/rtA

VECTOR CALCULUS
WITH APPLICATIONS TO PHYSICS

BY

JAMES BYRNIE SHAW

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK
D.

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

Eight Warren Street

1922

Copyright, 1922

By

D.

Van Nostrand Company

All rights reserved, including that of translation into

foreign languages, including the Scandinavian

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE.
This volume embodies the lectures given on the subject
The
to graduate students over a period of four repetitions.
point of view is the result of many years of consideration
The author has examined the various
of the whole field.

methods that go under the name of Vector, and finds that

and for most of those of the

for all purposes of the physicist

geometer, the use of quaternions is by far the simplest in

theory and in practice. The various points of view are
mentioned in the introduction, and it is hoped that the essential differences are

brought out.

The

tables of

com-

parative notation scattered through the text will assist in

following the other methods.

The place of vector work according to the author is in

the general field of associative algebra, and every method so
far

proposed can be easily shown to be an imperfect form

of associative algebra.

From

this standpoint the various

discussions as to the fundamental principles

As

stood.

far as the

mere notations

may

go, there

is

be under-

not

much

difference save in the actual characters employed.

These

have assumed a somewhat national character.

is

fortunate that so

many

It

un-

exist.

The attempt in this book has been to give a text to the

mathematical student on the one hand, in which every
physical term beyond mere elementary teims is carefully
defined.

On

the other hand for the physical student there

be found a large collection of examples and exercises

which will show him the utility of the mathematical meth-

will

ods.

So very

little exists in

the day that does this,

and

so

the numerous treatments of

much

iii

505384

that

is

labeled vector

PREFACE

IV
analysis

is

merely a kind of short-hand, that

it

has seemed

show

clearly the actual use of vectors as

vectors.
It will be rarely the case in the text that any use
of the components of vectors will be found.
The triplexes

very desirable to

very seldom much different fiom the ordinary Cartesian forms, and not worth learning as methods.
The difficulty the author has found with other texts is

in other texts are

that after a few very elementary notions, the mathematical

student (and we may add the physical student) is suddenly

plunged into the profundities of mathematical physics, as

This is rarely the case, and
if he were familiar with them.
the object of this text

is

to

make him

familiar with

them

by easy gradations.
It

is

not to be expected that the book

will

be free from

and the author will esteem it a favor to have all

He desires
errors and oversights brought to his attention.
to thank specially Dr. C. F. Green, of the University of
Illinois, for his careful assistance in reading the proof, and
errors,

for other useful suggestions.

material widely, and

of

whom

is

in

Finally he has gathered his

many authors for it, to all

debt to

he presents his thanks.

James Byrnie Shaw.

Urbana,

III.,

July, 1922.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter

I.

Introduction

Chapter

II.

Scalar Fields

18

Chapter

III.

Vector Fields

23

Chapter

IV.

Addition of Vectors

52

Chapter

V.

Vectors in a Plane

62

Chapter VI.

Vectors in Space

94

Chapter VII.

Applications

1.

2.
3.

4.

127

The Scalar of two Vectois

The Vector of two Vectors
The Scalar of three Vectors
The Vector of three Vectors

Chapter VIII.

127
136

142
143

145
and Integrals
one Scalar Parameter .... 145

Differentials

1.

Differentiation as to

2.

Differentiation as to a Vector

155

3.

Integration

196

Two

Parameters

151

Chapter IX.

The Linear Vector Function

218

Chapter X.

Deformable Bodies

253

253

Strain

Chapter

Kinematics of Displacement

265

Stress

269

XL

Hydrodynamics

287

VECTOR CALCULUS
CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION
1. Vector Calculus.
By this term is meant a system of
mathematical thinking which makes use of a special class
of symbols and their combinations according to certain

given laws, to study the mathematical conclusions resulting

from data which depend upon geometric entities called
vectors, or physical entities representable

more generally

by

vectors, or

any kind which could be represented for the purposes under discussion by vectors. These
vectors may be in space of two or three or even four or
entities of

more dimensions.
tion.

This

is

A geometric vector is a directed segment

has length (including zero) and direcequivalent to saying that it cannot be de-

of a straight line.

It

by one single numerical value. Any problem

mathematics dependent upon several variables becomes
properly a problem in vector calculus. For instance,

fined merely
of

geometry

analytical

is

a crude kind of vector calculus.

Several systems of vector calculus have been devised, differing in

fundamental notions, their notation, and their laws of combining

their

the symbols.

seems

The

lack of a uniform. notation

is

deplorable, but there

hope of the adoption of any uniform system soon. Existing

systems have been rather ardently promoted by mathematicians of the
same nationality as their authors, and disagreement exists as to their
little

relative simplicity, their relative directness,

These disagreements

and

their relative logical

sometimes merely with regard

to the proper manner of representing certain combinations of the
symbols, or other matters which are purely matters of convention;

exactness.

arise

YKCTOR CALCULUS

sometimes they are due to

different views as to what are the import an1

things to find expressions for; and sometimes they are due to more
fundamental divergences of opinion as to the real character of the

mathematical ideas underlying any system of this

dicate these differences and dispose of
2.

Bases.

We may

classify

of vector calculus as geometric

is

them

in this

sort.

We

will in-

work.

broadly the various systems

and algebraic. The former

to be found wherever the desire

spatial character of the entities

is

we

to lay emphasis on the

are discussing, such as

the point, portions of a plane, etc. The latter

lays emphasis on the purely algebraic character of the

the

line,

entities

with which the calculations are made, these entities

being similar to the positive and negative, and the imaginary of ordinary algebra. For the geometric vector
systems, the symbolism of the calculus

is

really nothing

more than a short-hand to enable one to follow

certain

operations upon real geometric elements, with the possibility kept always in mind that these entities and the
operations

may

at

any moment be

called to the front to

take the place of their short-hand representatives. For

the algebraic systems, the symbolism has to do with

hypernumbers, that

is,

extensions of the algebraic negative

and imaginary numbers, and does not pretend to be the

translation of actual operations which can be made visible,

any more than an ordinary calculation of algebra could be

paralleled by actual geometric or physical operations.
If these distinctions are kept in mind the different points
of view

become

intelligible.

The

best examples of geo-

metric systems are the Science of Extension of Grassmann,

with its various later forms, the Geometry of Bynames of
Study, the Geometry of Lines of Saussure, and the Geometry
of Feuillets of

Cailler.

The

best examples of algebraic

systems are the Quaternions of Hamilton, Dyadics of Gibbs,

INTRODUCTION

,3

Multenions of McAulay, Biquaternions of Clifford, Triquaternions of Combebiac, Linear Associative Algebra of

Peirce.

Various modifications of these

mixed systems

may

be found, which

exist,

will

and some

be noted in the

proper places.
The idea of using a calculus of symbols for writing out geometric
theorems perhaps originated with Leibniz, 1 though what he had in
mind had nothing to do with vector calculus in its modern sense. The
first effective algebraic vector calculus was the Quaternions of Hamilton 2
(1843), the first effective geometric vector calculus was the Ausdehn3
ungslehre of Grassmann (1844). They had predecessors worthy of
mention and some of these will be noticed.

3.

culus

The

Hypernumbers. The real beginning of Vector Calwas the early attempt to extend the idea of number.

number was

and
means
of
the
of
by
segments
straight
lines.
When to this was added the idea of direction, so
that the segments became directed segments, what we now
call vectors, the numbers defined were not only capable of
being irrational, but they also possessed quality, and could
original theory of irrational

metric,

defined irrationals

be negative or positive.
vector calculus.

If

we

Ordinary algebra

is

thus the

first

consider segments with direction

in a plane or in space of three dimensions, then we may call

the numbers they define hypernumbers. The source of the
idea was the attempt to interpret the imaginary which

had been created to furnish solutions

cubic.

The imaginary appears

for

any quadratic or

5
early in Cardan's work.

For instance he gives as solution of the problem of separating

10 into two parts whose product is 40, the values

V 15, and 5 V
numbers as impossible and
5

15.

of

no

He
use.

considered

Later

it

these

was

dis-

covered that in the solution of the cubic by Cardan's

formula there appeared the sum of two of these impossible

VWCTOfl CALCULUS

4
values

when the answer

actually

was

r3 =

15x

as the solution of the cubic

^(2
These

121)

4 the form

incited

121)

#;ive

4.

much thought and

several attempts to account for

to interpret them.

them and

The underlying

that of existence,

tially

+ ^(2 -

numbers

impossible

came about

there

Bombelli

real.

question was essenwhich at that time was usually

The real objection to the

negative number was its inapplicability to objects. Its
use in a debit and credit account would in this sense give it
sought for in concrete cases.

Likewise the imaginary and the complex number, and later others, needed interpretation, that is, applicaexistence.

tion to physical entities.

4.

Wessel, a Danish surveyor, in 1797, produced a

satisfactory

method 7

of defining

complex numbers by means

This same method was later given

8
9
by Argand and afterwards by Gauss in connection with
various applications.
Wessel undertook to go farther and
of vectors in a plane.

in

an analogous manner define hypernumbers by means

dimen-

of directed segments, or vectors, in space of three

He

narrowly missed the invention of quaternions.

In 1813 Servois 10 raised the question whether such vectors

sions.

might not define hypernumbers of the form

.

cos

q cos

(3

cos

and inquired what kind of non-reals p, q, r would be. He

did not answer the question, however, and Wessel's paper
remained unnoticed for a century.
5. Hamilton gave the answer to the question of Servois
as the result of a long investigation of the whole problem. 11
He first considered algebraic couples, that is to say in our

terminology, hypernumbers needing two ordinary numerical

INTRODUCTION
values to define them, and

them under

all

possible

modes

of

combining

certain conditions, so as to arrive at a similar

He

couple or hypernumber for the product.

sidered triples

= V

and

numbers

sets of

then con-

Since

in general.

are roots of unity, he paid most attention

that
would lead to new roots of unity.
definitions
to

and

His fundamental idea

where a and

that the couple of numbers

is

(a, b)

b are

any positive or negative numbers, rational

or irrational, is an entity in itself and is therefore subject
For
to laws of combination just as are single numbers.
instance, we may combine it with the other couple (x, y)
in two different ways
:

(a, b)
(a, 6)

(x, y)

(x, y)

=
=

(a

+ y)
by, ay +

x, b

{ax

bx).

In the first case we say we have, added the couples, in the

second case that we have multiplied them. It is possible
In both cases if we set the couple
on the right hand side equal to {u, v) we find that

to define division also.

dujdx

dujdy

dv/dy,

which

Pairs of functions u, v

dv/dx.

satisfy these partial differential

equations Hamilton called conjugate functions.

differential equations

connection.

The
l

were

first

The

given by Cauchy

partial
in this

particular couples

(1, 0),

(0, 1)

play a special role in the development, for, in the

place, any couple may be written in the form
(a, b)

and the notation

of

aei

first

be 2

couples becomes superfluous; in the

second place, by defining the products of ei and e 2 in various

ways we arrive at various algebras of couples. The general

VECTOR CALCULUS

C>

would

definition

l'i

2'i

=
=

be, using the

Cini
C2lli

+
+

for

X,

Cii 2 2 ,

i' 2

C2122>

=
=

Ci2ii

C221l

+
+

^12262,

C2222-

By varying the choice of the arbitrary constants c, and

Hamilton considered several different cases, different
algebras of couples could be produced.
the c's are all zero except

Cm =
From

1,

C122

the character of

identical with ordinary

C212

1,
it

1,

may
and

it

In the case above

C221

1,

1.

be regarded as entirely
follows therefore that

be regarded as identical with the V 1. On the

other hand we may consider 1 to be a unit vector pointing
to the right in the plane of vectors, and c 2 to be a unit

e2

may

vector perpendicular to

ei.

We have then a vector calculus

practically identical with Wessel's.

The

great merit of

Hamilton's investigation lies of course in its generality.

He continued the study of couples by a similar study of

and then quadruples, arriving thus at Quaternions.

His chief difference in point of view from those who followed
him and who used the concept of couple, triple, etc. {Multiple we will say for the general case), is that he invariably
triples

defined one product, whereas others define usually several.

6. Multiples.
There is a considerable tendency in the

current literature of vector calculus to use the notion of

multiple.
(x, y, z),

vector

is

usually designated

and usually such

triple

is

by a

triple as

called a vector.

It is

generally tacitly understood that the dimensions of the

numbers of the triple are the same, and in fact most of the
products defined would have no meaning unless this

homogeneity of dimension were assumed to hold. We

For
find products defined arbitrarily in several ways.
instance, the scalar product of the triples (a, b, c) and (x, y, z)

INTRODUCTION

cz), the sign depending upon the person

by
the
definition; the vector product of the same two
giving
is
usually given as the triple (bz
triples
cy, ex
az,
is

(ax

=fc

ay

bx).

definitions

is

obvious at once that a great defect of such

that the triples involved have no sense until

It

is

the significance of the first number, the second number,

and the third number in each triple is understood. If
these depend upon axes for their meaning, then the whole
calculus is tied down to such axes, unless, as is usually
done, the expressions used in the definitions are so chosen
as to be in
set

of

axes

some respects independent

chosen.

When

these

of the particular

expressions

are

thus

chosen as invariants under given transformations of the

axes we arrive at certain of the well-known systems of
vector analysis. The transformations usually selected to
furnish the profitable expressions are the group of orthogonal transformations.
For instance, it was shown by

Burkhardt 12 that

all the invariant expressions or invariant

are
combinations
of the three following
triples
:

ax
(bz

cy, ex

by

cz,

az,

ay

bx),

+ cn)x + (am bl)y + (an

bm + cn)y + (bn cm)z,

(bl
am)x + (al
ari)x + (cm bn)u + (al + bm + cn)z.
(al

bm

cl)z,

-f-

(cl

A study of vector systems from this point of view has

been made by Schouten. 13
7.

was

Quaternions. In his first investigations, Hamilton

chiefly concerned with the creation of systems of

hypernumbers such that each of the defining units, similar

14
That is, the
ei and 2 above, was a root of unity.
of
would
iteration
process
multiplication by
bring back the
He
was actually interested in certain special
multiplicand.

to the

VECTOR CALCULUS

15
cases of abstract groups, and

his researches

property
the whole

field of

if he had noticed the group

would perhaps have extended into

In quaternions he found
he
1, which
designated by i, j, k,
though belonging to a set of quad-

abstract groups.

a set of square roots of

connected with his triples

In his Lectures on Quaternions, the first treatise he
ruples.
published on the subject, he chose a geometrical method of
exposition, consequently

many have been

led to think of

quaternions as having a geometric origin.

However, the
memoirs
show
that
were
reached
in a purely
they
original
and
indeed
to
Hamilton's
according
algebraic way,
philosophy were based on steps of time as opposed to geometric
steps or vectors.

The geometric definition is quite simple, however, and

not so abstract as the purely algebraic definition. According to this idea, numbers have a metric definition, a
number, or hypernumber, being the ratio of two vectors.
If the vectors have the same direction we arrive at the
ordinary numerical scale.
at the negative numbers.

If

they are opposite we arrive

If neither in

the same direction

nor opposite we have a more general kind of number, a

hypernumber in fact, which is a quaternion, and of which
the

ordinary

numbers and the negative numbers are

merely special cases. If we agree to consider all vectors

which are parallel and in the same direction as equivalent,
that is, call them free vectors, then for every pair of vectors

from the origin or any fixed point, there

is a quaternion.
these quaternions relations will exist, which will
be one of the objects of study of later chapters.

Among
8.

Mobius was one

calculus

Kalkul 16

of the early inventors of a vector

on the geometric basis.

he introduced a method

In his Barycentrisch.es
of deriving points

from

other points by a process called addition, and several

INTRODUCTION

were made to geometry. The barycentric

somewhat between a system of homogeneous
coordinates and a real vector calculus.
His addition was
applications

calculus

is

used by Grassmann.

Grassmann

9.

1844 published his treatise called Die

17
in which several different procAusdehnungslehre

lineale

esses

called

in

multiplication are used for the derivation of

from other geometric entities. These

use of a notation which is practically a

geometric entities
processes

make

short-hand for the geometric processes involved.

sort of

Grassmann considered these various kinds

of multiplication
leaving out of account the meaning of the
elements multiplied. His methods apply to space of

abstractly,

In the symmetric multiplication it is possible

to interchange any two of the factors without affecting the
result.
In the circular multiplication the order may be
dimensions.

In the lineal multiplication all the

cyclically.
laws hold as well for any factors which are linear combinations of the hypernumbers which define the base, as for

changed

He

those called the base.

studies

two species

of circular

the defining units of the base are ex, e 2 e 3

have in the first variety of circular multipliIf

multiplication.

then we

cation the laws

2

63

In the second variety

2

ei

0,

e/

0,

ij

ji.

we have the laws

0,

en

0,

Mi =

0,

*+j.

In the lineal genus of multiplication he studies two

species, in the first, called the algebraic multiplication,

we

have the law

My =

*fii

for all

i, j.

while in the second, called the exterior multiplication, the

interchange of any two factors changes the sign of the

VECTOR CALCULUS

10

Of the

result.

latter there are

two

varieties, the progressive

which the number of dimensions of the

which
is the product is the sum of the
geometric figure
multiplication in

dimensions of the factors, while in the other, called regressive multiplication, the dimension of the product is the
difference

and

between the sum of the dimensions of the factors

the dimension of the space in which the operation

takes place. From the two varieties he deduces another

kind called interior multiplication.

If we confine our thoughts to space of three dimensions,
defined by points, and if 1, e 2 e 3 e4 are such points, the
,

progressive exterior product of two, as 1, e 2 is ei 2 and

represents the segment joining them if they do not coincide.
,

The product

zero

is

into a third point

with edges

product

they coincide.

The product

of this

and represents the parallelogram

and the other two parallel to these
a straight line the

If all three points are in

respectively.
is

ei 3

162,

if

3 is ei 2 e 3

The

zero.

exterior progressive product

c 1 e 2 e 3 4

represents the parallelepiped with edges ie 2 ie 3 i4 and

the opposite parallel edges. The regressive exterior product
,

of

i 2

and

product of

ie 3 4 is

ie 2 e 3

complement
and of i 2 e 3
and another
first

1 is

common

ie 2 4 is

point

their

defined to be

1.

common
2 e 3 e4 ,

The

regressive

line ie 2

and

The

of i 2

is e 3 fct,

The interior product of any expression

the progressive or regressive product of the
For instance, the
into the complement of the other.

interior

and
and e 2

is

product of 1 and e 2 is the progressive product of

which vanishes. The interior product of e 2

The
the product of e 2 and eie 3 e4 which is 2 eie 3 e4
product of j 2 e 3 and ei4 is the product of ie 2 e 3
which would be regressive and be the line e 2 e 3

is

interior
2e3

We

is 4 .

i 3 e4

and

of

their

and

have the same kinds of multiplication

sions e are vectors and not points, and they

if

the expres-

may

even be

INTRODUCTION

The

planes.

interpretation

is

11

however.

different,

It

is

easy to see that Grassmann's ideas do not lend themselves

readily to numerical application, as they are more closely
related to
fact,

when

the projective transformations of space. In

translated, most of the expressions would be

phrased in terms of intersections, points,

lines

and

planes,

rather than in terms of distances, angles, areas, etc.

18
10. Dyadics were invented by Gibbs, and are of both the
algebraic

and the geometric character.

Gibbs has,

like

Hamilton, but one kind of multiplication. If we have

given two vectors a, (3 from the same point, their dyad is a(3.
This

is

to be looked

upon

as a

new

entity of

two dimensions

belonging to the point from which the vectors are drawn.

It is not a plane though it has two dimensions, but is really
a particular and special kind of dyadic, an entity of two-

dimensional character, such that in every case it can be

considered to be the sum of not more than three dyads.
Gibbs never laid any stress on the geometric existence of
the dyadic, though he stated definitely that it was to be
considered as a quantity. His greatest stress, however,
was upon the operative character of the dyadic, its various

combinations with vectors being easily interpretable. The

is from its use in physics to represent

simplest interpretation
strain.

Gibbs also pushed

his vector calculus into space of

many

dimensions, and into triadic and higher forms, most of

which can be used in the theory of the elasticity of crystals.
The scalar and vector multiplication he considered as
functions of the dyadic, rather than as multiplications,
and there are corresponding functions of triadics and

In this respect his point of view is close to

higher forms.
that of Hamilton, the difference being in the use of the
dyadic or the quaternion.
11.
3

Other forms of vector calculus can be reduced to

VECTOR CALCULUS

12

these or to combinations of parts of these.

The

differences

are usually in the notations, or in the basis of exposition.

Notations for One Vector

Greek

letters,

Italics,

Heun

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Gibbs.

Grassmann,_Peano,
writes a,

Fehr,

Ferraris,

Macfarlane.

b, c.

Old English or German letters, Maxwell, Jaumann, Jung,

Foppl, Lorentz, Gans, Abraham, Bucherer, Fischer,
Sommerfeld.
Clarendon type, Heaviside, Gibbs, Wilson, Jahnke, Timerding, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Length of a vector

( ),

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

Gans, Bucherer, Timerding.

Italic corresponding to the ve ctor
|

Jahnke.

&ing, Fischer,
Macfarlane.

Mod.

( ),

letter,

Wilson, Jaumann,

Corresponding

small

italic,

Peano, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Fehr.

Unit of a vector

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Peano.

Clarendon small, Wilson.
( ),

( )i, Bucherer, Fischer.

Corresponding Greek letter, Macfarlane.
Some write the vector over the length.

Square of a
2

The square

( )

where

it is

is

vector

usually positive except in Quaternions,

negative.

Reciprocal
-1
( )

tt

Hamilton, Tait, Joly,

Jaumann.

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Fischer, Bucherer.

CHAPTER

II

SCALAR FIELDS
1.

If we consider a given set of elements in

we may have for each element one or more quantities

Fields.

space,

determined, which can be properly called functions of the

For instance, at each point in space we may have

a temperature, or a pressure, or a density, as of the air.
Or for every loop that we may draw in a given space we

element.

may have

a length, or at some fixed point a potential due

Again, we may have at each point in space

to the loop.

a velocity which has both direction and length, or an

magnetic intensity. Not to multiply

electric intensity, or a

examples unnecessarily, we can see that for a given range

of points, or lines, or other geometric elements,

have a

we may

quantities, corresponding to the various

elements of the range, and therefore constituting a function
set

of the range,

of

and these quantities may

consist of numerical

values, or of vectors, or of other hypernumbers.

When

they are of a simple numerical character they are called

scalars, and the function resulting is a scalar function.

