent intensifying screens

Fluorescent screens contain certain chemicals which will emit light when
they absorb x-and Gamma rays. Calcium tungstate is one of these chemicals
and this emission of light is called "florescence".
The visible light emitted from the screen will further expose the
radiographic lm.The poor denition is caused by the spreading of visible
light emitted from,the florescent screens.
Fluorescent Allic intensifying screen
The florescent Allic screen combines the advantages of the lead foil and
florescent screens.These screens absorb the scattered radiation with the lead
foil and at the same time provide a visible light to increase intensication.

Radiographic image quality indicators" (pentameters)

The pentameter is a device whose image on a radiograph is used to
determine radiographic quality level (sensitivity).The pentarneter is simply a
thin strip of metal that has a similar composition as the material being tested.
The identication will vary depending on the type of pentameter
(ASTM,ASME, military standard, etc.)

A military standard type with the 2.0" actually representing the thickness of
the part for which it is intended (2inches). FEindicates a steel pentameter
material.
ASTM and ASME pentameters have an identification number that
represents the thickness of the pentameter.
The example below shows a penetrated to be used on a part that is .25"
thick, which requires a pentameter thickness based on 2% of the Specimen
thickness.
The number "5" represents thousandths of an inch; therefore, the actual
thickness of the penny is .005".

Quality level is selected by inspecting which is the lowest hole is clearly

visible on the radiograph and the equivalent sensitivity can be shown.

If a specification required that the radiograph have a sensitivity of 2%,

this would mean that the thickness of the pentameter must be 2% or less of
the thinnest section of the specimen being radio graphed.

Furthermore, in the analysis of the radiograph, the image of the

pentameter must clearly show the 2T hole. As shown below, if the
radiograph has 2-2T sensitivity, it can be reasonably concluded that all voids
or discontinuities of the same dimensions would be detected in viewing the
lm.
Filters
Filters are sheets of high atoms number metal, usually brass copper, steel
or lead, placed in the X - ray beam at the tube head. The filter absorbs the
sort radiation of the beam and:
1. Reduces subject contrast permitting a wide range of specimen thicknesses
to be recorded with one exposure.
2. Helps to eliminate scatter caused by soft radiation.
3. The lter absorbed the low energy radiation.
The filter absorbs the low energy radiation leaving average energy beam to
penetrate the specimen.
Masking
Masking is a technique used to reduce the effect of scatter when radio
graphing irregularly shaped objects. The mask is made of radiation
absorbing material (lead or steel shot) and is placed around the specimen to
a) Absorb excess primary rays, cutting down the number of rays available
to cause external scatter.
b) Reduce internal scatter which causes edge undercutting.
c) Reduce side scatter which also causes edge undercutting.

As shown below, metallic shot can also be used effectively to reduce

scattered radiation.

Source-to-lm distance
Source-to-lm distance (SFD), which is sometimes referred to as targetto-film distance with relationship to X - ray equipment, is usually specified
in codes and specications, if the SFD or TFD is not specied, the
radiographer must make his own selection.
Any unsharpness over .020 inches will start to appear fuzzy or unsharp
to the unaided human eye.
The amount of unsharpness can be controlled by three factors:
1. Sourceto object distance d0
2. Specimen thickness (film in Contact with specimen) (t).

3. Focal spot size or source diameter(f).

The selection of a radiographic technique depends on four important factors:
1. Minimum distortion - the image of the specimen and discontinuity must
be true. Therefore, the geometry and positioning of the specimen is
important.
2. Sharp definition - the edges of the image should be sharply dened.
3. High contrast - a marked change in density is essential if small
discontinuities are to be seen in the radiograph. '
4. Adequate lm density - if too dense, the lm will not transmit light; if
not dense enough, there will not be enough contrast to see
discontinuities.
5. The recommended KV or Gamma energy required to penetrate a
specimen
SPECIALIZED TECHNIQUES
1. Single wall Single image (SWSI)
2. Double wall Single Image (DWSI)
3. Double wall Double image (DWDI)
4. Panoramic (or) Multi Film Tech.
1. Single wall Single Image [SWS1]
a. Keep

the

identication number adjacent to the weld.

b. Keep the lm loaded cassette closely in contact with the b
c. Keep Penetrameter (IQI) Placed on the source side.
d. For back scatter put lead letter B in the back of the lm

e. Film overlap will be 1"-1.5 overlap. If you put the IQI in the lm side
put letter F

2. Double wall single Image | DWSI]

3. Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

4.

Panoramic or Multi Film Tech

The
End