Examples are the density

of a fluid at each point, the density

and similar quantities consisting

some entity per cubic centimeter, or per

of a distribution of energy,
of

an amount

of

square centimeter, or per centimeter.

EXAMPLES
(1)

Electricity.

The

unit of electricity

is

the coulomb,

connected with the absolute units by the equations

1 coulomb = 3 10 electrostatic units

==

13

10-1 electromagnetic units.

VECTOR CALCULUS

14

The

density of electricity is its amount in a given volume,

area, op length divided by the volume, area, or length

The dimensions

respectively.

of electricity will be repre-

sented by [9], and for its amount the symbol 9 will be used.
For the volume density we will use e, for areal density e'

for linear density e".

to be continuous,

If

the distribution

we may take the

may be

limits

considered

and

find the

density at a point.
(2)

tity,

Considering magnetism to be a quanuse for the unit of measurement the maxwell,

Magnetism.

we

will

connected with the absolute units by the equation

1

maxwell

3-10 10 electrostatic units

=
Sometimes 10 8 maxwells

magnetism
m, m', m".
(3)

electromagnetic unit.

The symbol

called a weber.

be $, the dimensions

will

Action.

is

This quantity

is

[$],

much used

for

the densities

in physics, the

principle of least action being one of the

most important

fundamental bases of modern physics.

The dimensions

of action are

[93>],

the symbol

we

shall use

is

A, and the

unit might be a quantum, but for practical purposes a

In the case of a moving particle the
joule-second is used.
action at any point depends upon the path by which the
particle has reached the point, so that as a function of the
points of space it has at each point an infinity of values.

function which has but a single value at a point will be

but if it has more than one value it will

called monodromic,

be called polydromic.
The action is therefore a polydromic
We not only have action in the motion of par-

function.
ticles

but we find

field,

or of an electromagnetic

(4)

Energy.

it

The

as a necessary function of a

momentum

field.

unit of energy

is

the erg or the joule

SCALAR FIELDS

10 7 ergs.

Its

dimensions are

15

[G^T

7-1
],

its

symbol

will

beW.
This should not be confused with action.

Activity.

(5)

measured

It is

in watts,

Energy-density.

(6)

The symbol

(7) Activity-density.

pi-

The

will

be Q, dimensions

2
].

The symbol

Mass.

(8)

symbol J, dimensions [Q$T~ ].

The symbol will be U, dimensions

unit of

mass

is

is

M, dimensions [0$77r 2 ].

the gram.

distribution of

mass

is

usually called a distribution of matter.

Density of mass.

(9)

The symbol

(10) Potential

of

electricity.

(11) Potential

of

magnetism.

-1

will

Symbol

be

c,

V,

dimensions
dimensions

Symbol N, dimensions

[02

].

7-1

Symbol P, dimensions [G^T ].

Points at which the function has the same

(12) Potential of gravity.

2.

Levels.

value, are said to define a level surface of the function.

may have

It

one or more sheets.

Such surfaces are usually

named by the use of the prefixes iso and equi. For instance,
the surfaces in a cloud, which have all points at the same
temperature, are called isothermal surfaces; surfaces which
have points at the same pressure are called isobaric surfaces;
surfaces of equal density are isopycnic surfaces; those of

equal specific volume (reciprocal of the density) are the isothose of equal humidity are isohydric surfaces.

steric surfaces;

Likewise for gravity, electricity, and magnetism

we have

equipotential surfaces.
3.

Lamellae.

Surfaces

are

frequently

considered

which we have unit difference between the values

function for the successive surfaces.

for

of the

These surfaces and

16

VECTOR CALCULUS

the space between

them

constitute a succession of unit

lamellae.
If

we follow a line from a point

A to a point B, the number

of unit lamellae traversed will give the difference

between

the two values of the function at the points A and B.

If this is divided by the length of the path we shall have the

mean

rate of change of the function along the path.

the path
is

made

at

any

is

If

and the unit determining the lamellae

straight

to decrease indefinitely, the limit of this quotient

point is called the derivative of the function at

that point in the given direction. The derivative is approximately the number of unit lamellae traversed in a
unit distance,
4.

if

they are close together.

Monodromic levels cannot inthough any one may intersect itself.

the levels may have nodal lines, conical

Geometric Properties.

tersect each other,

Any one

or

all of

and the other

points, pinch-points,

metric surfaces.

These

the

of

singularities

peculiarities

singularities usually

the

of geo-

depend upon

congruence of normals to the

surface.

In the case of functions of two variables, the scalar levels

be curves on the surface over which the two variables

will

are defined.

Their singularities

may

be any that can

occur in curves on surfaces.

The equation of a level surface is found

the
function
by setting
equal to a constant. If, for inlocated
the
is
stance,
by the coordinates x, y, z
point
5.

Gradient.

and the function

level

is

f(x, y, z),

then the equation of any

is

u
If we pass
we have

du

f{x

We may

= /(*>

V> z )

C.

to a neighboring point on the

dx,

-f-

dy, z

same

+ dz) f{x, y, z) =

usually find functions df/dx, bf\a\ df/dz,

surface

0.

SCALAR FIELDS

17

functions independent of dx, dy, dz, such that

du

Now

dfjdx dx

+ df/dy

the vector from the

first

dy

+ df/dz

dz.

point to the second has

as the lengths of its projections on the axes: dx, dy, dz; and
if we define a vector whose
projections are dfjdx, df/dy,

which we

df/dz,

du

the Gradient of

will call

f,

then the con-

the condition that the gradient of / shall be

perpendicular to the differential on the surface. Hence,
if we represent the gradient of / by v/, and the differential
dition

is

change from one point to the other by dp, we see that dp

any infinitesimal tangent on the surface and v/ is along the

is

normal to the surface.

tiate

shall

have

du
If

easy to see that if we differentangent to a level surface of u we

It

in a direction not

df/dx-dx

is

+ df/dy <&,+ df/dz -dz =

the length of the differential path

du/ds

projection

The length

of^fon

of the vector

rather than the vector

is

ds then

dC.

we shall have*

in the direction of dp.

sometimes called the gradient

the unit vector

v/ is

Sometimes the negative of

the expression used here is called the gradient.
When the three partial derivatives of / vanish for the

same

itself.

measured by its
and
the
direction
becomes
indeterminate
length,
from the first differentials. At such points there are singularities of the function.
At points where the function
becomes infinite, the gradient becomes indeterminate and
point, the intensity of the gradient,
is

zero,

such points are also singular points.

6.

Potentials.

The

three components of a vector at a

point may be the three partial derivatives of the same

function as to the coordinates, in which case the vector

may
*

be looked upon as the gradient of the integral func-

Since dxjds, dyjds, dzjds are the direction-cosines of dp.

VECTOR CALCULUS

18

which

tion,

is

called a potential junction, or

For instance,

force function.

if

the

sometimes a

components

velocity satisfy the proper conditions, the velocity

of the
is

the

These conditions will be

and the vector will be freed from dependence

gradient of a velocity 'potential.

discussed later,

upon any

axes.

Relative Derivatives.

7.

In case there are two scalar

functions at a point, we may have use for the concept of

the derivative of one with respect to the other. This is
defined to be the quotient of the intensity of the gradient of

the

first

by that

of the second, multiplied

by the cosine

the unit lamellae are constructed,

it is easy to see from the definition that the relative derivative of the first as to the second will be the limit of the
of their included angle.

If

average or mean of the number of unit sheets of the first

traversed from one point to another, along the normal of the
second divided by the number of unit sheets of the second
traversed at the same time.

For instance,

if

we draw the

isobars for a given region of the United States

and the

simultaneous isotherms, then in passing from a point A

to a point B if we traverse 24 isobaric unit sheets and 10
isothermal unit sheets,

the

average

is

2.4

isobars per

isotherm. ^
If there are two scalar functions in the
and the unit lamellae are drawn, the unit sheets will

Unit-Tubes.

8.
field,

usually intersect so as to divide the space under considerawhose cross-section will be a curvilinear

tion into tubes

parallelogram.

Since the area of such parallelogram

is

approximately
dsids2 esc

where

dsi

is

0,

the distance from a unit sheet of the function u

and ds 2 the corresponding distance

while 6 is the angle between the surfaces;

to the next unit sheet,

for the function

and

since

we

v,

have,

Tyu

being the intensity of the gradient

SCALAR FIELDS
of u,

and

19

T^/v the intensity of the gradient of

dsi

ds 2

1/TVu,

v,

= 1/Tw

the area of the parallelogram will be l/(TyuTvv sin 6).

Consequently if we count the parallelograms in any plane

Fig.

cross-section of the
is

two

an approximate value
T^uT^Jv

1.

sets of level surfaces, this

number

of the expression

sin 6

area parallelogram

when summed over the plane cross-section. That is to

say, the number of these tubes which stand perpendicular
to the plane cross-section

expression

T^uT^v

is

the approximate integral of the

sin 6 over the area of the cross-section.

These tubes are called unit tubes

for the

same reason that

the lamellae are called unit lamellae.

In counting the tubes

it

must be noticed whether the

successive surfaces crossed correspond to an increasing or

to a decreasing value of u or of v.
It is also clear that

when

the integral must be

everywhere
such case the three Jacobians
sin 6

is

d(u, v)/d(y,

z),

d(u, v)/d(z, x),

zero.

d{u, v)/d(x, y)

In

VECTOR CALCULUS

20

are each equal zero, and this is the^condition that

function of v. In case the plane of cross-section
x,

y plane, the

first

is

two expressions vanish anyhow,

the

is

since

u, v are functions of x,

It

clear

is

if

y only.
we take the levels of one of the functions,

and lower parts of the boundary of the

in
that
cross-section,
passing from one of the other sides
of the boundary along each level of u the number of unit
say u, as the upper

tubes

we encounter from that

side of the

boundary to the

opposite side is the excess of the value of v on the second

If then we count the difside over that on the first side.

u between the
have the total excess

ferent tubes in the successive lamellae of

two

sides of the cross-section

of those

we

shall

on the second side over those on the

first side.

number of unit tubes or the integral

over the area bounded by level 1 and level 2 of u, and any
other two lines which cross these two levels so as to produce
a simple area between, is the excess of the sum between
the two levels of the values of v on one side over the same
sum between the two levels of u on the other side. These
That

is

to say, the

graphical solutions are used in Meteorology.

This gives the excess of the integral

second

line

between the two

vdu along the

levels of u, over the

same

in-

tegral along the first line. It represents the increase of this

integral in a change of path from one line to the other. For

instance

if

the integral is energy, the number of tubes is

of energy stored or released in the passage from

the

amount

one

line to the other, as in a cyclone.

for

any closed path

around the path.

is

The number

the approximate

of tubes

integral

rdu

SCALAR FIELDS

21

EXERCISES.
the density varies as the distance from a given axis, what are
the isopycnic surfaces?
1. If

2. A rotating fluid mass is in equilibrium under the force of gravity,

the hydrostatic pressure, and the centrifugal force. What are the
Show that the field of force is conservative.
levels?

3. The isobaric surfaces are parallel planes, and the isopycnic

surfaces are parallel planes at an angle of 10 with the isobaric planes.
What is the rate of change of pressure per unit rate of change of density
along a line at 45 with the isobaric planes?
4. If the pressure can be stated as a function of the density, what
conditions are necessary? Are they sufficient? What is the interpretation with regard to the levels?

Three scalar functions have a functional relation if their Jacobian

What does this mean with regard to their respective levels?
6. If the isothermal surfaces are spheres with center at the earth's
center, the temperature sheets for decrease of one degree being 166.66
5.

vanishes.

feet apart,

and

the isobaric levels are similar spheres, the pressure

if

being given by

B =

log

log

B,

0.0000177 (a

),

the pressure at z feet above the surface of the earth, what

is the relative derivative of the temperature as to the pressure, and the
pressure as to the temperature?

where

7.

is

To

find the

a condition to be

maximum

of u(x, y, z)

fulfilled, v(x, y, z)

we

0,

set

du

then dv

=
=

0.

These two equations in dx, dy, dz must be satisfied for

values of dx, dy, dz, and we must therefore have
du du du
_

_
~

dx' dy' dz'

which

is

dv

dy
#

If there is also

also.
all

compatible

dv_
}

dx' dy' dz

equivalent to the single vector equation

Vw = wyv.

What

does this

mean

in

terms of the levels

;
:

The

unit tubes?

another equation of condition l(x, y, z) =0 then also

and the Jacobian of the three functions u, v, t must equal zero.

If there is also

dt

Interpret.
8.

On

the line of intersection of two levels of two different functions

the values of both functions remain constant.

If

we

differentiate a

third function along the locus in question, the differential vanishing

everywhere, what

is

the significance?

VECTOR CALCULUS

22
9. If

field of force

has a potential, then a

fluid,

subject to the force

and such that its pressure is a function of the density and the temperaThe
ture, will have the equipotential levels for isobaric levels also.
density will be the derivative of the pressure relative to the potential.
Show therefore that equilibrium is not possible unless the isothermals
are also the levels of force and of pressure.
[p

and vp = cvv = PcVc

p(c, T),

prvT.
If

10. If the full lines

below represent the

then vc

0,

cvv

prVT.]

profiles of isobaric sheets,

and

the dotted lines the profiles of isosteric sheets, count the unit tubes
between the two verticals, and explain what the number means. If

they were equipotentials of gravity and isopycnic surfaces, what would

the number of unit tubes mean?

Fig.
11. If

u =

TvuTw -sin
x

1,

12. If

6,

0,

TyuTvvsm

12x and v
and integrate the

y = 12.
ax + by

Draw

2.

+x +

\x, find

Vw and

between x

latter over the area

and

=
f

the lines.

+ cz and
and integrate the

x2

-f-

if

+z

2
,

find

vw and vv and

latter expression over the surface of a

cylinder whose axis is in the direction of the z axis.

tive of each relative to the other.

Find the deriva-

CHAPTER

III

VECTOR FIELDS
In the measurement of
1. Hypercomplex Quantity.
quantity the first and most natural invention of the mind
was the ordinary system of integers. Following this came
the invention of fractions,

then of irrational numbers.

With these the necessary list of numbers for mere measurement of similar quantities is closed, up to the present time.
Whether it will be necessary to invent a further extension
of number along this line remains for the future to show.
In the attempt to solve equations involving ordinary
it became necessary to invent negative numbers

numbers,

and imaginary numbers. These were known and used as

fictitious numbers before it was noticed that quantities
We
also are of a negative or an "imaginary" character.
find instances everywhere.
In debit and credit, for example, we have quantity which

may be looked upon as of

and time, but the most logical
conception is to classify debits and credits together in the
One's balance is what he is worth
single class balance.
when the debits and credits have been compared. If the
preponderance is on the side of debit we consider the balance
negative, if on the side of credit we consider the balance
Likewise, we may consider motion in each direcpositive.

two

different kinds, like iron

compass as in a class by itself, never using any

measurement save the purely numerical one
of comparing things which are exactly of the same kind
But it is more logical, and certainly more general,
together.
to consider motions in all directions of the compass and

tion of the

conception of

of

any distances as

all

belonging to a single class of quantity.

23

VECTOR CALCULUS

24

In that case the comparison of the different motions leads

us to the notion of complex numbers. When Wessel made
his study of the vectors in a plane he was studying the

hypernumbers we usually call "the complex field." The

hypernumbers had been studied in themselves before, but
were looked upon (rightly) as being creations of the mind
and (in that sense correctly) as having no existence in what
might be called the real world. However, their deduction
from the vectors in a plane showed that they were present
as relations of quantities which could be considered as alike.
Again when Steinmetz made use

of

them

in the

study of

the relations of alternating currents and electromotive

forces, it became evident that the so-called power current

and wattless current could be regarded as parts of a single

complex current, and similarly for the electromotive forces.
The laws of Ohm and Kirchoff could then be generalized so
as to be true for the

new complex

quantities.

In this brief

history we find an example of the interaction of the developments of mathematics. The inventions of mathematics
find instances in natural phenomena, and in some cases
furnish new conceptions by which natural phenomena can
be regarded as containing elements that would ordinarily

be completely overlooked.
In space of three (or more) dimensions, the vectors
issuing from a point in all directions and of all lengths
furnish quantities which may be considered to be all of
the same kind, on one basis of classification. Therefore,

they

will define certain ratios or relations

which

may

be

hypernumbers. This is the class of hypernumbers

we are particularly concerned with, though we shall occacalled

sionally

notice

others.

Further,

any kind

which can be represented completely

by vectors issuing from a point we will

of quantity

for certain purposes

call

vector quantity.

VECTOR FIELDS
Such

quantities,

for

instance,

accelerations, at least in the

momenta, and many

CULUS

are

25
motions,

velocities,

Newtonian mechanics,

The

others.

object of

forces,

VECTOR CAL-

to study these

hypernumbers in relation to their

corresponding quantities, and to derive an algebra capable
is

of handling

them.

We

do not consider a vector as a mere triplex of ordinary numbers.

Indeed, we shall consider two vectors to be identical when they
represent or can represent the same quantity, even though one is expressed by a certain triplex, as ordinary Cartesian coordinates, and the
other by another triplex, as polar coordinates. The numerical method
of defining the vector will be considered as incidental.
2.

part

We

Notation.

shall represent vectors for the

most

by Greek small

in Electricity, it will

letters.
Occasionally, however, as
be more convenient to use the standard

symbols, which are generally Gothic type. As indicated

on page 12 there is a great variety of notation, and only
one principle seems to be used by most writers, namely
that of using heavy type for vectors, whatever the style of
In case the vector is from the origin to the point
type.
(x, y, z) it

may

be indicated by
Px,

while for the

y, z>

same point given by polar coordinates

r, <p,

we may use
Pr,

In case a vector
will indicate it

is

given by

<p,

its

6)

components as X, Y,

Z we

by
?x, y, z

3.

Equivalence.

All vectors

which have the same direc-

and same length will be considered to be equivalent.

Such vectors are sometimes called free vectors. The term
vector will be used throughout this book, however, with no

tion

other meaning.

VECTOR CALCULUS

2G

In case vectors are equivalent only when they lie on the

line, and have the same direction and length, they

same

be called glissants. A force applied to a rigid body

must be considered to be a glissant, not a vector. In
will

case vectors are equivalent only

same point and

resultant

point

moment

is

when they

start at the

coincide, they will be called radials.

The

system of glissants with respect to a

a radial from A.

The equivalence

of a

of

two vectors

implies the existence of equalities infinite in number, for

their projections

on any other

infinite set of equalities,

of

ways to

may

then be equal. The

reducible in an infinity

lines will

however,

is

three independent equalities.

For instance, we

write either

ax = ft., ay = fiy a 2 = 13 z or a r = B r a = ^ ,a = /?.

The equivalence of two glissants implies sets of equalities
reducible in every case to five independent equalities. The
,

<p

lf>

lf!

equivalence of two radials reduces to sets of six equalities.

4. Vector Fields.
Closely allied to the notion of radial
is that of vector field.
A vector field is a system of vectors

each associated with a point of space, or a point of a surface,

or a point of a line or curve.
The vector is a function of
the position of the point which is itself usually given by a
The vector function may be monodromic or
vector, as p.

polydromic.

We

will consider

some

of the usual vector

fields.

EXAMPLES
Radius Vector,

p [L]. This will usually be indicated

a
function
of a single parameter, as t,
by p.
the points defined will lie on a curve;* in case it is a function
(1)

In case

We

type."

it is

are discussing mainly ordinary functions, not the "pathologic

VECTOR FIELDS
of

27

two parameters, u, v, the points defined will lie on a

The term vector was first introduced by Hamilton

surface.

in this sense.

When we

say that the

field is p,

we mean

that at the point whose vector is p measured from the fixed

origin, there is a field of velocity, or force, or other quantity,

whose value at the point is p.

a [XT7-1 ]. Usually we
(2) Velocity,

will designate velocIn

or
the
case
of
a
cloud, each particle
moving gas
ity by
has at each point of its path a definite velocity, so that we
c.

can describe the entire configuration of the moving mass at

any instant by stating what function a is of p, that is, for
the point at the end of the radius vector p assign the velocity
The path of a moving particle will be called a
vector.
trajectory.

At each point

path the velocity a

of the

is

tangent of the trajectory.

If

we

lay off from a fixed point the vectors a which corre-

given trajectory, their terminal points will

on a locus called by Hamilton the hodograph of the

spond to a
lie

trajectory.

For instance, the hodographs

of the orbits of

approximation. If we
multiply a by dt, which gives it the dimensions of length,
namely an infinitesimal length along the tangent of the
the trajectory
trajectory, the differential equation of

the planets are circles, to a

first

becomes
dp

The

adt.

integral of this in terms of

gives the equation of the

trajectory.
(3)

Acceleration.

t[LT~

2
].

An acceleration field

is

simi-

a velocity field except in dimensions. The acceleration is the rate of change of the vector velocity at a point,
lar to

consequently, if a point describes the hodograph of a trajectory so that its radius vector at a given time is the velocity
in the trajectory at that time, the acceleration will be a
3

VECTOR CALCULUS

L\S

tangent to the hodograph, and its length

moving point in the hodograph.

will

of the

be the velocity

We

will

use r to

indicate acceleration.

Momentum

(4)

T [$QL~4 ]. This is a vector

space and of some number which can

Density.

function of points in
be attached to the point, called density. In the case of a
moving cloud, for instance, each point of the cloud will have

a velocity and a density. The product of these two factors

will be a vector whose direction is that of the velocity and

whose length is the product of the length of the velocity

and the density. However, momentum density
without matter and without motion. In electroexist
may
vector

dynamic

fields,

such as could exist in the very simple case

of a single point charge of electricity

pole at a point,

we

also

and a

single magnet
have at every point of space a

momentum

density vector. This may be ascribed to the

hypothetical motion of a hypothetical ether, but the essenIf we calculate the
tial feature is the existence of the field.

momentum density on the

curve
from
a
to
a
point A to a point B, the
given
tangent
value of the integral is the action of an infinitesimal volume,
integral of the projection of the

an action density, along that path from A to B.

integration over a given volume would give the
action for

all

The
total

the particles over their various paths. This

for the paths actually described as

would be a minimum

compared

with

possible

paths.

Specific

momentum

is

momentum density of a moving mass.

Y [TOL-1
The volume integral of
(5) Momentum.
momentum density or specific momentum is momentum.
].

the line-integral of momentum.

Force Density. F [^QL^T- 1 ]. If a

Action
(6)

tum

is

field of

momen-

density is varying in time then at each point there is a

vector which may be called force-density, the time derivative

VECTOR FIELDS
of the

momentum

density.

The time

-1

The

].

It is the

ceived a name, dyne.

due

density, or magnetic intensity on

X [mL- 1 ?

Force.

in fields

in the action of a field of electric

magnetic density.
(7)

Such cases occur

density.

moving electrons or
intensity upon electric
to

29

force has re-

unit of

volume

integral of force

integral of a field of force

is

momentum.

In a stationary field of force the line integral of the field

for a given path is the difference in energy between the
points at the ends of the path, or what is commonly called
work.

In case the

same value

field is

for all paths

conservative the integral has the

(which at least avoid certain

singular points), and depends only on the end points,

This takes place when the field is a gradient field of a forceIf we project the force
function, or a potential function.

upon the velocity at each point where both fields exist,

the time integral of the scalar quantity which is the product
of the intensity of the force, the intensity of the velocity
and the cosine

of the angle

between them,

is

the activity at

the point.
(8)

Flux Density.

12

[UT~

}.

In the case of the flow of

an entity through a surface the limiting value of the amount

that flows normally across an infinitesimal area is a vector
whose direction is that of the outward normal of the surface,

and whose intensity is the limit. In the case

normal to the surface across which the flux
termined,

The

we

of a flow not
is

to be de-

nevertheless define the flux density as above.

any surface becomes then the surface

flux across

integral of the projection of the flux density

of the surface across

which the

flux

is

on the normal

to be measured.

Flux density is an example of a vector which depends

upon an area, and is sometimes called a bivector. The
notion of two vectors involved in the term bivector

may

VECTOR CALCULUS

30

be avoided by the term

also called

an axial

cycle,

vector,

vectors, called polar vectors.

It is

The term

axial

is

applicable

the axis or normal of a portion of a

portion (feuille, cycle) of the surface is

in the sense that

surface.

or the term feuille.

in opposition to the ordinary

The

it is

traversed in the positive direction in going around

boundary, that is, with the surface on the left-hand.
the direction of the axial vector

is

reversed,

we

its

If

also traverse

the area attached in the reverse direction, so that in this

may be regarded as invariant for

such change while the polar vector would not be invariant.
The distinction is not of much importance. The important
sense the axial vector

that of areal integration for the flux density or any

other so-called axial vector, while the polar vector is subidea

is

ject only to linear integration.

in the difference

We

meet the

the intensity vectors.

Energy Density Current.

(9)

distinction

below between the induction vectors and

R [TOL-2 ?

-2
].

When

an

energy density has the idea of velocity attached to it, it

becomes a vector with the given dimensions. In such
case we consider it as of the nature of a flux density.

Energy Current.

(10)

density current

is

2 [$QT~2

multiplied

].

If

a vector of energy

by an area we

arrive at

an

energy current.
1
Density Current. J [SL^T- ]. A number
of moving electrons will determine an average density

(11) Electric

per square centimeter across the line of flow, and the product
of this into a velocity will give an electric density current.

To

this

must

also be

electric induction,

added the time rate of change of

is of the same dimensions, and

which

counts as an electric density current.

1-1
The unit
].
(12) Electric Current. C [97

3-10 9

of

an

e.s.

units

10_1 e.m. units.

electric density current

by an

This

area.

is

is

the ampere

the product

VECTOR FIELDS

31

2
1
Magnetic Density Current. G [$Ir T- }. Though
there is usually no meaning to a moving mass of magnetism,

(13)

nevertheless, the time rate of change of magnetic induction

must be considered to be a

current, similar to electric

current density.

K [^T'

Magnetic Current.

(14)

heavy side

e.m. unit

3 10

10

e.s.

The

].

unit

ena of magnetic leakage we have a real example of what

be called magnetic current.

Both

electric current

For instance,

scalars.

and magnetic current may

if

the

is

In the phenom-

units.

may

also be

the corresponding flux densities

are integrated over a given surface the resulting scalar

values would give the rate at which the electricity or the

In
is passing through the surface per second.
such case the symbols should be changed to corresponding

magnetism

Roman

capitals.

(15) Electric Intensity.

is

fMr1 !

"1
].

When an

portion of space, there

present in

electric

at each

charge
any
point of space a vector of a field called the field of electric
intensity.

The same

situation

is

happens when

lines

of

magnetic induction are moving through space with a given

The electric intensity will be perpendicular to
velocity.
both the line of magnetic induction and to the velocity it
has,

and equal to the product

of their intensities

by the

sine of their angle.

The
and

electric intensity is of

its flux,

the nature of a polar vector

any surface has no

or surface integral over

Its line integral along any given path, however,

called the difference of voltage between the two points at

meaning.
is

the ends of the path, for that given path. The unit of
2
8
voltage is the volt = J 10~ e.s. units = 10 e.m. units.

The symbol for voltage is V [$T~1 ].

the same as for scalar electric potential,

Its

dimensions are

or magnetic current.

VECTOR CALCULUS

32

D [QL~ ].
(16) Electric Induction.
9
-1
e.m. units.
10
3-10 e.s. units
2

The

unit

the line

is

This vector usually

has the same direction as electric intensity, but in nonisotropic media, such as crystals, the directions
It

is

do not agree.

a linear function of the intensity, however, ordinarily

indicated

where

by

k is the

D =

k(E)

for a linear operator

symbol

which converts

vectors into vectors, called here the permittivity, [0^>-1 Z_1 T],

measurable in farads per centimeter. In isotropic media

k is a mere numerical multiplier with the proper dimensions,

which are essential to the formulae, and should not be

= 1. The flux is measured in
neglected even when k
coulombs.
(17)

H [eL"

Magnetic Intensity.

"1
].

The

field

due to

the poles of permanent magnets, or to a direct current

In case
traversing a wire, is a field of magnetic intensity.

we have moving

lines of electric induction, there is

magnetic intensity.

It

is

of a polar character,

field of

and

its

through a surface has no meaning. The line integral

between two points, however, is called the gilbertage between

flux

the points along the given path, the unit being the gilbert
1
= 1 e.m. unit = 3 10 10 e.s. units. The symbol is
[GT- ]'

Its

dimensions are the same as those of scalar magnetic

potential, or electric current.

(18)

gauss

B [$L~2 ].

Magnetic Induction.

e.m. unit

3 10

same as that

10

e.s.

units.

The
The

unit

is

the

direction

but in any case

we
so
that
have
a
linear
vector
operator
given by
usually the

of the intensity,

is
is

B-m(H)
the inductivity, [^>0-1 Z_1 T], measurable in henrys
per centimeter. The flux is measured in maxwells.

where

\x is

VECTOR FIELDS
Vector Potential of Electric Induction.

(19)

VPPf
vector

field

certain

may

manner

T [eZ-1

be related to another vector

].

field in

A
a

to be described later, such that the first

can be called the

vector potential of the other.

-1
Vector Potential of Magnetic Induction. ^ [M ].
derivable from a field of magnetic induction. This

(20)

This

33

is

and the preceding are

line-integrable.

Hertzian Vectors.

(21)

<.

9,

These are

line integrals of

the preceding two, and are of a vector nature.

5. Vector Lines.
If we start at a given point of a vector
field and consider the vector of the field at that point to be
the tangent to a curve passing through the point, the field
determine a set of curves called a congruence, since there

will
will

be a two-fold infinity of curves, which will at every

If the field
point have the vector of the field as tangent.
is represented by a, a function of p, the vector to a point of

the

field,

then the differential equation of these

the congruence will be

dp

lines of

adt,

a differential parameter. From this we can

determine the equation of the lines of the congruence, in-

where

dt

is

volving an arbitrary vector, which, however, will not have

more than two essential constants. For instance, if the
field is given by a = p, then dp = pdt, and p = ae
where
l

is

a constant unit vector.

The

lines are, in this case, the

rays emanating from the origin.

The lines can be constructed approximately by starting
at any given point, thence following the vector of the field
for a small distance,

the

new

vector of the

from the point so reached following

a small distance, and so proceed-

field

This will trace approximately a

ing as far as necessary.
vector line.
Usually the curves are unique, for if the field
is

monodromic at

all

points, or at points in general, the

VECTOR CALCULUS

34

curves must be uniquely determined as there will be at any

point but one direction to follow. Two vector lines may
evidently be tangent at some point, but in a monodromic
field they cannot intersect, except at points where the intensity of the field

is

zero, for vectors of zero intensity are

Such points of intersection

field, and their study is of high
importance, not only mathematically but for applications.
In the example above the origin is evidently a singular
= 0, and its direction is indetermipoint, for at the origin a
of indeterminate

direction.

are singular points of the

nate.

Vector Surfaces, Vector Tubes. In the vector field

select a set of points that lie upon a given curve
and from each point draw the vector line. All such vector
6.

we may

lines will lie

upon a surface

called a vector surface,

which

in

case the given curve is closed, forming a loop, is further

It is evident that the vector
particularized as a vector tube.
lines

dp

are the characteristics of the differential equation

which in rectangular coordinates would be

adt,

equivalent to the equations

dx

_dy _
~

Y~

dz

Z'

In case these equations are combined so as to give a

single exact equation, the integral will (since it must contain a single arbitrary constant) be the equation of a family
of vector surfaces.
The vector lines are the intersections
of

two such

may

families of vector surfaces.

be chosen of course in infinitely

The two

many

families

different ways.

Usually, however, as in Meteorology, those surfaces are

chosen which have some significance. When a vector

tube becomes infinitesimal

7.

Isogons.

If

we

its

limit

is

a vector

line.

locate the points at which a has the

VECTOR FIELDS

same

35

direction, they determine a locus called

an isogon for

For instance, we might locate on a weather map

all the points which have the same direction of the wind.
If isogons are constructed in any way it becomes a simple
the

field.

matter to draw the vector

lines of the field.

Machines

for

the use of meteorologists intended to mark the isogons

have been invented and are in use.* As an instance consider the vector field

(2x, 2y,

z).

An isogon with the points at which a has the direction whose

cosines are

/,

m, n

given by the equations

is

2x

2y

I :

or

2x

2y

It,

mt,

It follows that the vector to

given by
p

That

t(l,

m, n)

any point

nt.

of this isogon

is

(0, 0, 3nt).

to say, to draw the vector p to any point of the

we
draw a ray from the origin in the direction given,
isogon
then from its outer end draw a parallel to the Z direction
is

backward three times the length of the Z projection of the

segment of the ray. The points so determined will evidently lie on straight lines in the same plane as the ray and
its projection on the XY plane, with a negative slope twice
the positive slope of the ray. The tangents of the vector
lines passing through the points of the isogon will then be
The vector lines are drawn apparallel to the ray itself.

proximately by drawing short segments along the isogon

parallel to its corresponding ray, and selecting points such
that these short segments will make continuous lines in
*Sandstrdm: Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie (1909), no. 6, pp. 242 et.seq.

See plates,

p. 50.

Bjerknes:

Dynamic Meteorology.

VECTOR CALCULUS

36

passing to adjacent isogons. The figure illustrates the

method. All the vector lines are found by rotating the
figure

about the

X axis

so produced about the

and then rotating the

180,
axis

through

Fig.

all

figure

angles.

3.

8. Singularities.
It is evident in the example preceding
that there are in the figure two lines which are different
from the other vector lines, namely, the Z axis and the line

which is in the XY plane. Corresponding to the latter

would be an infinity of lines in the XY plane passing through
the origin. These lines are peculiar in that the other vector
lines are

asymptotic to them, while they are themselves

vector lines of the

method

of studying the vector

plane in which they lie was
It consists in placing a sphere tangent

field.

lines in the entire extent of the

used by Poincare.

VECTOR FIELDS

37

Lines are then drawn from the

to the plane at the origin.

center of the sphere to every point of the plane, thus giving

two points on the sphere, one on the hemisphere next the

plane and one diametrically opposite on the hemisphere
away from the plane. The points at infinity in the plane
correspond to the equator or great circle parallel to the
In this representation every algebraic curve in the

plane.

plane gives a closed curve or cycle on the sphere. In the

present case, the axes in the plane give two perpendicular
great circles on the sphere, and the vector lines will be
loops tangent to these great circles at points where they
These loops will form in the four Junes
cross the equator.
of the sphere a

system of closed curves which Poincare

calls

a topographical system. The equator evidently belongs to

the system, being the limit of the loops as they grow narrower.

The. two great circles corresponding to the axes

also belong to the system, being the limits of the loops as

they grow larger. If a point describes a vector line its

projection on the sphere will describe a loop, and could
never leave the lune in which the projection is situated.

The points of tangency are called nodes', the points which

represent the origin, and through which only the singular
vector lines pass, are called fames.
Singular Points. The simplest singular lines depend
upon the singular points and these are found comparatively
simply. The singular points occur where
9.

o"

Since

or

oo

we may multiply the components

of

a by any ex-

same, we
may equally suppose that the components of a are reduced
to as low terms as possible by the exclusion of common
pressions and

factors of

all

still

of

have the

them.

We

lines of the field the

will consider first the singular

VECTOR CALCULUS

38

points for fields in space, then those cases which have

every point of which is a singular point, which will

include the cases of plane fields, since these latter may be
considered to represent the fields produced by moving the

lines

plane field parallel to

Poincare is as follows.

Node.

(1)

in

classification given

At a node there may be many

which vector

At the

The

itself.

origin,

it is

easy to see, a

0,

and

and follow any

to start at the origin

directions

An example

lines leave the point.

it is

by

is

p.

not possible

definite direction.

In fact the vector lines are evidently the rays from the
There is no other singular point at
origin in all directions.
If, however, we consider all the rays in
and
for this plane construct the sphere of
one
any
plane,

finite distance.

projection,

we

see that the lines correspond to great circles

pass through the origin and the

point diametrically opposite to it. This ideal point may
be considered to be another node, so that all the vector

on the sphere which

all

run from node to node, in

lines

which does not terminate

line

(2)

lines

Faux.

From

which are

all

this case.

node

Every vector

a spiral or a cycle.
a faux* there runs an infinity of vector
in a

is

on one surface, and a

single isolated

vector line which intersects the surface at the faux.

The

a singular surface since every vector line in it

through the faux is a singular line. The singular surface
is approached asymptotically by all the vector lines not
surface

is

singular.

An example

is

given by

The

vector lines are to be found

hyperbolas in the four

*
is

(x, y,

z).

by drawing

quadrants of the

Poincare uses the term

col,

all

equilateral

ZX plane, and then

meaning mountain

pass, for

which faux

Latin.

VECTOR FIELDS

39

rotating this set of lines about the Z axis.

Evidently all
in
the
from
the
are
plane
rays
origin
singular lines, as
well as the Z axis.
Where fauces occur the singular lines

XY

through them are asymptotes for the nonsingular

Fig.

we

lines.

If

4.

consider any plane through the

axis, the

system of

equilateral hyperbolas will project onto its sphere as cycles

tangent on the equator to the great circles which represent the singular lines in that plane.
From this point of
view we really should consider the two rays of the Z axis as
separate from each other, so that the upper part of the Z
axis and the singular ray perpendicular to it, running in the

same general direction as the other vector

stitute a vector line

with an angle.

lines,

would con-

with a discontinuity of direction, or

Such a vector

line to

which the others are

tangent at points at infinity only is a boundary line in the

sense that on one side we have infinitely many vector lines

which form cycles (in the sense defined) while on the other
sides we have vector lines which belong to different sys-

tems

of cycles.

VECTOR CALCULUS

40

simple case of this example might arise in the inward

flow of air over a level plane, with an ascending motion

which increased as the air approached a given vertical
line,

becoming asymptotic to

a small

fire in

this vertical line.

In fact,

the center of a circular tent open at the bottom

and at the vertex, would give a motion

for a small distance

to the

smoke

closely approximating to that described.

singular line from a faux runs to a node or else

spiral or part of a cycle which returns to the faux.

An example
a

that shows both preceding types

(x

+y
2

1,

bxy

5,

is

the

is

field

mz).

Y plane the singular points are at infinity as follows

at the negative end of the
axis, and B at the positive
both
C
at
the
end
of
the ray whose direction
end,
fauces;
In the

A
is

tan-1

quadrant, D at the end of the ray of

2 in the third quadrant; E at the end of the

the

2, in

-1

direction tan

first

VECTOR FIELDS

41

-1 2 in
the fourth quadrant; and F
ray of direction tan
-1 2 in
the second quadrant,
at the end of the ray of tan
nodes.
Vector
lines
run from E to D
four
these
being

separated from the rest of the plane by an asymptotic

B to D; from C to D on the other side

division line from

of this division line, separated from the third portion of

the plane by an asymptotic division line from C to A and
from C to F in the third portion of the plane. The figure
;

shows the typical

(3) Focus.

lines of the field.

At a focus the vector

totically, either like spirals

lines

wound towards

wind

in

asymp-

the vertex of a

by rotating a curve about one of its

vector
line passing through the focus, or
tangents, one
they are like spirals wound around a cone towards the
spindle produced

Fig.

vertex.

o-

The Z

6.

As an example

axis

is

= (x+

y,

x, z).

a single singular line through the origin, which

XY

a singular point, a focus in this case. The

plane
contains vector lines which are logarithmic spirals wound in
towards the origin. The other vector lines are spirals
is

VECTOR CALCULUS

42

wound on cones

of revolution, their projections on

being the logarithmic spirals.

would have

different surfaces

a<

By

z to az

XY
we

depending upon whether

or

changing

<

a.

In case a spiral winds in onto a cycle, the successive

turns approaching the cycle asymptotically, the cycle is
In this example the line at infinity
called a limit cycle.

X Y plane, or the corresponding equator on its sphere,

in

the

is

a limit cycle.

wind outward
cycles.

From

It

is

clear that the spirals

on the cones

also towards the lines at infinity as limit

this

example

it

is

plain that vector lines

spiral may start asymptotically from a focus and

be bounded by a limit cycle. The limit cycle thus divides
the plane or the surface upon which they lie into two
mutually exclusive regions. Vector lines may also start

which are

from a limit cycle and proceed to another limit cycle.

As an example of vector lines of both kinds consider the
field

Fig.

where the

XY

(r

7.

1, r

lf

mz)f

first component is in the direction of a ray in the

plane from the origin, the second perpendicular to

VECTOR FIELDS
this in the

XY plane, and the third

The vector
spirals

is

43
parallel to the

lines in the singular plane, the

with the origin as a focus for one

XY

set,

Z axis.

plane, are

which wind

around the focus negatively and have the unit circle as a

limit cycle, while another set wind around the unit circle
in the opposite direction,

limit cycle.

The

line at infinity as a

polar equation of the

An example with
is

having the

all

first set is

r~ l

the preceding kinds of singularities

the field

Fig. 8.

2
( [r

l)(r

9)], (r

2r cos 9

8),

mz)

with directions for the components as in the preceding

example. The singular points are the origin, a focus; the

A (r = 3, = + cos-1 ), a node; the point B (r = 3,

=
6
cos -1 J), a faux.
The line at infinity is a limit
cycle, as well as the circle r = 1, which is also a vector
line.
The circle r = 3 is a vector line which is a cycle,

point

VECTOR CALCULUS

44

starting at the faux, passing through the node

to the faux.

The vector

and returning

lines are of three types, the first

being spirals that wind asymptotically around the focus,

out to the unit circle as limit cycle; the second start at the

node

and wind

in

on the unit

third start at the node

finity as unit cycle.

circle as limit cycle; the

and wind out

The second

set dip

to the line at in-

down towards

the

The

exceptional vector lines are the line at infinity,

the unit circle, both being limit cycles; the circle of radius
faux.

3; a vector line

which on the one side

starts at the faux

circle, and on the other side starts

winding
at the faux B winding outward to the line at infinity as
The last two are asymptotic division lines of
limit cycle.

on the unit

in

the regions.

The

figure exhibits the typical curves.

This type of singular point has passing

a singular surface which contains an infinity
of spirals having the point as focus, while an isolated vector
line passes through the point and the surface.
No other
(4)

Faux-Focus.
it

through

An

surfaces through the vector lines approach the point.

instance

is

the field
a-

(x, y,

z).

XY

The Z

axis is the isolated singular line, while the

plane
the singular plane.
In it there is an infinity of spirals
with the origin as focus and the line at infinity as limit
is

cycle.

All other vector lines

lie

on the surfaces

These do not approach the origin.

At a center there
(5) Center.

is

rz

const.

a vector line passing

through the singular point, and not passing through this

singular line there is a singular surface, with a set of loops
or cycles surrounding the center,

There

is

and shrinking upon

it.

also a set of surfaces surrounding the isolated

singular line like a set of sheaths, on each of which there are

vector lines winding around helically on

it

with a decreasing

45

VECTOR FIELDS

pitch as they approach the singular surface, which they

As an instance we
approach asymptotically.

therefore

have the

field

The Z

axis

is

(y,

x, z).

the singular isolated vector

line,

the

XY plane

singular surface, circles

concentric to the origin the

the

singular vector lines in

the other vector lines
circular

cylinders

it,

lie

about the

approaching the

axis,

and
on

XY

plane asymptotically.

The method

of determining

character of a singular
point will be considered later

the

in connection with the

study

Fig.

9.

of the linear vector operator.

singular point at infinity

is

either a

node or a faux.

Singular Lines. Singularities may not occur alone

but may be distributed on lines every point of which is a
10.

singular point.

This

will evidently

occur

when

gives
three surfaces which intersect in a single line. The different types may be arrived at by considering the line of
singularities to be straight,

and the surfaces

cr

of the vector

with the points of the singular line as singularities

to be planes, -for the whole problem of the character of the
lines

singularities is a problem of analysis situs, and the deformation will not change the character.
The types are then as
follows
:

(1)

node.

Line of Nodes.

lines are all

to the

Every point

simple example

is

of the singular line

(x,

rays passing through the

XY plane.

y,

0).

axis

The
and

is

vector
parallel

VECTOR CALCULUS

46

Line of Fauces. There are two singular vector

through each point of the singular line. As an instance

(2)

lines

(x,

y, 0).

The

lines

Line of Foci.

(3)

all

axis parallel to

other vector lines

The

points of the singular line are

asymptotically by spirals. As an instance

approached

through the

and the Y axes are singular,

on
hyperbolic cylinders.
lying

the

+ y,

The

vector lines are logarimithic

spirals in planes parallel to the

XY plane, wound around the

<t

(x

Z axis

which

y
is

x, 0).

the singular

Line of Centers.

(4)

The vector

lines are the

line.

simple case

Z axis and

11. Singularities at Infinity.

is

all circles

(y,

with

The character

determined by transforming the components

it

x, 0).

as axis.

of these

of

is

a so as to

bring the regions at infinity into the finite parts of the

we are considering. The asymptotic lines will then

have in the transformed space nodes at which the lines are

space

tangent to the asymptotic line.

12. General Characters.
The problem of the character
of a vector field so far as it depends upon the vector lines

and

their singularities

resolution

is

is

of great importance.

due to Poincare.

In a series of

Its general

memoirs

in

des Mathematiques* he investigated the

of the curves which represent the
character
qualitative

the

Journal

characteristics of differential equations, particularly with

the intention of bringing the entire set of integral curves

into view at once.
Other studies of differential equations
usually relate to the character of the functions defined at

and in their
more general study

single points

of the

These with the

field into
*

vicinities.

The

chief difficulty

to ascertain the limit cycles.

asymptotic division lines separate the
is

independent regions.

Ser. (3) 7 (1881), p. 375; ser. (3) 8 (1882), p. 251; ser. (4) 1 (1885),
p. 167. Also Takeo Wado, Mem. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 2 (1917) 151.

VECTOR FIELDS

47

The asymptotic division lines appear on meteorological

maps as lines on the surface of the earth towards which,
or away from which, the air is moving.
They are called
in the

two cases

respectively.

lines of convergence, or lines of divergence,

a division line of this type starts at a

may be a point of convergence or a point of
The line will then have the same character.
If

node the node

divergence.

The node in
flow,

is

other

fields,

such as electric or magnetic or heat

If a division line starts from a

a source or a sink.

faux, the latter

is

often called a neutral point.

A focus may

be also a point of convergence or point of divergence. In

the case of a singular line consisting of foci, the singular line

be a line of convergence or of divergence; in the first

case, for instance, the singular line is the core of the anti-

may

cyclone, in the latter case, the core of the cyclone.

The
lines

limit cycles

which are not at

infinity are division

which enclose areas that remain isolated

Such phenomena as the eye of

in the field.

the cyclone illustrate the oc-

currence of limit cycles in natural phenomena. The limit

cycle may be a line of convergence or a line of divergence,
the air in the first case flowing into the line asymptotically

from both inside and outside, with the focus serving as a

source, and in the other case with conditions reversed.

The practical handling of these problems in meteorological

work depends usually upon the isogonal lines: the lines
which are

loci of equidirected

tangents of the vector lines

These are drawn and the infinitesimal tangents drawn across them. The filling in of the vector
lines is then a matter of draughtsmanship.
The isogonal

of the field.

lines

will

themselves have singularities and these will

enable one to determine somewhat the singularities of the

vector lines themselves. Since the unit vector in the
direction of a

is

constant along an isogon

it is

evident that

VECTOR CALCULUS

48

the only change in a along an isogon is in its intensity,

that is, a keeps the same direction, and its differential is
therefore a multiple of a, that
differential

equation

da
Consequently, when a
singular point.

It

adt.

or a

does not

the isogons have for their

is,

<x>

the isogon will have a

follow, however, that all the

singular points of the isogons will appear as singular points

such as are described above for the vector lines. When

the differential equation of the isogons

is

reduced to the

standard form

dp

we

shall see later that r will

rdu

be a linear vector function of

and that a

linear vector function

so that <pa

that

0,

without a

Some

may happen are the following, from

Meteorology and Hydrography.

1.

0.

may have

Node

of Isogons.

These

a,

zero directions,

of the

phenomena
Dynamic

Bjerknes'

See his plates 42a, 426.

be positive, in which

may

case the directions of the tangents of the vector lines will

is, the tangent will turn positively) as succes-

increase (that

taken in a positive rotation about the node,

be
may
negative in the reverse case. The positive node
of the isogon will then correspond to a node, a focus, or a
center of the vector lines. The negative node of the isogon
sive isogons are

or

correspond to a faux of the vector lines.

the isogons are parallel, having, therefore, a node at
infinity in either of their directions, the vector lines may
will

If

have asymptotic division lines running in the same direction, or they may have lines of inflexion parallel to the
isogons.
2.

may

When the isogons are cycles they

Center of Isogons.
correspond to very complicated forms of the vector

VECTOR FIELDS

40

Several of these are to be found in a paper by Sandstrom, Annalen der Hydrographie und maritimen Meteorlines.

37 (1909),

vol.

ologie,

Flussigkeiten.
*

Uber

242,

p.

die

Bewegung der

EXERCISES*

To be

1.

solved graphically as far as possible.

translation field is given by a- = (at, bt,

ct),

what are the vector

the isogons, and the singularities?

2. A rotation field is given by a = (mz ny, nx
what are the isogons, singularities, and vector lines?

lines,

3.
is

ly

Iz,

mx),

A field of deformation proportional to the distance in one direction

given by a

4.

Determine the

{ax, 0, 0).

general field of linear deformation

field.

is

given by

by
gy
ly
cz, fx
hz, kx
tnz)
determine the various kinds of fields this may represent according to
the different possible cases.
o-

(ax

Consider the quadratic

5.

(x

field*
2

2xy, 2xz).

xz, yz yx, zx zy).

Consider the quadratic field a
(xy
7. What are the lines of flow when the motion is stationary in a
rotating fluid contained in a cylindrical vessel with vertical axis of
=

6.

rotation?

Consider the various

8.

values of

a,

which

fields

(ay

-\-

x,

ax, b) for different

the tangent of the angle between the curves and

What happens in the successive diagrams to the

is

their polar radii.

isogons, to the curves?

fieldsf a

Consider the various

9.

XY

polar radius in the

plane, a

is

(l,f(r

constant,

a), b) where r is the

and / takes the various

forms
f(x)
10.

x,

x 2 x 3 x 112 x 113 x~ l x~ 2
,

j(x)
11.

Consider the forms a

=
=

(1, f(air

e x,

log x, sin x, tan x.

sin r), b)

where

sin x, cos x, tan x.

In various electrical texts, such as Maxwell, Electricity and

will be found plates showing the lines of

Magnetism, and others, there

various

fields.

Bjerknes'
*

Discuss

these.

Dynamic Meteorology,

the

meteorological

See Hitchcock, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and

pp. 372-454.
f

Also,

See Sandstrom cited above.

maps

in

referred to fibove.
Sci.,

12 (1917), No.

7,

VECTOR CALCULUS

50

12. In a funnel-shaped, vortex of a water-spout the spout may be

considered to be made up of twisted funnels, one inside another, the

space between the surfaces being a vortex tube. In the Cottage City
water-spout, Aug. 19, 1896, the equation of the outside funnel may be

taken to be
(z

+ y*)z

3600.

x, y are measured horizontally in meters from the axis of the

tubes, and z is measured vertically downwards from the cloud base,
which is 1100 meters above the ground. The inner surfaces have the

In this

same equation save that instead of 3600 on the right we have

2n that
is, at any level, the radius of a surface bounding
3600/(1. 60 10)
a tube is found from the preceding radius at the same level by dividing
by the number whose logarithm (base 10) is 0.20546. From meteorological theory the velocity of the wind on any surface is given by
;

<r

where the
second

is

(Cr, Crz,

2Cz)

the horizontal radial component, the

component
the tangential, and the third is the vertical component. C
first

is

and is found by multiplying the value

by the square of the number 1.6010. In Bige-

varies for the different surfaces,

for the outside surface

low's Atmospheric Radiation, etc., p. 200 et seq., is to be found a set of

tables for the various values from these data for different levels. Characterize the vortex field of the water-spout.
13.

For a dumb-bell-shaped water-spout,

the equation
(x

where

varies

problem.

The

+y

2
)

sin az

is

have

const/A

from surface to surface just as

velocity

o-

likewise, the funnels

in the preceding

given by

= ( Aar

cos az,

Aar

sin az,

2A

sin az),

the directions being horizontal radial, tangential and vertical. For

the St. Louis tornado, May 27, 1896, the following data are given.
Cloud base 1200 meters above the ground, divided into 121 parts
called degrees, the

The values

of

ground thus being at

60,

and az being

in degrees.

are for the successive funnels

0.1573, 0.4052, 1.0437, 2.6883, 6.9247, 17.837.

Characterize the vector Ikies of this vortex

field.

In the treatise on The Sun's Radiation, Bigelow gives the following data for a funnel-shaped vortex
14.

r2z

6400000/C

W=wind--from9f

PLATE

PLATE

II

VECTOR FIELDS
at 500 kilometers z

500, r

a (Km/sec)

51

60474, 26287, 11513, 5023, 2192, 956.

(Cr, Crz,

2Cz).

Calculate for

The

0, 500,

1000, 2000, 5000, 10000, 20000, 30000, 40000, 50000.

results of the calculations give a vortex field agreeing with Hale's

observations.

The vector lines in the last three problems lie on the funnel surfaces,
being traced out in fact by a radius rotating about the axis of the vortex,
and advancing along the axis according to the law
2d

20

= -z +C
= az + C

for the funnel,

for the dumb-bell.

Study the lines on the plates, which represent on the first plate
the isogons for wind velocities, on the second plate the corresponding
15.

characteristic lines of wind flow. The date was evening of Jan. 9, 1908.
European and American systems of numbering directions are shown in
the margin of plate 1. See Sandstrom's paper cited above.

13. Congruences.

We still have to consider the relations

of the various vector lines to each other, noticing that the

vector lines constitute geometrically a congruence, that is,

a two-parameter system of curves in space. The consideration of these matters, however, will

poned

to a later chapter.

have to be post-

CHAPTER

IV

ADDITION OF VECTORS
1

Sum

of Vectors.

more vectors
first,

is

Geometrically, the

sum

of

two or

found by choosing any one of them as the

from the terminal point of the

first

constructing the

second (any other), from the terminal point of this constructing the third (any of those left) and so proceeding

have been successively joined to form a polygon in

with
the exception of a final side. If now this last
space
side is constructed by drawing a vector from the initial

till all

point of the first to the terminal point of the last, the vector
so drawn is called the sum of the several vectors. In
case the polygon is already closed the sum is a zero vector.
When the sum of two vectors is zero they are said to be

and

opposite,

subtraction of a vector consists in adding its

opposite.
It is evident from the definition that we presuppose a space in which
the operations can be effectively carried out. For instance, if the space
were curved like a sphere, and the sum of two vectors is found, it would

evidently be different according to which is chosen as the first. The

study of vector addition in such higher spaces has, however, been considered.
2.

Encyclopedic des sciences mathematiques,

Algebraic

Sum.

reference to space,

Tome

In order to define the

it

is

numbers that are the

geometric vectors.

We

IV, Vol.

2.

sum without

necessary to consider the hyperalgebraic

representatives

must indeed

of

the

start with a given

set of hypernumbers,

which are the basis of the system of hypernumbers we intend to study. These are sometimes called imaginaries,
because they are analogous to
52

V 1.

In the case of three-

ADDITION OF VECTORS

53

dimensional space there are three such hypernumbers in the

We combine in thought a numerical value with

basis.

each of these, the field or domain from which these numerical values are chosen being of great importance.
For instance,

we may

numbers to the domain of integers,

domain of reals, or to other

limit our

the domain of rationals, the

more complicated domains, such as certain algebraic fields.

We then consider all the multiplexes we can form by putting together into a single entity several of the hypernumbers just formed, as for instance, we would have in threedimensional space such a
p

we

compound
(1,

7/e 2 ,

as

Z 3 ).

now

using the base hypernumbers e it is no

longer necessary to use the parentheses nor to pay attention
to the order of the terms.
We drop the use of the comma,
Since

are

however, and substitute the

we would now

sign, so that

write

We may now

Xi

easily define

2/ 2

+ 2

3.

the algebraic

sum

of several

hypernumbers corresponding to vectors by the formula

Pi

]T
i

Pi

=
=

=
+y +
2ii + 2^ + 2Zi
[

Xii

{ 2

Zi*z,

1, 2,

m,

This definition of course includes subtraction as a special

case.
It

is

clear

from

this definition that to correspond to the

geometric definition, it is necessary that the units e correspond to three chosen unit vectors of the space under consideration.
They need not be orthogonal, however. The

then the oblique or rectangular

coordinates of the point which terminates the vector if it
starts at the origin.

coefficients of the e are

VECTOR CALCULUS

54

We may

Change of Basis.
numbers of the system
3.

2
3

=
=
=

all

the

hyperterms of a new set linearly related

in

For instance,

to the original set.

define

if

we

write

+ ai22 + Ol33,
+ a222 0233>
a iai + a a + 333,
duOti

CiziOLl

"T"

32

then p becomes
P

(a n x

+
It

is

+ a n z)ai
+a y+a

an y

(a u x

22

32 z)a 2

(a n x -f

a 2z y

a 33 z)a 3

if we transform the e's by a nonhomogeneous transformation, the coeffi-

evident then that

linear

singular

cients of the

new

basis hypernumbers, a, are the transforms

of the original coefficients under the contragredient trans-

formation.

Inasmuch as the transformation

a

sum

will

original
is

is

linear,

the transform of

sum of the transforms of the terms of the

The transformation as a geometrical process

be the

sum.

equivalent to changing the axes. This process evidently

new triple, but must be considered not to give

gives us a

us a

new hypernumber nor a new vector.

cannot be defined by a
is

triple of

Indeed, a vector

numbers

alone.

There

also either explicitly stated or else implicitly understood

to be a basis, or on the geometric side a definite set of axes

such that the triple gives the components of the vector

along these axes. It is evident that the success of any

system of vector calculus must then depend upon the
choice of

modes

of

combination which are not affected by

the change from one basis to another. This is the case

with addition as we have defined it. We assume that we

may
basis
If

express any vector or hypernumber in terms of any

we like, and usually the basis will not appear.

the transformation

is

such as to leave the angles be-

ADDITION OF VECTORS

tween

e2 ,

ei,

the same as those between a\,

e3

55

a2 a3
,

the

second trihedral being substantially the same as the first

rotated into a new position, with the lengths in each case
remaining units, then the transformation is called orthogonal.
We may define an orthogonal transformation algebraically as one such that if followed by the contragredient
transformation the original basis is restored.
If we consider two points
4. Differential of a Vector.

at a small distance apart, the vector to one being p, to the

other

p'

p',

and the vector from the first to the second, Ap

where Ap = As-e, e being a unit vector in the

p,

we may then let one point apin

the
other
so
that
the
limit e takes a definite posiproach
ds
and
we
write
for As, and call the result
tion, say a,
may
direction of the difference,

the differential of p for the given range over which the p

runs.
In the hypernumbers we likewise arrive at a hyper-

number
dp

where now ds
of dx, dy, dz,

dxei

-f- dye?,

form a trirectangular system of

The quotient
sents the time.

a curve.

We

the binormal

dzez,

a linear homogeneous irrational function

2
dz 2 ) in case e ly e 2 e 3
which = V (dx2
dy
is

dpjdt

The

units.

the velocity at the point if t repreunit vector a: is the unit tangent for

is

generally represent the principal normal and

by jS, 7 respectively. When p is given as

dependent on a single variable parameter, as t for instance,

then the ends of p may describe a curve. We may have

form the coordinates of p alone dependent

the
upon
parameter, or we may have both the coordinates
and the basis dependent upon t. For instance, we may ex-

in the algebraic

e 3 which are not dependent upon

ei, e 2
but represent fixed directions geometrically, or we may
express p in terms of three hypernumbers as w, r, J* which

press p in terms of
t

VECTOR CALCULUS

56

themselves vary with t, such as the moving axes of a system

in space.
In relativity theories the latter method of representation plays an important part.
5. Integral of a Vector.
If we add together n vectors and
divide the result by n we have the mean of the n vectors,

which

may

number

be denoted by

and

of vectors

p.

we

If

select

an

infinite

sum

find the limit of their

after

the differential of the parameter by

which they are expressed, such limit is called the integral
of the vector expressed in terms of t, and if we give t two
multiplication

by

dt,

definite values in the integral

the other, the difference

the first value

of

to

is

and subtract one

from

result

the integral of the vector from

the second.

More

generally,

we

if

multiply a series of vectors, infinite in number, by a corresponding series of differentials, and find the limit of the

sum

when

of the results, such limit,

integral of the series.

the usual difficulties

it exists, is

called the

In integration, as in differentiation,
met in analysis may appear, but as

they are properly difficulties due to the numerical system

and not to the hypernumbers, we will suppose that the
reader is familiar with the methods of handling them.

The mean

in the case of a vector

sequence of values

some
of

is

which has an

infinite

the quotient of the integral taken on

by the integral of the set

set of differentials, divided

differentials

The examples

itself.

will

illustrate

the

use of the mean.

EXAMPLES
The

centroid of an arc, an area, or a volume is found

(1)
by integrating the vector p itself multiplied by the differential of the arc, ds, or of the surface, du, or of the volume
dv.

The

integral

is

then divided by the length of the

volume. That is

arc, the area of the surface, or the

Sheets

b
,

or

ffpdu
-

or

fffpdv

ADDITION OF VECTORS

An example of average velocity \s

57

found in the following

Meteorology, Part II, page 14) observations of a small balloon.
(2)

(Bjerknes, Dynamic

= Ht. in
Meters

VECTOR CALCULUS

;,s

We now find the average velocity between the 1000 m-bar,

the 900 ra-bar, the 800 m-bar, the 700 ra-bar, and the 600
The

ra-bar.

tegers

from

direction

is

Pressure

The

indicated

by the

in-

to 63 inclusive, the entire circle being divided

into 64 parts, each of 5f.

24, etc.

commonly
East

following table

is

is 0,

found.

North

is

16,

NW.

is

ADDITION OF VECTORS

59

EXERCISES
Average as above the following observations taken at places
mentioned (Bjerknes, p. 20), July 25, 1907, at 7 a.m. Greenwich time.
1.

Isobar

VECTOR CALCULUS

GO
2. If

the direction of the wind

average direction found?

tions.

Station

is

registered every hour how is the

for the following observa-

Find the average

ADDITION OF VECTORS

61

Find the resultant attraction at a point due to a segment of a

which is (a) of uniform density, (6) of density which varies
as the square of the distance from one end. What is the mean attraction in each case?
5. Show that p = ta + \P$ is the equation of a parabola, that the
4.

straight line

equation of the tangent

is

= Ua

from a given point are given by

pa

the chord of contact

q/3,

is

\t\

&

+ x(a +

= p V
qP
p =

(p

that tangents
the point being
PP) which has a

ttfi),

2q),

+ y(a +

zP
direction independent of q so that all points of the line p = pa
have corresponding chords of contact which are parallel. If a chord

is

q
-f-

to pass through the point aa

bp for differing values of p, then
pa
b and the moving point pa
qP lies on the line p

b.
of
is
whose
direction
independent
(ap
b)P,

= ap
6.

three

If a,

/S,

numbers

7 are vectors to three

a, b, c

aa

collinear points, then

we can

find

such that

6/S

+ cy =

+b+

c.

7. In problem 5 show that if three points are taken on the parabola

corresponding to the values t\, U, tz, then the three points of intersection
of the sides of the triangle they determine with the tangents at the
vertices of the triangle are collinear.
8. Determine the points that divide the segment joining A and B,
points with vectors a and 0, in the ratio I : m, both internally and externally.
Apply the result to find the polar of a point with respect to

a given triangle, that is, the line which passes through the three points
that are harmonic on' the three sides respectively with the intersection
of a line through the given point
9.

10.

Show how

and the vertex opposite the side.

to find the resultant field due to superimposed fields.

curve on a surface

differential of p.

is

given by p

u(u,

v),

u =

/(v),

study the

CHAPTER V
VECTORS IN A PLANE
Vectors. We purpose in this chapter to
a more detailed study of vectors in a plane and the
hypernumbers corresponding. In the plane it is convenient
1.

Ratio of

Two

make

some assigned unit vector as a reference for all

others in the plane, though this is not at all necessary in
to take

In fact we go back for a moment to the

fundamental idea underlying the metric notion of number.
According to this a number is defined to be the ratio between two quantities of the same concrete kind, such as

most problems.

the ratio of a rod to a foot.

of vectors, regarding
it

is

them

now we

If

consider the ratio

same kind of quantity,

involve more than merely

as the

clear that the ratio will

numerical ratio of lengths. The ratio in this case is in

fact what we have called a hypernumber.
For every pair
of vectors p, x there exists a ratio p x and a reciprocal
:

ratio

This ratio we

p.

designate by a

will

roman

character

That
2.

p/x

P
IT

we may substitute p for qw.

Complex Numbers. If we draw p and x from one
is

to say,

form a figure which has two segments for

and an angle. (In case they coincide we still consider they have an angle, namely zero.)
In this figure p is
the initial side and x is the terminal side. Then their
point, they will
sides

complex ratio

is

as a multiplier,
sides in the

p.

it is

Since this ratio

clear that

same proportion, the

62

if

is

to be looked

we were

ratio

upon

to reduce the

would not be changed.

VECTORS IN A PLANE

63

A change of angle would, however, give a different ratio.

However, we will agree that all ratios are to be considered
as equivalent, or as we shall usually say, equal, not only
when the figures to which they correspond have sides in

same proportion, but also when they have the same

angles and sides in proportion, even if not placed in the
plane in the same position. For instance, if the vectors
AB, AC make a triangle which is similar to the triangle
DE, DF, if we take the sides in this order, then we shall
the

consider that whatever complex or

AC

into

AB

will also

of equivalence

is

multiply

hypernumber

DF

into

DE.

not only important but

it

multiplies

This axiom
differentiates

hypernumber from others which might just

For instance, the Gibbs
as well be taken as fundamental.
is
a
t
of
p
hypernumber, but we cannot
dyad
equally
this particular

any other vectors than mere multiples

of 7r or p.
It is clear that in the Gibbs dyad we have a
more restricted hypernumber than in the ordinary complex number which has been just defined, and which is a
If we have
special case of the Hamiltonian quaternion.
a Gibbs dyad q, we can find the two vectors ir and p save
as to their actual lengths.
But with the complex number
we
cannot
find
ir
and
further
than to say that for every
p
q
vector there is another in the ratio q.
In other words the
substitute for

ir

or p

only transformations allowed in the Gibbs dyad are translaIn the

tion of the figure AB, AC or magnification of it.

Hamiltonian quaternion, or complex number, the transformations of the figure AB, AC may be not only those
just mentioned but rotation in the plane.
In order to find a satisfactory form for the hypernumber
q which we have characterized, we further notice that if
we change the length of x in the ratio m then we must

change q

in the

same

ratio,

and

if

we

set for the ratio of the

VECTOR CALCULUS

64

length or intensity of

to that of p the

number

r, it is

evi-

dent that we ought to take for q an expression of the form

where

<p(6)

is

Further

only.

r<p(0),

the angle between p and t,

notice that we now have

a function of
if

we

7T

0,

r(p(6)p,

where the

first factor affects the change of length, the

second the change of direction, it is plain that for a second
multiplication by another complex number q' = r'<p(0'),

we should have
tt'

r rcp(e )iP {e) P

Whence we must

r'rip(W

6)p.

consider that

viO'Md)

<p{e

+$) = view).

These expressions are functions of two ordinary numerical

parameters, 0, 0', and are subject to partial differentiation,

any other expressions. Differentiating first

6', we find (<p being the derivative)

just like
0,

as to

then as to

= ?'($+

<p\eM6')

wmb),

whence

y)

is

the vectors
in fact

is,

Since,

lie,

so that for different planes

A;

when

<p(0)

be,

and

the hypernumber becomes a mere

<p'(0)

now we examine

may
N

different.

numerical multiplier,

If

V '{6')

a constant and does not depend upon the angle at

It may, however, depend upon the plane in which

where &
all.

= MO).

the particular function

cos

0+k sin

6,

VECTORS IN A PLANE

65

which gives
<p'(d)

we

sin $

+ k cos 6 =

k cos 6

find all conditions are satisfied

k 2 sin

we take k

if

6,

1.

We may

then properly use this function to define <p.

This very simple condition then enables us to define hypernumbers of this kind, so that we write
q

where k 2
3.

that

r(cos 6

k sin

9)

cks 6

rg ,

1.

Imaginaries. It is desirable to notice carefully here

we must take k 2 equal to
1, the same negative

number that we have always been using. This is important

because there are other points of view from which the
character of k and k 2 would be differently regarded. For

On Algebraic
is
or
its
the
k,
regarded as a linear
Couples,
equivalent,
substitution or operator, which converts the couple (a, b)
While it is true that we may so
into the couple ( b, a).
instance, in the original paper of Hamilton,

regard the imaginary, it becomes at once obvious that we

must then draw distinctions between 1 as an operator, and
1 as a number, and so for 1, and indeed for any expression
x + yi. In fact, such distinctions are drawn, and we find
these operators occasionally called matrix unity, etc. From
the point of view of the hypernumber, this distinction is

not possible.

Hypernumbers are extensions of the number

and other algebraic numbers.
as we will see later, they are not in general

system, similar to radicals

The

fact that,

commutative, does not prevent their being an extension.

In the complex
4. Real, Imaginary, Tensor, Versor.

number
q

the term

Rq.

cos 6

The term

is

cos 6

r sin 6

called the real part of q

r sin

6-k

is

and may be written

called the imaginary part of q

VECTOR CALCULUS

66

and written

The number r is
The expression cos

Iq.

written Tq.
versor of

</

and written Uq.

called the tensor of q

Rq

appears in the form q

Iq=

a,

5.

Division.

-1

It

7r.

bk,

Tq

= V

we have w

If

sin

and

called the

is

TqUq.

(a

bk we see at once that

qp,

b ),

then we

taiT^/a.
write

also

becomes evident that

RqKTqf, Iq-' = - Iql(Tq)\

1
Uq- = cos 6 sin 6 k.

&T =

Therefore,

q= Rq+ Iq=
If q

Tq-*

1/Tq,

Conjugate, Norm. The hypernumber q = Kq Rq

Iq is called the conjugate of q. If q belongs to the figure
AB, AC, then q belongs to an inversely similar triangle, that
6.

a similar triangle which has been reflected in some

The product q = Nq = (Tq) 2
straight line of the plane.
It also has the name modulus of q,
is called the norm of q.
is,

particularly in the theory of functions of complex variables.

Evidently,

Rq =
7.

i(q

+ q),

Iq

h(q

~q),

Products of Complex Numbers.

W*

^q~

Uq-

From the definitions

that the product of two complex numbers

a complex number s, such that

it is clear
is

q, r,

Ts =
zq+ Zr,
ZJ=
TqTr,_
- Tlqlr,
=
=
=
=
RqRr
Rqr
Rqr
Rrq
Rrq
Rqr = Rqr = Rrq = Rrq = RqRr + Tlqlr,
= Irq = Tqr = Irq = Rqlr + Rrlq,
Iqr
= Iqr = Irq = Rrlq Rqlr.
=
Iqr
Irq

Hence

if

Rqr

0,

the angles of q and r are complementary

or have 270 for their sum.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
If

Rqr

If

Iqr

If
8.

Iqr

=
=

0,

0,

0,

the angles differ

we may take r

67
In particular

90.

by

1.

the angles are supplementary or opposite.

the angles are equal or differ by 180.

Continued Products.

(qrs-

We need only
= (z- -srq).

notice

to

that

-z)

not really necessary to reverse the order here as the

It is

products are commutative, but in quaternions, of which

these numbers are particular cases, the products are not
usually

commutative, and the order must be as here

written.
9.

Triangles.

vectors in the plane, and

If ft y, 5, e are
e

then the triangle of

gft

ft e is similar to
e

gft

gy

that of y,

5,

while

if

?7,

the triangles are inversely similar.

These equations enable us to apply complex numbers to
certain classes of problems with great success.
10.
is

Use

of

Complex Numbers as Vectors.

If

a vector a

taken as unit, every vector in the plane may be written

form qa, for some properly chosen q. We may

in the

therefore dispense with the writing of the a, and talk of

the vector q, always with the implied reference to a certain

This is the well-known method of Wessel, Argand,

and
others.
Gauss,
However, it should be noticed that
we have no occasion to talk of q as a point in the plane.

unit a.

EXAMPLES
Calculate the path of the steam in a two-wheel turbine from the following data. The two wheels are rigidly
(1)

connected and rotate with a speed a

400

ft./sec.

Be-

VECTOR CALCULUS

68

tween them are stationary buckets which turn the exhaust

steam from the buckets of the first wheel into those of the

The friction in each bucket reduces the speed

The
steam issues from the expansion nozzle at a
by 12%.
=
of
The proper exhaust angles of the
2200
2 o.
/3
speed
second wheel.

Find the proper entrance angles

buckets are 24, 30, 45.

of the buckets.

7
8

=
=
=

2200 20

=
=
=
=
=

400o
of

first

wheel.

1830 24 .3.

88%

steam,

issuing

of

preceding,

1610x56.

entrance velocity to stationary bucket.

+a=

exit

I6IO1M

1105 30

+ 400o =

1255i4 8 .4.

entrance to next bucket

=
77

velocity

steam at entrance to

relative velocity of

1105 30

400o

78044.3.

exit

400

69O135.

Absolute exit velocity

690i35

495ioo.

Steinmetz, Engineering Mathematics.

(2). We may suppose the student is somewhat familiar
with the usual elementary theory of the functions of a
complex variable. If w is an analytic function of z, both

complex numbers, then the

real part of w,

Rw, considered

the two parameters which determine z, will give a system of curves in the x, y, or the
These may be considered to be the transformau, v plane.
tions of the curves Rw = const, which are straight lines
as a function of x, y or u,

parallel to the

imaginary part.

v,

axis in the

The two

Similarly for the

plane.

sets will

be orthogonal to each

other, since the slope of the first set will be

J

and

01

the other set

dTIw/dTIw
^

ox

dy

-z

But these

are

VECTORS IN A PLANE

69

negative reciprocal, since

dRw dTIw
~
n
ox

dRw_

and

dTIw

ay

oy

ox

EXERCISES
a particle is moving with the velocity 12028 and enters a
which has a velocity given by
1

If

<r

what

will

be

+ 36 sin

[p,

medium

0] 8 ,

its

path?
2. The wind is blowing steadily from the northwest at a rate of
16 ft. /sec. A boat is carried round in circles with a velocity 12 ft. /sec.
divided by the distance from the center. The two velocities are com-

pounded, find the motion of the boat if it starts at the point p = 4 .

3. A slow stream flows in at the point 12 and out at the point
the lines of flow being circles and the speed constant. A chip
on the stream and is blown by the wind with a velocity

12i8o,
is

floating

640

Find

its

path.

a triangle is made with the sides q, r then R.qr is the power of

the vertex with reference to the circle whose diameter is the opposite
The area of the triangle is \TIqr.
side.
r can be found by drawing vectors qa, ra.
5. The sum q
4. If

6.

How is

qr constructed?

qr?

a straight line and OCF another, and if EC and AF

OC AB OB CA = 0. If 0, A, B, C
intersect in B, then OA BC
are concyclic this gives Ptolemy's theorem.
7. If

OAE

is

8. If

ABC

is

a triangle and

LM

a segment, and

LMP similar to ABC, LMQ similar to BCA, and LMR

then

if

we

construct

similar to

CAB,

PQR is similar to CAB.

9. If

the variable complex number u depends on the real

by the linear fractional form

number x

as a variable parameter,

ax
u ex

+b
+d

then for different values of x the vector representing u will terminate on

circle.

For

if

we

construct

w =
u

~d
a
c

'

VECTOR CALCULUS

70

(cx/d), hence the angle of w, which is the angle between

u ale and u b/d, is the angle of d/c and is therefore constant.
Hence the circle goes through a/c (x = ) and b/d (x = 0).

this reduces to

10. If

_
U ~

x(c

+ b(a c)
+ (a- c)

b)a

k(c-b)

where x

will

a,

OB
11.

is a variable real parameter, then the vector representative of

terminate on the circle through A, B, C, where OA represents

represents 6, and OC represents c.

Given three circles with centers C 1}

center,

any point

their radical
d, C3, and
in the plane, then the differences of the powers of

P with respect to the three pairs of circles are proportional respectively

to the projections of the sides of the triangle CiC2 Cz on OP.
12. Construct a polygon of n sides when there is given a set of points,
Ci, C2,

-,

C n which

divide the sides in given ratios a x

bi,

a2

62,

6.

If

the vertices are &,

2 ,

Olll

+ &lfc

7l(ai

+6l)

and the points Ci, C2

y n we have
= 7n(a n
CLntn + bnh

in,

at the ends of vectors 71, 72, ,

'

Cn

are

The

solution of these equations will locate the vertices.

solution ambiguous or impossible?

+ bn

When

).

is

the

13. Construct two directly similar triangles whose bases are given
vectors in the plane, fixed in position, so that the two triangles have a
common vertex.

14.

Construct the

common

vertex of two inversely similar triangles

whose bases are given.

Construct a triangle ABC when the lengths of the sides AB and
given and the length of the bisector AD.
1G. Construct a triangle XYZ directly similar to a given triangle
PQR whose vertices shall be at given distances from a fixed point 0.
Let the length of OX be a, of OY be 6, and of OZ be c. Then
is
15.

AC are

anywhere on the

= PQIPR,

that

circle of radius

We

a and center O.

have

XY/XZ

is,

OY -OX = PQ
OZ-OX PR'

whence we have

OXQR + OYRP + OZPQ

We

draw

OXK

directly similar to

KO + OY + OZ

0,

that

is,

RPQ

giving

0.

KO/OX = QR/RP

and

VECTORS IN A PLANE

KOY

In

we have the base

KO

and the length

length

length

We

can therefore construct

17.

XB/XA =
Eliminate
that

y cks

XA

0,

Construct

of

the problem is solved.

from which the three
Find a point
are seen under given angles.

XC/XA =

z cks p.

giving 2 cks <?# A

y cks

and length

KOY and

ABC

XB = XA + AB, XC = XA + AC.
+ y cksd-AC = BC. Find U such

Z ACtf = Z AXB, then

z AJBI7 = Z AXC,

BA,CU =

b,

PQ
RP'

The hydrographic problem.

sides of a given triangle

OY =

71

BU

z cks

*>.

OCA.

ACX directly similar to

A A UB.

Find the condition that the three lines perpendicular to the

three vectors pa, qa, ra at their extremities be concurrent.
We have p + xkp = q + ykq = r + zkr.
Taking conjugates
ykq = r zkr. Eliminate x, y, z from the four

q
xkp = p
18.

equations.
19. If

a ray at angle

is

reflected in a mirror at angle

2a

a the

reflected

Study a chain of mirrors.

Show that the final direction is independent of some of the angles.
20. Show that if the normal to a line is a and a point P is distant y
from the line, and from P as a source of light a ray is reflected from the
ray

is

in the direction

whose angle

line, its initial direction

equation

2ya

+ tqa

being

is

/3.

qa, then the reflected ray has for

p.

For further study along these lines, see Laisant: Theorie et

Application des Equipollences.
We will notice an application
11. Alternating Currents.
of these hypernumbers to the theory of alternating currents

and electromotive forces, due to C. P. Steinmetz.

If an alternating current is given by the equation
I

Io cos 2wf(t

h),

the graph of the current in terms of t is a circle whose

diameter is 7 making an angle with the position for t =
of 2wfti.
The angle is called the phase angle of the current.
If

two such currents

of the

same frequency are superim-

VECTOR CALCULUS

72
posed on the same

7 cos

F=
we may

may

- ti),
- fcO,
2tt/(*

2irf(t

Jo' cos

set
sex

7 cos 2vfh
7 sin 2tt/<i

+
+

7"

which also has for

vector

say

circuit,

sum

its

h' cos 2tt/V

U"

sin 2u//i'

=
=

cos 2wf(t

graph a

circle,

"

cos 2wfh,

7 " sin

2irft2t

it),

whose diameter is the

two circles. We

of the diameters of the other

then fairly represent alternating currents of the simple

type and of the same frequency by the vectors which are

the diameters of the corresponding circles. The same

may
If

be said of the electromotive forces.

we

represent the current and the electromotive force

on the same diagram, the current would be indicated by a

yellow vector (let us say) traveling around the origin,
with its extremity on its circle, while at the same time the
electromotive force would be represented by a blue vector
traveling with the same angular speed around a circle
with a diameter of different length perhaps. The yellow
and the blue vectors would generally not coincide, but they

would maintain an invariable

angle, hence,

if

each

is

con-

sidered to be represented by a vector, the ratio of these

vectors would be such that its angle would be the same for
all times.
This angle is called the angle of lag, or lead,

according as the E.M.F. is behind the current or ahead of

The law connecting the vectors is

E=
where

it.

ZI,

E is the electromotive force vector, that is, the vector

diameter of

its circle,

of its circle,

and

is

is

the current vector, the diameter

a hypernumber called the impedance,

VECTORS IN A PLANE

73

is

the

resistance of the circuit, while the imaginary part

is

the

measured

[<p/0],

The

in ohms.

reactance, the formula for

Z=
The value

L
C

is

of x

is

2irfL,

being
r

where/
-1

scalar part of

is

xk.

the frequency, [T~l ], and

the inductance, [^G ? ], in henry s, or

l/2irfC where
= 9- 10 11
the permittance, [OT ^-1 ], in farads.
[1 farad
units = 10-9 e.m. units, and 1 ^nn/ = ^lO-11 e.s.
1

is

e.s.

10 9 e.m. units.] It is to be noticed that reactance

due to the capacity of the circuit is opposite in sign to
that due to inductance.
units

The law above

may

is

Ohm's law. We
two generalizations

called the generalized

also generalize KirchofFs laws, the

being due to Steinmetz, and having the highest importance,

inasmuch as by the use of these hypernumbers the same
type of calculation may be used on alternating circuits as

on direct
is

as follows
(1)

The

circuits.

generalization of KirchofFs laws

The vector sum

closed circuit

is

of all electromotive forces acting in a

zero,

if

resistance

and reactance

motive forces are counted as counter electromotive

(2)

The

vector

distributing point

sum
is

of all currents directed

electroforces.

toward a

zero.

(3) In a number of impedances in series the joint impedance is the vector sum of all the impedances, but in a

parallel

of

connected circuit the joint admittance (reciprocal

is the sum of the several admittances.

impedance)

The impedance gives the angle

hyper number of this type.

of lag or lead, as the angle

of a

We desire to emphasize the fact that in impedances we

have physical cases of complex numbers. They involve
complex numbers just as much as velocities involve positive

VECTOR CALCULUS

74

of negative velocity, or rotations involve positive or negaWe may also affirm that the complex currents and
tive.

electromotive forces are real physical existences, every

current implying a power current and a wattless current

whose values lag 90 (as time) behind the power current.

The power electromotive force is merely the real part of
the complex electromotive force, and the wattless E.M.F. the
imaginary part of the complex electromotive force, both
being given by the complex current and the complex
impedance.

We find at the different points of a transmission line that

the complex current and complex electromotive force satisfy
the differential equations
dl/ds

The
r is

letters

(g

Cok)E,

dE/ds

(r

Look)L

stand for quantities as follows: g

ohms/mile,

is

farads/mile,

is

mhos I mile,

is

co

henrys/mile.

2irf.

Setting

m*

(r

is

equations

is

so that

Lo>k)(g
-1

[X

is

cosh

Cwk),
Lak)/(g
of the
the
solution
ohms/mile,
I

(r

ms + ll sinh ms,
ms + 1~ Eq sinh ms,
1

Iq cosh

and 7 are the initial values, that

Eq = ZqIq and then set Z =
sinh h we have

where

Cirk),

while

E= E
I

If

we

E = Z cosh

(ms

E=
E=
I =
To

is,

where

cosh

set

find

h)I

coth (ms

l~

sinh (ms

+ h)E
+ h)I

where the wattless current of the

sinh (ms

-f-

h)

set I

h,

0.

h)I

h)I,

sech h cosh (ms

csch h sinh (ms

become the power current we

kl

k sinh

initial station
,

h.

that

is,

has

VECTORS IN A PLANE

The value

of s

must be

75

real.

EXAMPLES
(1)

Let

2 ohms/mile,

0, to

2000,

L = 0.02 henrys/mile,
C = 0.0000005 farads/mile,
coL = 40 ohms/mile, conductor

reactance,
r

Look

40/c

ohms/mile impedance

=
uC =
g

+
+

Cuk)~

0.001 k

=
=

dielectric

mhos/mile

admit-

0.001 90 .
1000/j" 1

1000 27 o ohms/mile
dielectric

m =

0.001 mhos/mile dielectric susceptance.

Coik

tance
(g

40.5 87 .i5 o

m=

0.0405i 77 .i5,

40500_.2.85,

Let the values at the receiver

(s

impedance.

0.2001 88 .58,

201.25_i.43.

0)

be

E = 1000 volts, 7 =
Then we have
E = 1000 cosh s0.2001
=
for s
100 E = 1000 cosh 20.01 88 58 = 625.9
I = 2.77 27
=
for s
E = 50.01i26.ot,
8
for s = 16
E = 1001i 80
for s = 15.7 E = 1000i
a reversal of phase,
for s = 7.85 E = 90
o

o.

8 8.58,

45 .92,

o,

.3,

8 o,

o.

At points distant 31.4 miles the values are the same.

If we assume that at the receiver end a current is to be
maintained with
Jo

E=
I =

50 4 o cosh

At

1000 cosh s0.2001 88

100

sm

E=

E =

with

50 40
.

58

5i. 4 3

10062 38

5 7

1000

o,

sinh s0.2001 88

5 8,

sinh sm.

10730n355.

MacMahon,

Hyperbolic Functions.

VECTOR CALCULUS

76
Let

(2)

E -

10000,

Ceo

The product

(3)

0.00020

P = EI

65i 3

1,

0.00002

period 221.5 miles, o>L

4.

represents the power of the

alternating current, with the understanding that the frequency is doubled. The real or scalar part is the effective

power, the imaginary part the wattless or reactive power.

The value of TP is the total apparent power. The cos z P
is the power factor, and sin / P is the induction factor.

The

torque, which is the product of the magnetic flux by

the armature magnetomotive force times the sine of their

angle is proportional to TIP, where E is the generated

electromotive force, and/ is the secondary current. In
fact,

the torque

is

TI'EI-p/2irf where p

is

the

number

of

poles (pairs) of the motor.

12.

lines

Divergence and Curl. In a general vector field the

have relations to one another, besides having the

peculiarities of the singularities of the field.

The most

important of these relations depend upon the way the lines

approach one another, and the shape and position of a

There is also at
an intensity of the field as well as a
direction, and this will change from point to point.
If we examine the drawing
Divergence of Plane Lines.

moving

cross-section of a vector tube.

each point of the

field

of the field of a vector distribution in a plane,

we may

measure the rate of approach of neighboring lines.

Starting from two points, one on each line, at the intersection of the normal at a point of the first line and the second
line, we follow the two lines measuring the distance apart
easily

on a normal from the first. The rate of increase of this

normal distance divided by the normal distance and the
distance traveled from the initial point is the divergence of

we

the lines, or as

of the field.

It is

say briefly the geometric divergence

easily seen that in this case of a plane

shall

VECTORS IN A PLANE
field it is

77

merely the curvature of the curves orthogonal

to the curves of the field.

For instance, in the figure, the tangent to a curve of the

the normal at the same point /5. The neighboring

field is a,

curve goes through C. The differential of the normal,

which is the difference of BD and

AC, divided by AC, or BD,

is

the

rate of divergence of the second curve

from the

first

for the distance

AB.

Hence, if we also divide by AB we

will have the rate of angular turn of
the tangent

in

moving to the neigh-

boring curve, the one from C.

of the tangent of the field

is

This rate of angular turn

the same as the rate of turn of

the normal of the orthogonal system, and

ture of the normal system.
Curl of Plane Lines.
original lines of the field
portance, which

may

is

thus the curva-

If we find the curvature of the

we have a quantity of much im-

be called the geometric

curl.

This

must be taken plus when the normal to the field on the

convex side of the curve makes a positive right angle with
the tangent, and negative when it makes a negative right
angle with the tangent. Curl is really a vector, but for
the case of a plane field the direction would be perpendicular
to the plane for the curl at every point, and we may consider only its intensity.

Divergence of Field. Since the field has an intensity as

well as a direction, let the vector characterizing the field

be

cr

Ta-a.

Then the

rate of change of

TV

in the direc-

represented by d a T<r. Let us

now consider an elementary area between two neighboring

tion of a, the tangent,

curves of the
consider

Ta

field,

is

and two neighboring normals. If we

some quantity whose amount

as an intensity of

VECTOR CALCULUS

78

depends also upon the length of the infinitesimal normal

curve, so that we consider the quantity Ta-dn, then the
value of this quantity, which we will call the transport of
the differential tube (strip in the case of a plane field),

TV being the density

of transport, will

cross-sections of the tube,

and

vary for different

under considera-

for the case

would be Ta'dn' - Tadn. But TV' = TV

d a Ta-ds
=
dn
ds-dn
times
the
of
the
lines.
and
divergence

tion,

dn'

P"

Therefore, the differential of the transport will

be (to terms of the first order) ds
dn
( TV

~T~

times divergence

+d

Hence, the density

Ta).

'

of this rate of change of the transport is TV

the rate of change of TV
times the divergence
of
the
vector
line
of
the field. This quanthe
tangent
along
the
the initial point, and
at
the
we
call
field
divergence of
tity

sometimes

it

be indicated by div.

will

cr,

sometimes by

a notation which will be explained. It is clear

that if the lines of a field are perpendicular to a set of straight
lines, since the curvature of the straight lines is zero, the

SVa,

divergence of the original lines

reduces to d a T<r.

is

zero,

and the expression

Curl of Field. We may also study the circulation of the

vector a along its lines, by which we mean the product of
the intensity TV by a differential arc, that is, Tads. On
the neighboring vector line there is a different intensity,
TV',

and a

different differential arc ds'.

of the circulation

is

easily

The

differential

found in the same manner as

the divergence, and turns out to be

(dfiTa

TV

curl of the vector lines).

This quantity we shall call the curl of the field, written

sometimes curl a, and more frequently
which notation

Wa,

will

be explained.

VECTORS IN A PLANE

It

is

evident that the curl of a

is

79

the line integral of the

Tads around the elementary area, for the parts contributed

by the boundary normal to the field will be zero. Hence,

we may say that curl a is the limit of the circulation of <r

around an elementary area constructed as above, to the

We

area enclosed.
is

will see later

that the shape of the area

not material.

Likewise, the divergence is clearly the ratio to the elementary area of the line integral of the normal component of <r

along the path of integration. We will see that this also

is independent of the shape of the area.
Further, we see that in a field in which the intensity of a
constant the divergence becomes the geometric divergence
times the intensity TV, and the curl becomes the geometric
is

curl times the intensity T<r.

Divergence and curl have

analysis in its applications to

many

applications in vector

geometry and physics.

in the applications to space.

of convergence or divergence is
changing density of a gas moving over a plane.

appear particularly

example
caSfc of

curl

is

viscous fluid.

the needle
13.

is

one-half the curl of the velocity.

If the general equation of a given

is

u(x, y)

c,

thee curves will be the vector lines of an infinity of

if

the differential equation of the lines

dx/X

dy/Y,

then we must have

Xdu/dx
and

simple

shown by a needle imbedded in a moving

The angular rate of turn of the direction of

Lines as Levels.

set of curves

for

These

simple
shown in the

Ydu/dy

for the field

= Xa

Y0.

is

fields,

VECTOR CALCULUS

80

arbitrarily and then find Y

evidently choose
the
from
However, if a\ is any one
equation.
uniquely
field so determined, any other field is of the form

We may

<TiR(x, y).

The- orthogonal set of curves would have for their

equation

v(x, y)

and

finite

for their differential equation

Xdvldy

Ydv/dx

0.

we use a uniformly to represent the unit tangent of

u set, and P the unit tangent of the v set, then P = ha.
The gradient of the function u is then d u-(3, and the
dav-a. But the gradient
gradient of the function v is
It
of u is also (ux u y ) and of v is (vx v v ) = (u Vf ux ).
If

the

follows that the tensors of the gradients are equal.

writing

Vm

for gradient u,

we have

Vt>

In fact,

= kVu. We also

belong to the two sets of orthogonal lines for u curves, a = rVv, for the v curves, a' = sVu,

have

for

or also

whatever

we may

write

Vv =
14.

Nabla.

fields

Vu =

tot,

The symbol

tp,
is

Ta-ct.

called nabla,

and evidently

be written in the form ad/dx

Pd/dy for vectors in
a plane. We will see later that for vectors in space it

may

yd/dz, where a, ft y are

may be written ad/dx Pd/dy
the usual unit vectors of three mutually perpendicular
this

form of

this very important

a necessary form. In
fact, if a and fi are any two perpendicular unit vectors in
a plane, and dr, ds are the corresponding differential distances in these two directions, then we have

directions.

However,

differential operator is

V=

not at

ad/dr

all

+ pd/ds.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
For instance,
usual

polar

is

functions are given in terms of

coordinates, then

The proof that

form

if

for

possible,

81

V=

any orthogonal

is

left

Upd/dr +

r, 6,

the

kUpd/rdd.

set of curves a similar

In general,

to the student.

is

a linear differentiating vector

defined as follows
operator connected with the variable vector p as follows:
:

Consider

first,

is

a scalar function of

p,

say F(p). Differentiate

by giving p any arbitrary differential dp. The result

is linear in dp, and may be looked upon as the product of
the length of dp and the projection upon the direction of
this

dp of a certain vector for each direction dp. If now these

vectors so projected can be reduced to a single vector,
For instance, if F is the distance
this is by definition VF.

from the

origin,

then the differential of

in

any

direction

the projection of dr in a radial direction upon the direction of differentiation.

Hence, V7p = Up. In the case
is

of plane vectors,

VF will

lie

in the plane.

In case the

polydromic, we define VF as a polydromic vector, which amounts to saying that a given set
of vectors will each furnish its own differential value of dF.
In some particular regions, or at certain points, the value
of J7F may become indefinite in direction because the
differential of

is

Of course, functions

differentials in all directions vanish.

can be defined which would require careful investigation

as to their differentiability, but we shall not be concerned
with such in this work, and for their adequate treatment
is made to the standard works on analysis.

reference

We

must consider next the meaning

vectors.

It is evident that

if

is

of

as applied to

and therean expression as Va

to be a linear

fore distributive operator, then such

must have the same meaning as VXa. + V Y(3 + VZy if

a = Xa + F/3 -r Zy, where a, 0, y are any independent
constant vectors.

This serves then as the definition of

VECTOR CALCULUS

82

Vo-, the only remaining necessary part of the definition

the vector part which defines the product of

This will be considered as we proceed.

p to represent the complex number x

yk, or
all our expressions are complex numbers.
expression for

V=

and

d/dx

is

kd/dy
let

Upd/dr

kUpd/rdd.

p\du

-f-

p 2 dv.

a function of p (generally not analytic in the usual

da

dcr/du-du

we multiply dp by

real part of
is

and that

p depend upon two parameters

sense) and thus dependent on

If

let

dp
If

re

The proper

becomes then

In general for the plane,

u, v,

is

vectors.

We will consider now

Nabla as a Complex Number.

15.

two

perpendicular to

we

+ da/dv-dv

kpi,

both sides

u, v,

will

will

have

= R-dpV -a.

which

is perpendicular to pi, the

be equal and we have, since kpi

pi,

Rkpidp

dvRkpip 2

and similarly
Rkpidp

duRkpipi

since the imaginary part of pip 2 equals

duRkpip 2

the imaginary part

of p 2 pi-

Substituting in da

A,

we have

+#-)
dvJ

.*,(-,*\
Rkpip ou
2

<r.

Rkpip 2

expression in (), however, is exactly what we have defined above as V, and thus we have proved that we may

The

write

V in the form corresponding to dp in terms of u and v

V = k(p d/du pid/dv)/Rkpip
2

2.

In case pi and p 2 are perpendicular the divisor evidently

VECTORS IN A PLANE

reduces to

Tp\Tp 2 according as p 2

is

83

negatively perpendicit.
We may write

ular to pi or positively perpendicular to

V in this case
+ kpr Tp /Tpi)

in the

form

(since p 2

kpi-

Tp 2 /Tpi or

v = _pi_A
T du^
.

Pl

_Pi_

A = pF fii,

-i

du^ Ht

TP2 2 dv

1_

dv

dF = Rdp\/F, da = Rdp\7 -v.

V = Vu-d/du + \7v-d/dv.
16. Curl, Divergence, and Nabla.
Suppose now that a
is the complex number for the unit tangent of one of a set
of vector lines, and |8 the complex number for the unit
tangent of the orthogonal set, at the same point. The
In any case we have
Also in any case

curvature of the orthogonal set is the intensity of the vector

But this
rate of change of (3 along the orthogonal curve.
the same as the rate of change of the unit tangent a as
we pass along the orthogonal curve from one vector line to
an adjacent one. The differential of a is perpendicular
Hence this
to a, and hence parallel to the direction of /3.
is

curvature can be written

But

if

we

R- a(R-aV)a, since the

a has no component
and may be added to the

also consider the value of

differential of

in the direction of

parallel to a, this

term

is

zero,

preceding without affecting

its

value.

Hence the curvature

of the orthogonal set reduces to

R(aRaV
This

+ ^/3V) =

R-Va.

the divergence of the curves of a.

If now <j = Tcr-a, we find from the definition of the
is

divergence of a that

it is

merely

R-Va.
Considering in the same manner the definition of curl of

a,

VECTOR CALCULUS

84

we

find

so that

it

reduces to

R-kV<r, and

we multiply this by k,

= - kRW(T=LV<r

when added
we have

see at once that

divergence of a

div-<7

The

if

we have
curl

we

to the expression for the

+ curl =
<r

V<r.

real part of this expression is therefore the divergence

and the imaginary part

of a,

is

This

the curl of a.

will

agree with expressions for curl and divergence for space of

three dimensions. We have thus found some of the

remarkable properties of the operator

17. Solenoidal and Lamellar Vector Fields.
.

divergence of a is everywhere zero, the field

solenoidal.
If the curl is everywhere zero, the

When

the

said to be

is

field is called

lamellar.
18. Properties of the Field.

considered, and the orthogonal

be expressed in the form
o-

where

it is

Let a set of curves u

set v

= XVu +

a,

and

let

the

be

field

FVfl,

assumed that the gradients Vu,

We have then

Vv

exist at all

points to be considered.

= RVa =

diver

The

RvXVu+ RvYVv _
+ XRWu+ YRWv.

RWu

expression
it vanishes

In case

equation, and

We

also

curl

is

it is

called the plane dissipation of u.

evident that u satisfies Laplace's

is

therefore harmonic.

have

o-

I- V<r

= kRkVXVu kRkvYVv,

the other parts vanishing.

VECTORS IN A PLANE

we have chosen orthogonal

Since

85

sets of curves

we may

write these in the forms

diver

= (TVu) dX/du +

curl

= (TVu)(TW)(dY/du -

(TVv) dY/dv

+ XRVVu +
o-

dX/dv)k.

In case we have chosen the lines of

then

X=

0,

YRvVv,

= YVv
= YRVW+ (TVv)

cr

for the

curves,

and a

diver
curl

dY/dv,

(7= TVuTVvdY/du-k.

We notice that curl Vu = 0, curl Vv = 0, div k\/u

divkVv = 0, kVu = VvTVu/TVv, and for
Y = TVu/TVv,

0,

we have
2
(TVu)- RvS7u = d

(fV*)~*BVV =

'

log

(TVu/TVv)/du,

d log (TVv/TVu)/dv.

We may now draw some

curves and

and

conclusions as to the types of

B.
O.
(Cf.
Peirce, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts

<r.

38 (1903) 663-678; 39 (1903) 295-304.)

The field will be solenoidal if diver = 0, hence

Sci.,

(1)

d log Y/dv

which

may

(2)

RVW/TW

'

be integrated, giving

Y=
If v is

= e f(u

'

v)

o{u)

harmonic, Y is a function of u only and a =G(u)Vv.

the field is lamellar, curl a = 0, and Y is a function

If

of v only, so that

= H(v)Vv = VL(v).

the field

is

both solenoidal and lamellar,

(3)

If

RVVL(v) =
which

is

0,

whence

2
RVVv/(TVv) =

a condition on the character of the curves.

/(*),

Hence

VECTOR CALCULUS

86
it is

not possible to have a solenoidal and lamellar

with purely arbitrary curves.

(4) If the field is solenoidal and

d log Y/dv

intensity,

d(TVv)

/dv,

An example

a condition on the curves.

is

the

alone,

2RVW =
which

Ta,

Y = p(u)/TVv, and therefore

= - dTVv/TVvdv = - RvVv/TVv2 whence
u

a function of

is

field

is

the

cross-section of a field of magnetic intensity inside an in-

which carries lengthwise

a steady current of electricity of uniform current density.
(5) If a is lamellar and Ta is a function of v only, TVv
finitely long cylinder of revolution

An example

g(v).

homogeneous,

is

the

field

of attraction within a

infinitely long cylinder of revolution.

The

a restriction on the possible curves.

(6) If the field is lamellar and Ta a function of u only,
since Y is a function of v only, d log TVv/du = k(u), or
condition

TVv =

is

l(u)/m(v).

This restricts the curves.

(7)

Ta

If

the field

is

= p(v)TW.
RS7Vv/(T\7v)

solenoidal

and Ta a function

Therefore d log Ta/dv

d log TVa/dv
Hence either both sides are constant

2
.

or else both expressible in terms of

lamellar also,
of

of v only,

TVv must

v.

If

the

field is

not

then be a function of u as well as

v.

(8)

If

the

field is

lamellar and has a scalar potential

function, that is, a = VP, then since a = q(v)Vv, we must

have P a function of v only, and a = P'Vfl. From this
it

(9) If
is

= P\v)RVVv + P"(v)(TVv)
is uniform, Ta a, Y = a/T\7v, and a
TVv is either constant or a function of
2

follows that diver

the field

lamellar only if
while a is solenoidal only

v only,

2RVW =

if

we have

d(TVv)

/dv.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
(10)

Whatever function u

for the vectors

T?

(11) If the field

is

the u lines are vector lines

is,

f(u)UVv,

87

g(v)U\7v, or

*(, r)tTVf.

solenoidal,

TV a function

of

only,

and the w curves are the lines of the field, then the
takes the form k div ka, whence it has the form

curl

k[b(u)RVVu+
where

may

a function of

b'(u)(TVu)

2
],

be any differentiate function.

the form of the curl is

TV

If

is

also

v,

k[b(u,

v)RVVu +

TV

a function of u only, the divergence takes

(12) If

is

db(u,

v)/du(TVu)

2
].

the form

- Ta[RWv/TVv -

diver
(13)

If

TV

curl
19.

dTVv/dv].

a function of v only

is

= - kTaTVu/TVv-dTVv/du.
When

Continuous Media.

velocity of a continuous

take into account.

If

the field

is

that of the

medium, we have two cases to

the

medium

called a liquid, otherwise a gas.

is

incompressible

Incompressibility

that the density at a point remains invariable, and

is c,

if

this

then from

dc/dt= dc/dt

we

it is

means

RaVc, =

see that the first

dc/dt

RV(ca)

cRV<r

two terms together vanish, giving the

equation of continuity, since they give the rate per square

centimeter at which actual material (density times area,
Hence in this case
since the height is constant) is changing.
dc/dt

cRV<t>

This gives the rate of change of the density at a point

moving with the fluid. Hence if it is incompressible, the
velocity

is

solenoidal,

RV& =

0.

VECTOR CALCULUS

88
This

may

= V?,

and

also be written curl

<j

kvQ,

ka)

which shows that

hence

0,

ka

for every liquid

is a function Q called the function of flow.

When curl { = 0, we have seen that is called lamellar.
It may also be called irrotational, since the curl is twice the

there

angular rate of rotation of the infinitesimal parts of the

medium, about axes perpendicular to the plane, and if

curl {

there

is

no such rotation.

Curl

to density, being a density of rotation

field is a velocity field.

The

circulation of the field

is

But

analogous
vector

fRadp

the integral
This

any path from a point A to a point B.

Xdx + Ydy, and is exact when

dX/dy

is

when the

is

along
the same as

dY/dx.

this gives exactly the condition that the curl should

Hence if the motion is irrotational the circulation

from one point to another is independent of the path. In
this case we may write a =
where P is called the
vanish.

VP

velocity potential.

When a

is

irrotational, the lines of

the lines of P.

If

the motion

is

Q have

as orthogonals

rotational, these orthogonals

are not the lines of such a function as P.

If

the motion

is

RwP

= 0, and P must
we have for a liquid,
be harmonic. Hence if the orthogonal curves of the Q

irrotational,

curves can belong to a harmonic function they can be curves

of a velocity potential.
If a set of curves belong to the

harmonic function
the curl of

u,

JcVu

then
is

RWu =

zero,

0,

and

this

shows that

whence Rdp( k\/u)

is

exact

= dv, where Vv = kVu. From this we have Vm

= kvQ for the condition that the orthogonal curves belong
to a harmonic function.

TS/u
is

This however gives the equation

= TvQ. We may assert then for a liquid that there

always a function of flow, and the curves belonging to

VECTORS IN A PLANE

89

this function are the vector lines of the velocity, the in-

tensity of the velocity being the intensity of the gradient of

If the orthogonal curves belong to
a function which has a gradient of the same intensity, both
functions are harmonic, the function of the orthogonal set

the function of flow.

a velocity potential, and the motion is irrotational.

We have a simple means of discovering the sets of curves
that belong to harmonic functions, as is well known to
is

students of the theory of functions of a complex variable,

since the real and the imaginary part of an analytic function

complex variable are harmonic

of a

ordinates of the variable.

and

The

condition given

Vm =
It

is

/(p)

-\-

vk,

That

then

is

for the variable co-

to say,

u, v are

where

harmonic

by Cauchy amounts

V =

if

yk,

for x, y.

to the equation

a complex number.

clear from this that the field of is both solenoidal and

k\/v, or

lamellar, a necessary

and

is

sufficient condition that

be an

In this case
called a monogenic function of position in the plane.
It
where
is a harmonic function.
clear that =
analytic function of a complex variable.

VH

is
is

In case there are singularities in the field it is necessary

to determine their effect on the integrals.
For instance, if
a field a and select a path in it, from A to B, or a
flux of a through the path is the integral of the
the
loop,
projection of a on the normal of the path, that is, if the path

we have

a curve given by dp, so that the projection is Ra( kdp),

the integral of this is the flux through, the path. It is
written
is

2 =

SI

(- Rakdp)

= -

kfladp.

shows that
In the case of a liquid the condition RV<r =
the expression is integrable over any path from A to B,
with the same value, unless the two paths enclose a singuIn the case of a node, the integral around
larity of the field.
7

VECTOR CALCULUS

90

a loop enclosing the node is called the strength of the source

or sink at the node.
We may imagine a constant supply
of the liquid to enter the plane or to leave

it

at the node,

and be moving along the lines of the field. Such a system

was called by Clifford a squirt
If the circulation is taken around a singular point it
will usually have a different value for every turn around the
These peculiarities
point, giving a polydromic function.
must be studied carefully in each case.
EXERCISES
From

1.

= Ap n we find in polar
u = Ar n cos nd,

These functions are harmonic and

if

we

set a

= Vwora =

V#, we

coordinates that
v

= Ar n

sin nd.

Hence

their curves orthogonal.

shall

have as the vector

lines of

<r

the v

What are the curves for the cases n = 3,

1, 1, 2, 3? What are the singularities?
Study = A log p, and = A log (p a)/(p + a).
Consider the function given implicitly by p = + e*. This

curves or the u curves.

2,

2.
3.

represents the flow of a liquid into or out of a narrow channel, in the

sense that it gives the lines of flow when it is not rotational.
4. Show that a = A/p gives a radial irrotational flow, while a = Ak/p
gives a circular irrotational flow.

What

true of a

is

= Akpl The

last is Clifford's Whirl.

5.

Study a flow from a source at a given point

of constant strength

to a sink at another point, of the same strength as the source.

6. If the lines are concentric circles, and the angular velocity of any
particle about the center is proportional to the n-th power of the radius
of the

path of the point, show that the curl

is \

{n

+ 2) times the angular

velocity.
7. A point in a gas is surrounded by a small loop.
Show that the
average tangential velocity on the loop has a ratio to the average
normal velocity which is the ratio of the tensor of the curl to the

divergence.
8. What is the velocity when there is a source at a fixed origin, and
the divergence varies inversely as the w-th power of the distance from
the origin. [The velocity potential is A log r B{n 2)~2r2-n .]
9.

Consider the

field of

two sources

of equal strength.

for irrotational motion, cassinian ovals, where,

if r, r'

The

lines are

are the distances

VECTORS IN A PLANE
from the two sources
is

such that

T<r

and

(foci)

= ATp/h

rr'

h2

Q = A

91

+ B, the velocity

log h

way between

the origin being half

the foci;

the orthogonal curves are given by u = iA[ir/2 (0

di)] where 0,
0i are the angles between the axis and the radii from the foci, that is
they are equilateral hyperbolas through the foci. The circulation

about one focus

about both 2irA.

is ttA,

10. If the lines are confocal ellipses given

+ i/VG*

z 2 /m
then

from

Q = A

by

c2)

1,

B. If p is the perpendicular
c ))
V (m
log ( \V
the center upon the tangent of the ellipse at any point, then the

velocity at the
the direction of

<r

is

v is

sin -1

B' V

v\c.

T<r

= Ap/ y/ [/*(/*

c 2 )],

and

The

the unit normal.

potential function is
What happens at the foci?

the semi-major axis.

lines are the

stream

11. If the

such that

is

point

hyperbolas of the preceding, then

= 2 A V (*7(m v)) times the unit normal of the hyperbola. On the

line p = yka there is no velocity, at the foci the velocity is oo half way
a

between

The

it is 0.

along the major axis outside the foci act

lines

like walls.

12. If we write for brevity u for T\7u, and vi for T\7v, show that
we have whether the u curves are orthogonal to the v curves or not,
x

VV

2 2
2
Ui d jdu

Vi

d 2 ldv 2

VVud/du

VVvd/dv

+ 2RVuVvd /dudv.
2

the sets of curves are orthogonal the last term vanishes; if u and v
and fourth terms drop out; if both cases happen,
only the first two terms are left.
13. In case of polar coordinates, Vr = Up, V0 = r" 2 A;p and

If

are harmonic the third

VV
14.
is

d 2 /dr2

+ r~ dldr + r _2 d /d0
l

The

a source.

flVo-

pf{r),

and
f(r)

To determine

RV

= Ajr2

eir)

+ r~

2/(r)

fre{r)dr.

log

co-

= -

e(r)

f(r)Rp\/ log c

Show

and Rdpkca

The

curl

only.

is

rf(r)d log c/dr.

may find an integrating

= Rsjca = curl -fcco-,

exact.]

fluid is in
is

+ rf'{r),

c,

that in the steady flow of a gas we

=
factor for Rdpka by using the density,
[dc/dt
16.

in a plane in lines radiating from the origin, which

divergence is a function of r only, the distance from

Find the velocity and the density at any point.

the center.

15.

gas moves

known

steady motion, the lines being concentric circles.

and the tensor of a is a function of r

at each point

Find the velocity and the divergence.

VECTOR CALCULUS

92
17.

Rotational motion, that

is

field

which

is

not lamellar,

is

also

The

points at which the curl does not vanish

be distributed in a continuous or a discontinuous manner. In

called vortical motion.

may

may be only a
have the following:

fact there

<r

finite

number

of

them, called vortices.

= k\7Q,
VVQ = T curl a =
Q = 7r _1 //' log rdx'dy' + Q

We

2,
,

' denotes co at the variable point of the integration, r is the

variable distance from the point at which the velocity is wanted, and Q
is any solution of Laplace's equation which satisfies the boundary

where

conditions.
If

the mass

is

unlimited and

is

kfwfftt'ifi

stationary at infinity

P ')/T(p

single vortex filament at p of strength

we have

py-dx'dy'.

would give the velocity

=U2T.(p-p')IT(p-p')\

If we multiply the velocity at each point p at which there is a vortex by

the strength, and integrate over the whole field, we find the sum is zero.
There is then a center of vortices where the velocity is zero, something

a center of gravity. Instances are

A single vortex of strength I. The vortex point will remain at
rest, and points distant from it r will move on concentric circles with
like

(1)

the vortex as center, and velocity l/2wr. The circulation of any loop
surrounding the vortex is of course the strength.
They will rotate about the
(2) Two vortices of strengths k, U.
center of gravity of two weighted points at the fixed distance
apart a, the weights being the two strengths. The angular velocity of
each is

common

27ra2

The stream lines of the field are given by fxhf% h = const. When
k = {, the center is at infinity, and the vortices remain a fixed distance apart, moving parallel to the perpendicular bisector of this segment
Such a combination is called a vortex pair. The stream
joining them.

accompanying velocity are coaxal circles referred to the

moving points as limit points. The plane of symmetry may be taken
as a boundary since it is one of the stream lines, giving the motion of a
single vortex in a field bounded by a plane, the linear velocity of the
vortex being parallel to the wall and \ of the velocity of the liquid along
the wall. The figure suggests the method of images which can indeed
be applied. For further problems of the same character works on
lines of the

Hydrodynamics should be consulted.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
Liquid flows over an

18.

infinite

93

plane towards a circular spot where

leaks out at the rate of 2 cc. per second for each cm. 2 area of the leaky
The liquid has a uniform depth of 10 cm. over the entire
portion.
it

plane field. Find formulas for the velocity of the liquid inside the
region of the leaky spot, and the region outside, and show that there is

a potential in both regions.

a = iVp in spot, 40/p outside,

P = ^pp in spot, 40 log Tp 20 log

400 outside.
Find the flux through a plane area 20 cm. long and 10 cm. high, whose
middle line is 5 cm. from the center of the leaky spot, also when it is
30 cm. from the leaky spot. Find the divergence in the two regions.
Franklin, Electric Waves, pp. 307-8.

Show

that in an irrotational motion with sources and sinks, the

lines of flow are the orthogonal curves of the stream lines of a correspond19.

ing field in which the sources and the sinks are replaced by vortices of
strengths the same as that of the sources and sinks, and inversely.

Stream
sinks

lines

Q =

and

levels

1/2tt-ZZi0i,

change place as to their

1/2* -Z log rx h.

roles.

For sources and

P =

In the expression a = VkQwe

express (rasa vector derived by the operation of
upon
JcQ, the latter being a complex number. In such a case
20. Vector Potential.

we may extend our terminology and

potential of a.

vector

one vector potential.

potential
of

<t

it is

vanish.

JcQ

the vector

be derived from more than

necessary and sufficient that the divergence

Hence any liquid flow can have a vector

which

by

It is clear that

k.

In order that there be a vector

potential,

may

call

is

indeed the current function multiplied

Q must be harmonic.

CHAPTER

VI

VECTORS IN SPACE

We have seen that in a plane the figure

two directed segments from a vertex enables
us to define the ratio of the two vectors which constitute
the sides when the figure is in some definite position. This
Biradials.

1.

made up

ratio

of

common

the figures produced by rotating the

figure about a normal of the plane through its vertex, and
is

translating

it

to

all

anywhere

in the plane.

We may

also reduce

the sides proportionately and still have the same ratio.

The ratio is a complex number or, as we will say in general,
a hypernumber.
If now we consider vectors in space of three dimensions,
we may define in precisely the same manner a set of hypernumbers which are the ratios of the figures we can produce

in

an analogous manner.

biradials.

number.

To each

Such

figures

will

be called

biradial there will correspond a hyper-

Besides the translation and the rotation in the

plane of the

two

sides of the biradial,

we

shall also

permit

the figure to be transferred to any parallel plane. This

amounts to saying that we may choose a fixed origin, and

whatever vectors we consider

in space,

we may draw from

the origin two vectors parallel and equal to the two considered, thus forming a biradial with the origin as vertex.

Then any such

biradial will determine a single hyperFurther the hypernumbers which belong to the
biradials which can be produced from the given biradial
by rotating it in its plane about the vertex will be con-

number.

sidered as equal.
94

VECTORS IN SPACE

95

The hypern umbers thus defined are extensions of those

we have been using in the preceding chapter, the new
feature being the different hypernumbers k which we now
need, one new k in fact for each different plane through the
given vertex.

hypernumbers

This gives us then a double infinity of

complex type, r-cks 6, where the

of the

double infinity of
2.

the new elements.

The hypernumbers we have thus

k's constitute

Quaternions.

fined metrico-geometrically involve four essential

eters

in

whatever way

they are

de-

param-

expressed, since

the

two and the plane in which they lie two

Hence they were named by Hamilton Quaternions.

biradials involve

more.

In order to arrive at a fuller understanding of their propand relations, we will study the geometric properties

erties

of biradials.
if we consider any given biradial, there
quaternion, just as for the complex number
in the preceding chapter, two parts, a real part and an

In the

is

first

involved in

place

its

imaginary part, and we can write the quaternion in the

form
q

cos 6

r sin 6 -a,

where a corresponds to what was written k in the preceding

chapter, and is a hypernumber determined solely by the
plane of the biradial. On account of this we may properly
represent a by a unit normal to the plane of the biradial,
so taken that if the angle of the biradial is considered to be
positive, the direction of the normal is such that a righthanded screw motion turning the initial vector of the
biradial into the terminal vector in direction would involve an advance along the normal in the direction in
which it points. It is to be understood very clearly that

the unit vector

entities,

a and the hypernumber a

are distinct

one merely representing the other.

The

real

VECTOR CALCULUS

96
part of q

is

called, according to

scalar part of

q,

on account

called,

Hamilton's terminology, the

The imaginary part is

a as a vector,
The unit a is called the
The angle of q is and

and written Sq.

of the representation of

the vector part of q and written Vq.

unit vector of q and written UVq.
written

The number

Zq.

which

lengths of the sides of the biradial

and written
is

Tq.

The

called the versor of

is

is

expression cos 6
and written Z7^.

q,

the ratio of the

called the tensor of

sin 6 -a

q,

cas-d

= 0 or 180, Fg is a
a quaternion for which
quaternion for which = 90 or 270.
Tq is a quaternion
Sq

is

of 0, being

always positive,

and sometimes
3.

Sum

is

a quaternion of

90,

called a right versor.

of Quaternions.

In order to define the

sum

of

two quaternions we define the sum of two biradials first.

This is accomplished by rotating the two biradials in their
planes until their initial lines coincide, and then diminishing
or magnifying the sides of one until the initial vectors are

exactly equal and coincide. This is always possible. We

then define as the sum of the two biradials, the biradial

whose

vector

initial

terminal vector

is

is

common vector of the

vector sum of the two

the

the

two, and
terminal

The sum

of the corresponding quaternions is

then the quaternion of the biradial sum. Since vector

vectors.

addition is commutative, the addition of quaternions

commutative.

now

is

and vector parts of the quaterthat

nions,
they can be added separately, the
prove
scalar parts like any numbers and the vector parts like
Passing

we

to the scalar

will

vectors.

In the figure

OC/OA, and
Tq- sin

of q

Zq-UVq

let

the biradial of q be OB/OA, of r be

be OD/OA. Let the vector part of q,

be laid

off as

a vector

Vq perpendicular

VECTORS IN SPACE
to the plane of the biradial of

q,

Then we

show that V(q

are to

97

and
r)

similarly for Vr.

= Vq +

Vr

in the

representation and that this represents the vector part of

It is evident that
r according to the definition.
q

OB = OB'

B'B, the

first

OA, the second

vector along

OC = OC"

C"& C'C,
perpendicular
the first part along OA, the second parallel to B'B, and the
The sum
third perpendicular to the plane of OAB.
to

OB

OA.

Also

OC = OD, where OD = OB" + D"D' + D'Z), and

- 05' + 00", D"' = B'B + C (7 D'D = C'C.

0Z>"

,,

Hence the
scalar part

sum

biradial

the ratio of

is

sum is OD/OA, where

OD" to OA. This is clearly

of the

of the scalar parts of q

S( q

f)

and

r,

the
the

and

= Sq+

Sr.

The

vector part of the quaternion for OD/OA is the ratio

to OA in magnitude, and the unit part is represented by a unit normal perpendicular to OD" and D"D.
of

D"D

= B'B

But D"D
the

sum

of

C'C, and the ratio of D"D to OA equals

the ratios of B'B and C'C to OA. If then we

which is perpendicular to OA,

draw, in a plane through
the vector Vq along the representative unit normal of the
plane OAB, and of a length to represent the numerical
ratio of

of

C'C

B'B
to

to

OA

OA, and

likewise

Vr to represent the

laid off along the representative unit

ratio

normal

VECTOR CALCULUS

98

OAC, because D"D is parallel

B'B and C"C, the representative

to the plane

to this plane,

as well as

unit vector of

q+

r will lie in

sum

of

Vq

the plane, and will be in length the vector

and Vr, that is V(q
r) as shown.

It follows at
tive,

once since the addition of scalars

and the addition

of vectors

is

associative,

is

associa-

and the two

parts of a quaternion have no necessary precedence, that

the addition of quaternions is associative.
4.

Product of Quaternions.

quaternions we
case however we

likewise

To

utilize

define the product of

the

biradials.

In this

bring the initial vector of the multiplier

to coincide with the terminal line of the multiplicand, and
define the product biradial as the biradial whose initial

vector

is

vector of the multiplicand, and the

the terminal vector of the multiplier.

figure, the

product of the biradials OB/OA, and

is

the

initial

terminal vector

In the

Fig. 13.

OC/OB,

is,

writing the multiplier

first,

OC/OB- OB/OA = OC/OA.

It

is

clear that the tensor of the product

is

the product of

the tensors, so that

T-qr=

TqTr.

UqUr.

It follows that

U-qr

evident from the figure that the angle of the product

will be the face angle of the trihedral, AOC, or on a unit
It is

sphere would be represented by the side of the spherical

VECTORS IN SPACE

99

It is clear too that the reversal of

triangle corresponding.
the order of the multiplication will change the plane of
the product biradial, usually, and therefore will give a

quaternion with a different unit vector, though all the other

numbers dependent upon the product will remain the same.

However we can prove that

multiplication of quaternions
In this proof we may leave out the tensors
and handle only the versors. The proof is due to Hamilton.
is

associative.

To

represent the biradials, since the vectors are all taken

as unit vectors, we draw only an arc on the unit sphere,
of the two ends of the two unit
Thus we represent the biradial

from one point to the other,

vectors of the biradial.
of q

by CA,

or, since

the biradial

may

be rotated in

its

plane about the vertex, equally by ED. The others involved are shown. The product qr is represented by FD,
from the definition, or equally by LM. What we have
that the product p qr is the same as the product
are
and
pq-r, that is, we must prove that the arcs
on the same great circle and of equal length and direction.

to prove

is

KG

LN

Fig. 14.

Since

FE = KH, ED -

CA,

HG =

CB,

LM =

FD, the

are on a spherical conic, whose cyclic

points L, C, G,
planes are those of AB, FE, and hence
passes through
an arc equal to AB.
L, and with
intercepts on

LM

That

is, it

passes through N,

KG
AB
or KG and LN are arcs of the

VECTOR CALCULUS

100

same great

and they are equal,

circle,

for

G and L are

points

in the spherical conic.

Trirectangular Biradials. A particular pair of biradials which lead to an interesting product is a pair of which
5.

the vectors of each biradial are perpendicular unit vectors,

and the initial vector of one is the terminal of the other,
for in

such case, the product

a biradial of the same kind.

is

In fact the three lines of the three biradials form a

trihedral.

rectangular

tri-

the quaternions of the three

If

Fig. 15.

are

then we see easily that the quaternion of the

k,

i, j,

is represented completely by the unit vector

marked i, the quaternion of OA/OC by j, and of OB/OA by
k.
The products are very interesting, for we have

biradial

OC/OB

ij

and

if

we

k,

jk

hi

i,

j,

place the equal biradials in the figure

ji

k,

kj

i,

ik

we

also

have

j.

Furthermore, we also can see easily that, utilizing the

common

notation of powers,
V-

Since

= -

1,

?- -

1,

V-

1.

evidently possible to resolve the vector part of

any quaternion, when it is laid off on the unit vector of its
plane as a length, into three components along the direcit is

tions of

i, j,

k,

and

since the

sum

of the vector parts of

VECTORS IN SPACE

10]

quaternions has been shown to be the vector part of the

sum, it follows that any quaternion can be resolved into
the parts
q

= w

-\-

xi

-\-

yj

-\-

zk.

These hypernumbers can easily be made the base of the

whole system of quaternions, and it is one of the many
methods of deriving them. Hamilton started from these.

The account
friend,

of his invention

is

contained in a letter to a

which should be consulted.

(Philosophical

Maga-

zine, 1844, vol. 104, ser. 3, vol. 25, p. 489.)

6.

Product of Vectors.

It

becomes evident at once

if

we

consider the product of two vector parts of quaternions,

or two quaternions whose scalar parts are zero, that we

consider this product, a quaternion, as the product of

the vector lines which represent the vector parts of the

may

quaternion factors. From this point of view we ignore

the biradials completely, and look upon every geometric
vector as the representative of the vector part of a set of
quaternions with different scalars, among which one has
zero scalar. From the biradial definition we have

VqVr= S-VqVr+ V-VqVr

equal to the quaternion whose biradial consists of two
vectors in the same plane as the vector normals of the

Fig. 16.

VECTOR CALCULUS

102

Vr and perpendicular to them respectively.

the biradial of Vr is OAB, and of Vq is OBC,

biradials of Vq,

In the figure

and of VqVr is OAC. If then we represent the vectors by

Greek letters whether meant to be considered as lines or

= Vr, then the quaternion

Vq, /3
which is the product of a(3 has for its angle the angle between /3 and a
180, and for its normal the direction OB.
as vector quaternions,

we take UVa(3

If

OB, and

in the opposite direction to

of

unit length, so as to be a positive normal for the biradial

/3

then we

in that order,

from a to

a(3

We

shall have, letting 6 be the angle

/3,

TaTj3(- cos

sin 0).

UVafi

can write at once then the fundamental formulae

= -

S-a&

TaTfi cos

6,

= TaTp-sm 6- UVaP.

V-a$

From this form it is clear also that any quaternion can

be expressed as the product of two vectors, the angle of
the two being the supplement of that of the quaternion,
the product of their lengths being the tensor of the quaternion,

and

their plane having the unit vector of the quater-

nion as positive normal.

If now we consider the two vectors
in the

a
where

a and

to be resolved

forms
ai-\- bj

ck,

li

(3

+ nk,

mj

k have the significance of three mutually trirectangular unit vectors, as above, then since Ta Tfi cos 6
= al-\- bm-\- en, and since the vector Ta T(3 sin 6 UVa(3
i, j,

is

(bn

cm)i

(cl

an)j

(am

bl)k,

we have
a/3

(al

bm

+ en) +

(bn

cm)i
(cl

ari)j

-\-

(am

bl)k.

VECTORS IN SPACE

But

if

we multiply out the two

103

expressions for

a and

distributively, the nine terms reduce to precisely these.

Hence we have shown that the multiplication of vectors,

and therefore of quaternions in general, is distributive when
they are expressed in terms of these trirectangular systems.
It is easy to see however that this leads at once to the
general distributivity of

Laws

7.

all

multiplications of sums.

of Quaternions.

We

see then that the addition

and multiplication of quaternions is associative, that

addition is commutative, and that multiplication is distributive over addition.
Multiplication is usually not

We have yet to define division, but if

consider a biradial as not being geometric but as

commutative.

we now

being a quaternion quotient of two vectors,

P/a

differs

and

from

a(3 only in

having

its

we

find that

scalar of opposite

T(3/Ta instead of TaTfi.

It is to be noticed that while we arrived at the hypernumbers called quaternions by the use of biradials, they
sign,

its

tensor

is

could have been found some other way, and in fact were so
first

found by Hamilton, whose original papers should be

Further the use of vectors as certain kinds of

consulted.

quaternions is exactly analogous, or may be considered to

be an extension of, the method of using complex numbers

In the plane the vectors

some unit vector chosen for all the plane,

instead of vectors in a plane.

are the product of

by the complex number.

of a unit vector (which

In space a vector

is

the product
in the

would have to be drawn

fourth dimension to be a complete extension of the plane)

by the hypernumber we call a vector. However, the use of
the unit in the plane was seldom required, and likewise in
space we need never refer to the unit 1, from which t^e
vectors of space are derived.
On the other hand, just as
in the

plane

all

complex numbers can be found as the ratios

VECTOR CALCULUS

104

of vectors in the plane in

an

infinity of

ways, so

all

quaternions can be found as the ratios of vectors in space. All

vectors are thus as quaternions the ratios of perpendicular
vectors in space.

And

multiplication

quaternions and not as geometric

is

always of vectors as
In the common

entities.

vector systems other than Quaternions, the scalar part of

the quaternion product, usually with the opposite sign,
and the vector part of the quaternion product, are looked
upon as products formed directly from geometric con-

In such case the vector product is usually

defined to be a vector in the geometric sense, perpendicular
Therefore it is a function of
to the two given vectors.
siderations.

the two vectors and

is

not a number or hypernumber at

In these systems, the scalar is a common number, and

of course the sum of a number and a geometric vector
all.

is

an impossibility.

logical

ground

It

seems clear that the only defensible

for these different investigations

is

that of

the hypernumber.
It is to be noticed too that Quaternions is peculiarly
applicable to space of three dimensions, because of the
duality existing between planes and their normals. In a
space of four dimensions, for instance, a plane, that is a

dependent upon two parameters, has a

two dimensions as normal. Hence, corresponding to a biradial we should not have a vector. To
reach the extension of quaternions it would be necessary
to define triradials, and the hypernumbers corresponding
to them.
Quaternions however can be applied to four
dimensional space in a different manner, and leads to a

linear extension

similar figure of

very simple geometric algebra for four-dimensional space.

of quaternions however are in that case not

The products

sufficient to express all the necessary geometrical entities,

and recourse must be had

to other functions of quaternions.

VECTORS IN SPACE

105

In three-dimensional space, however, all the necessary expressions that arise in geometry or physics are easily

And

quaternions has the great advantage over

other systems that it is associative, and that division is
one of its processes. In fact it is the most complex system
found.

of

numbers

conclusion

P=

0,

Formulae.

8.

the product

Q =

or

It is clear that

we

if

reverse the order of

ce/3

Soft

Vafi.

called the conjugate of the quaternion a(3,

is

the

0.*

we have
0a

This

PQ =

which we always have from

in

We

written K-a(3.

and

see that

VKq = - Vq = KVq.

SKq = Sq= KSq,

Further, since

qr

SqSr

SqVr

SrVq

VqVr,

we have

K-qr=
From

this

SqSr

SqVr

important formula

VrVq = KrKq.

SrVq

many

others flow.

We

at once

K-qi-

And

-q n

= Kq n

>

>Kqi.

for vectors

Koli-

-0L n

n
{) a n

!.

Since

Sq

we have

= i(q+Kq),

therefore

S-OLl"
S-ai-

V'CXiF'Qfi*

Vq=\{q-Kq),

'Qt2n

-C^n-l
'

'OL 2n

a n-l
2

=
=
=
=

i(<*l"

i(tti*

!(!
%(<Xi'

-2n

+ 2n

'tt2n~l

,Q; 2n

'

-OL2n-\

Consult Dickson: Linear Algebras,

'

'Oil),

2n-l'

2n

'

"

'Oil),

't),

+ 2n-l

p. 11.

'

-l).

have

VECTOR CALCULUS

106

In particular

=
=
2Vap
2Sa$

It

aft

+ Pa,

2SaPy

a/3

- fa

2Va(3y

=
=

afiy

a(3y

y(3a,

y(3a.

should be noted that these formulae show us that both

the scalar and the vector parts of the product can themselves always be reduced to combinations of products.

This

is

simply a statement again of the fact that in

we have'only'one kind of multiplication, which

quaternions
is

and associative.
from the expanded form above for S

distributive

We

see

S-qr

qr that

S-rq.

Hence, in any scalar part of a product, the factors

permuted cyclically. For instance,
S-afi

S-(3a,

S-a(3y5

From

S-a(3y = S-Pya =
= SPyfa

may

be

S-yaQ,

the form of

Sq=Uq+Kq),

Sq

= SKq;

hence we have

= - Syfa
Sa(3y8 = S8y(3a,
From the form of VKq = Vq we see that
- V@a,
Vafi =
Vafiy = VyPa,
Vapyh m
Vdypa,
Vapyhe = VebyPa-

Sa(3

S@a,

Safiy

etc.

We

do not have a simple relation between V-qr and

V-rq, but we have the fact that they are respectively the
sum and the difference of two vectors, namely,

a SqVr
a, and

If

to

-+-

Vqr

SrVq, P

= a

= VVqVr, then

+ P,

Vrq

ft

= a

is

(3.

perpendicular

= w+

VECTOR CALCULUS

108

We

Rotations.

9.

have

for the

see

from the adjacent

figure that

we

product
1

qrq-

a quaternion of tensor and angle the same as that of r.

But the plane of the product is produced by rotating the
plane of

about the axis of

In case

angle of

q.

a vector

fi

which

r is

through an angle double the

/3 we have as the product

a vector

to be found

is

about the axis

conically the

by rotating

(3
through double the angle of q.
-1
l
It is obvious that operators* of the type qQq~
r()r ,

vector

of q

which are called rotators, follow the same laws

tion

as

quaternions,

gaussian

operator

and

multiplier,

mutations

we

is

see that

of after

The

is

since

_1 -1
g(r()r )<7

of multiplical

qrQ[qr]~

a rotator multiplied by a numerical

The sum of two
called a mutation.

is

As a simple case of rotator

a we have as the result
to
reduces
a
vector
q
the vector which is the reflection of /3 in a.

not a mutation.

if
/3'

reflection of

/3

in the plane

normal to a

a$or

is

evidently

l
.

EXAMPLES
(1) Successive reflection in two plane mirrors
*

QOq' represents a positive orthogonal substitution.

is

equivalent

VECTORS IN SPACE

109

to a rotation about their line of intersection of double their

angle.
(2)

Successive reflection in a series of mirrors

all

per-

number, making
pendicular to a common plane, 2h
angles in succession (exterior) of <pu, (P23, <&* is equivalent
to a rotation about the normal to the given plane to which
in

all

are orthogonal, through an angle 6

(pu +

which

<P2h-i,2h)

2h

ir

independent of

is

2(<p 12

the

alternate angles.
(3)

Study the case

of successive reflections in mirrors in

space at any angles.

found in nature and possible

under the laws that are found to be true of crystals, are
solids such that every face may be produced from a single
(4)

The types

of crystals

far as the angles are concerned,

given face, so

following op9rations
I, the reversal of a vector, in quaternion

by the

form
A, rotation about an axis

L4, rotatory inversion about

S, reflection in a plane

The 32 types

normal to

of crystals are

an ()oT n
a n ()a~u

/5

-1
jSO/S

/?()/?.

then generated by the succes-

sive combinations of these operations as follows:

Triclinic

Ci

d
Monoclinic

Cs

d
C h
Orthorhombic C 2v
2

D
Du
2

Asymmetric

1.

Centre-symmetric

1,-1.

Equatorial

1,

0Q0.

Digonal polar
Digonal equatorial
Didigonal polar
Digonal holoaxial
Didigonal equatorial ....

1,

a()a

1, a()a;
1,

-1 .

-1

a()a~

a()a.

0Q0, Sap

1,

SaP = 0,
A = a l 2 0a'

Tetragonal

d
Du

0.

a()a-\ fiQfi' Sap = 0.

-1
a()a
POP' 1 (),
1

1,

A.
Tetragonal alternating .1,
A, P{)P~ X
Ditetragonal alternating. 1,
1, A.
Tetragonal polar
.

1'2
.

VECTOR CALCULUS

110

Ctk Tetragonal equatorial.

C4* Ditetragonal polar

A, aQa.
A, /3()/3.
D4 Tetragonal holoaxial .... 1, A, 0Q0~K
_1
Dak Dietragonal equatorial
1, A, aQa, /3()/3
Rhombohedral C 8 Trigonal polar
B
where
a 2l3 0<*~il3
is
l,B,
B.
Czi Hexagonal alternating
.1, B,
.

.1,
1,

'

Ctv Ditrigonal polar

holoaxial

B, pQ0.
B, 0Q0T+.
l
B, j8()/8~

1,

D, Trigonal

1,

Did Dihexagonal alternating

1,

7O7,

bisects Z/3, B0.

Hexagonal

Czh Trigonal equatorial

Dzh Ditrigonal equatorial

Hexagonal polar
dh Hexagonal equatorial
Civ Dihexagonal polar

1,5, aQa.
B, aQa,
1, C, where

.1,

1,

1,

C,

holoaxial ....

Dan Dihexagonal equatorial.

Regular

Tesseral polar

Th

Tesseral central

1,

.1,

..1,

aQa.

C, /3()yS, where Sap = 0,

bisects angle of 7 and

Cy,

Di Hexagonal

_1
jS()/3

C = a 1/3 ()~ 1/3

C,

Say =

/3()/S

0.

_1 .

C, a()a, pQ(3~

l
.

aQa'
PQP~X Safi
= Spy = Sya = 0, L
L = (a + fj
where
+ 7)0(+/3 + 7 )-1
aQa~\ 0Q/T1 7O7" 1
1

1,

L, aQa.

Td

Ditesseral polar

1,

aQa'
L, (a

Tesseral holoaxial

1,

central

1,

0Q0-\ 7O7"

+ fi)Q(a +

aQa-\ 0Q0~l
L, (a

Oh Ditesseral

yQy~l

+ p)Q(a + P)~K

aQa~\ $00-*, yQy'1

t,t

/3).

+ 0)Q(a+0?

aQa.

The student should work out

in each case the fuJl set of

operators and locate vectors to equivalent points in the

various faces.
Ref.

Hilton,

Mathematical Crystallography, Chap. IV-

VIII.
(5)

Spherical Astronomy.

We

have the following nota-

tion:

is

is

a unit vector along the polar axis of the earth,

the hour-angle of the meridian,

VECTORS IN SPACE

L=

=
=
=

+ X sin

cos h/2

111

h/2,

unit vector to zenith,

unit vector to south,

unit vector to east, X

sin

j cos

where

/,

is

latitude,

li

unit vector to intersection of equator

\x

=
5 =
z =
A =
d

cos

becomes

h, 8

vertical plane
JSJ8'

through

rising or setting z

circle is

and meridian,

Sk/j,

0,

sin

jjl

cos d,

altitude.

The prime

SkX

azimuth,

iVi8'

=
h =
L =
La =
e =
X =
s =
b =
M=

unit vector to star on the meridian

The

aSX/x

I,

declination of star,

At the hour-angle

At

j sin

I -\-

8'

= L~ 8L.
l

cuts the horizon in

tan

kSk8',

Sk8'/Sj8'.

found from the condition

is

vertical circle

through X and

is

through

and

Sid'

0.

The 6-hour

k.

V\ji.

right ascension angle,

sidereal time in degrees,
t

a,

cos t/2
cos a/2

+ X sin
+ X sin a/2,
t/2,

pole of ecliptic,
first

point of aries

vernal equinox

= Lr ^L
l

t}

longitude,
latitude,

cos s/2

Problems.

sin s/2.

Given

/,

d, find
Sfx8'

and

d, find

h and

/,

d, find

A.

d,

circle.

on horizon.

A, find h and

cos

on 6-hour

0.

/,

I,

A+

cos s

z,

8'

= L~ 8L =

k sin

2.

VECTOR CALCULUS

112

/,

d, h, find

a and

The laws of refraction of

medium of index n'

(G)

index n into a

nVvct

where

v,

and z.
and b.

d, find s

light

from a medium of

are given by the equation

n'Vva!

are unit vectors along the

a, a'

normal, the

incident, and the refracted ray.

The student should show that

Investigate two successive refractions, particularly back

into the first
(7) It is

nions,

/3

= V

if

and

VqVr, we may

are

any two quater-

write

For any two quaternions

(8)

qiq'

and

medium.

easy to show that

r_1

=b

(r

and

q)f\

r(r

q)~

q.

given quaternions we can find a quaternion q that will give three vectors when multiplied by a, b,
That is, we can find q, a, ft y such that
c resp.
(9)

If a, b, c are

aq

We

have

a,

a V

bq

eg

ft

Vc/aVa/b,

etc., or

(10) In a letter of Tait to Cayley,

(q+ r)()(g+

r)"

(qlr)

7.

(R. Russell.)

multiples of these.

he gives the following:

rQf-i( q /r)-*

qiq-iryQiq-^-vq-

(Vq+ Vr)()(Vq+

Fr)"

= qh^Qq-^q-

fa/rWJf^fo/r)-

/*,

VECTORS IN SPACE

where tan xA

+
2c

cos

2la

a sin A/ (a cos
= 2 (a cos
ra/3

cos

A+

113
1), c sin

& cos

/S)

ra/3

sin

|8),

(6

2a sin a/ (6 sin /3).

formulae.
these
Interpret
We
10. Products of Several Quaternions.
sin 2/a cos ra/3

will

develop

from the preceding.

we multiply a(3-(3a we have

some
If

2la sin

useful formulae

- S a(3 - V a(3.
2

a2(32
Since

Sax

&*/3t

0, if

a scalar,

is

Sa(3y8

SaVfry,

etc.

SaVfiyb,

Since

2Va(3
ffiaV(3y

af3y

a(3

ay (3

= a(3 + 0ce,
= 2(7/3o
7/fa

2Sa(3

(3a,

(3ya

2(y(3a

7/3

ay{3

07/?)

yap).

For
2<S/?7

/57a:

7/fo

2aSj3y

0:187

0:7/?,

whence
0:187

$70

Yj8o

07/?.

Therefore

VaV(3y
Adding to each

ySa(3

(3Say.

we have

side ccSfiy,

Va(3y

aS(3y

(3Sya

ySa(3.

Since
]S

which resolves

along and perpendicular to a,

(3

Sqrq

Vqrq-

That

= h^q~ -

is, if

we

= a^SaP + a~Wa$,

crtaft

-1

Sr

qSrq

Kq~ KrKq)

rotate the

-1

iC^a

field,

-1

qKrq~

qVr-q~

Sr and TTr are invariant.

l
.

VECTOR CALCULUS

114

Vapy = VafiyaoT = aV(3ya-oT

in a plane with a and make equal
1

Hence

and

Vafty,

angles with a.
For instance if a, /?, y, Vafly, Vfiya, Vyafi intersect a
sphere, then a, /?, y bisect the sides of the triangle Vafiy,
Vfiya. are

Vpya, Vya(3, a being opposite to Vya(3, etc. Evidently if

i, (X2- -a n are n radii of a sphere forming a polygon, then
-a n
they bisect the sides of the polygon, given by Vaia 2

F23-

'<x n

Vets-

-a n aia2,

-Va n (xi-

This ex-

-a n-i.

plains the geometrical significance of these vectors.

In

a and quaternion q, the vector a bisects

the angle between Vqa and Vaq, that is to say we construct
Vqa from the vector Vaq by reflecting it in a. The same
any vector

fact for

true for

is

a(3y8e

any product, thus

(3yde

only in the fact that

vol

its axis is

is

different

from

the reflection in

of the axis of the latter.

<M3
its

'

'

'

from

Qnqi differs

qiq 2

q n only in the fact that

axis has been rotated negatively about the axis of q\

through double the angle of

-q n qi

?2?3-

If

qi.

q~Kqiq2-

we apply the formula

V(Vafi)Vy8

Indeed

for

V(Vy8)Va(3 we

-qn)q\.

VaVfiy to
arrive at a most imexpanding

portant identity:

V-VapVy8 = 8Sa$y
From

this equality

8Sapy

we

ySa$8
V-VydVafi

= -

see that for

aSfiyd

aS(3y8

/3Say8.

any four vectors

+ @Sya8 +

ySaj38.

This formula enables us to expand any vector in terms of

any three non-coplanar vectors. Again

5Sapy - VpySad = V-aV(V(3y)8

= - V-aV8V$y =

Fa(3Sy8

VayS(38.

VECTORS IN SPACE

We

115

have thus another important formula

SSofiy

Va(3Sy5

VfiySaB

VyaS08,

enabling us to expand any vector in terms of the three

normals to the three planes determined by a set of three
Since
vectors, that is, in terms of its normal projections.

aSPyS

= VpySad

VytSefi

VbfiSay

(3Syda

= Vay S{38

VySSofi

VdaSPy,

and

we have

VVapVyd = VabSPy
From

we have

this

Vctfyd

Va(3Sy8

VPySad

at once

VayS(38

an expansion

VpbSay.

for Vafiyh,

VaySpb + VabSPy
+ SapVyb - SayVpb

namely

SabVpy.

Also easily

= SaPSyd - SaySpd + SabSpy.

SVapVyb = SadSPy - SaySpb.
V-ap-Sybe = yS-VapVbe - bS-VapVye + eS- VapVyb
Sapyd

y
Say
SPy

Sab
SPB

Sae
Spe

In the figure the various points lie on a sphere of radius I.

vectors from the center will be designated by the
corresponding Greek letters. The points X, Y, Z are the

The

midpoints of the sides of the

is evident that

H =

yli

(7/ 1/2

A ABC.
v/y

From

- h m

the figure

(a/7) *,

Whence
7

= sar1

- nrr\

^r

1
,

it

VECTOR CALCULUS

116

Fig. 18.

where

= it !,
1

v
and the

axis of

is

a.

Also p%p~ l

^iT

^ -1 so that
XY then the
7?

the pole of the great circle through

rotation pQp~ l brings to the same position as the rotation
around OP through twice the angle of tjJ -1
Since goes
if

is

{' by a rotation about OA as well as one about 0P f

r
this means that the new position 0Z is the reflection of OZ

into

OPA. The

in the plane of

according as the axis

M are

right angles,

and

angle of p
a.
or

if

is

is -\-

we draw

XY then
ANCY = ALAY,

ZAL or ZAP

then

The

CN

angles of

L and

perpendicular to

ANCX = AMBX,

and

AL =

BM = CN

APB
angles at A

and

Hence the equal exterior

= ZBM = \{A + 5 + Q.
Draw PZ, then /ZiM

is

isosceles.

and

are

ZAL

= Zv^ for it =JzJWM

since ilfZ
XN and iVF = YL. The
angle between the planes LAP and ZOP is thus the biradial
1

= \ML = ZF
l

7)%~

and

also

"

is

the biradial whose angle

is

that of the

VECTORS IN SPACE
planes

OAZ, ZOP, so
z p, hence

that

ZOA

117

AOL make

and

an angle

equal to

ZV = h(A

+ B+C).

Further

pa'

nlyyfc'tla

(/t)

Consider the quaternion p

jugate of p

is

- \{A + B +
- cos 2/2.

Kp =

77,

1/2

(/3/)

tt)

r)^ ^

whose

1/2

(t/

5
angle of p' is thus %(A
the spherical excess of AABC.

The
is

1/2

axis

p'.

2/2 where

The cona and angle

77^".

also

is

Thus the quaternion

0).

ffij

= -

sin 2/2

a:

Shifting the notation to a

for

more symmetric form we have

any three vectors

aia 2 as

sin

2/2

TJVai(x 2 a.z cos 2/2

=
where 2
of

whose

is

of the triangle.

It

is

k sin Jo

cos

Hence
Jo",

Va ia 2 a 3 =

~*

UV<x\ol 2 ccz sin \a.

to be noted that the order as written here

positive or left-handed cycle

\<j

the spherical excess of the triangle the midpoints

A 2 A% and a is the sum of the angles

sides are A\,

Saia 2 a 3

cos

from A\ to

and A$.

is

for a

Since

the solid angle of the triangle,

S-a\a 2 as is the sine
of half the solid angle and
TVa\a 2 az is the cosine of half
is

made by oi, a 2 a 3
now we have several points as

the solid angle,

If

sides of a spherical polygon,

between a\ and a n

the middle points of the

-a n and the vertex

say aia 2

taken as an origin for spherical arcs

drawn as diagonals to the vertices of the polygon, then for
is

the various successive triangles

the successive diagonals
'

J*lj

$2,

if

'

we

"fn-3

call

the midpoints of

118

VECTOR CALCULUS

we have, taking the

axis to the origin

and which

the

is

common

up by the products

The sum
this

axis of all the quaternions

of the angles of the

sum

a we have

is

i2-

We are

*n

for

= (

polygon
which it

is

the

sum

of the

divided, so that

is

[cos cr/2

k sin a/2].

able to say then that if the midpoints of the sides

-a nt then
polygon are ai, a 2

sum

the

is

SoCi(X2'

are given

made

any spherical polygon

n_3

of a spherical

where a

will call k,

of three vectors

angles of all the triangles into

if

which we

'

'0i n

db COS

ff/2,

of the angles the vertices of the

;

polygon

by
Wolioli-

-a n

TJVcioOLz

UVa n

a n ai,

',

-ttn-l,

each being the vertex whose sides contain the

first

and

last

vectors in the product; and the tensors of these vectors are

each equal to sin <r/2.

The

Sa(3y
expression
afiy, the second staudtian is

is

called

the

first

staudtian of

- SVapVPyVya/TVapTVPyTVya
= S aj3y/TVaPTV(3yTVya,
2

which

is

evidently the staudtian of the polar triangle.

= ,i

S-ai--a
n
V ! -a n

mrz

r
tan f solid
angle.
i

We will summarize here the significance of the expressions

worked out thus
vanishing.

far,

and

in particular the

meaning

of their

VECTORS IN SPACE
is the product of
between a and 0.

Sa(3

TaTp by

119

the cosine of the angle

if they are per-

vanishes only

It

pendicular.
is the vector at right angles to both a (3 whose length is
TaTfi multiplied by the sine of their angle. It vanishes

Vafi

if

only

they are

parallel.

the volume of the parallelepiped of

is

Safiy

It vanishes only

negatively.

they are

if

y,

fi

taken

parallel to

all

one plane.
these vectors are the edges of the polyhedral giving the circumscribed polygon, and if the expression vanishes, we have by separating the quaternion,

Vafiy, Vafiyd,

Va0y8-

Hence a

is

'

aS(3y8-

the axis of (3yd-

and

VaVPyS-'Sfiyd-

0.

equals zero.
have n vectors

changing the vectors cyclically we

which have a zero tensor, so that each edge is the
axis of the quaternion of the other n 1 taken cyclically.

By
all

of

This quaternion in each case has a vanishing scalar.

n = 3, a j8 y are a trirectangular system.

4,

(3

The angle

ing scalars.
5,

shown by the four vanish-

are coplanar,

the edge Va(3y

is

a(3

angle 7#.

parallel to V8e

and

cyclically

similar parallelisms hold.

We

sum of the angles of the

a
circumscribing polygon
multiple of 2w and it
satisfies the inequality S(n
2)tt is greater than

have

in all these cases the

a which
that

if

vectors
Safiyb

0.

If

preceding case

greater than

is

It

2)x.

evident

is

the polygon circumscribed has 540 the

lie
e
is

in

=
at

one plane.
then

Va(3y8,

hand

S-aia 2 -oL n = 0, the sum

an odd multiple of x.
-

{n

VaQySe

0,

and the

for the five vectors.

of the angles of the

polygon

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

120

2.

EXERCISES
=
S-VaPVpyVya
(Sapy)*
V-VapVpyVya = VaP(y*SaP - SPySya)
S(a + P)iP + 7)(7 + ) m 2Sa0y.

3.

5-F(a

4.

5.F(Fa/3F/37)(F/37^7)7(F7aFa/3)
S-5ef - - 16(5 -a^) 4

1.

5.

.....

+ /3)(0 + 7)708 + 7)(7 + a)V(y + )(a + 0)

= -

4(5.afl 7 )
(S-afiy)*.

where
5
<

f
6.

7.

S(xa

+ yP

= F(F[
= y(7D9
= V(V[y

+ 0[\fi + 7]F[^ + 7 ][7 + ]),

+ 7][7 + a]V[y + a][a + fl),
+ ][a + /S]7[a + 0]\fi + 7]).
+ 27 )(x'a + y'0 + *'7)(x"a + y"0 + *"7)

1
.

VECTORS IN SPACE
13. If q = ai2
succession in a, an -i,

if we reflect an arbitrary vector in

when Sq = the final position will be a
a fixed vector, and if Vq =
the final position

then

otn

0:20:1

simple reflection of p in
will be on the line of p itself.

Similar statements hold

an

are in planes that are normal respectively to

11.

We

Functions.

121

notice

if

the reflections

i.

some expressions now of the

We have the follow-

nature of functions of a quaternion.

ing identity
n
(a/3)

{$a)

which
n

is

useful

+ $a)l(<xP) n~ ~
l

(ol$

a^a[(a^

2SaP[(a(3)

n~ 1

71-1

(/to)

n~2

a 2^[(a^ n

+
=

Whence 2 n S na(3

(a/3

nl
+ \\{n
lt/

M
2

K/5)"-

ni
1)1

+
2l(n

[(

n_4

2)1

n
[(/3)

2
/3

+ w-v/3 +
4

\\{n

08*)*-*].

(fax)"]

(/3a)"" ]a

~2

1)1

This implies the familiar formula for the expansion of cos n

in terms of cos nd, cos (n 2)0, and we can write as the
reverse formula
n

S(a(3)

(-)

w /2

- n S a(3-an- n- l2\
- 2 )SV-an" /3"-4/4! (n

n n

[a

+~ n

(-

(n
)

l)

l3

'2

/3

[nSa(3
2

n(n

~l

a n er- l ll
2

)5

n- 3 n- 3

a/5-o:

n even

/3

/3!

n odd.

Likewise

TV2na$=

(-l)

2n- 1

/2

2n

[S(al3

(2n)!

l!(2n-

S(aP
1)

2n~ 2

a 2p 2

VECTOR CALCULUS

122

7p-i a/3== (_l)/2 2-2 [7T(a/3) 2n

-1

- ^
l

2n

TV(aB)
1VKfxp)

2n

~3

l!(2n-2)1

TV(ap) /TVap

Since

Tfi

jS/a is

we have

<

.1

/l!

/?

- 2 )iS a/3n-4 n~ /3! +

n(n
- l^SPap-cT+p^fil +
(n

n-2 n-2

(_1)<*-*^1

axis

(-) n/2 [n5a S-Q:

+
x

-J

n even

n odd.

/S

a quaternion whose powers have the same

(1

Ta, and

0/a)

-1

+ fi/a +

03/a:)

when

taking the scalar gives the well-known

formula

S-^~=
+ S/5/a +
a
1

S(/3/a)

Likewise

TV-^=
a
p

If

we

TVp/a

TV(p/a)

define the logarithm as in theory of functions of a

complex variable we have

log (1

fi/a)

= log 7(1 - fi/a) + log 17(1 = - fa - Itf/a)* - HP/a)*

fi/a)
.

Therefore
log f(l

Z LZ_1 = TV
a

fi/a)

log (1

- -

Sfi/a

fi/a)

S(/?/c*)

= TVp/a +

^TV(p/a)

Again
T{a

p)~

= Ta' 1

f(l

Pi(- SUp/a) TP/a

P/a)-

+P

- fo^l

(- SUp/a) T P/a
2

.],

where Pi P2 are the Legendrian polynomials.

Evidently for coaxial quaternions we have the whole
theory of functions of a complex variable applicable.

VECTORS IN SPACE

Some Simple

12. Solution of

123

Equations.

ap = a then p = oT a.
= a then we set Vap = f where is any vector
(2) If Sap
= aa_1 + a~ $.
perpendicular to a, and adding, p
= then *Sap = where # is any scalar, and
(3). If Fap
we
have
+ aaaf"
p = a~
adding
=
y then SaVapQ = &x p/3 = <* p/3 = Say
(4). If Vapfi
=
and SpVap(3
ap = S/fy. Now
l

(1). If
.

a:

jS

(3

/3

Fap/5

aS/3p

pSafi

and substituting we have

The

[o;-

solution fails

^7 + /T

if

Sa(3

+ (3Sap

^-

y]/8afi.

In this case the solution

0.

= _ a-'S^y - p^Sa-iy

is

+ xVofi,

x any scalar.

Yapp = 7 then Sa(3pSafi = &*07

Sa(3y/Sa(3.
Adding to Va(3p, we have

(5).

afip

If

= 7

(6).

If

Sa(3y/SaP and p

&xp

If

Sap

a, S(3p

pSafiy
(8).

+ '(hcT*8cfiyl8c&.
a^p = zFa/3 + V(al3

0^or*7
then

b,

Soft)

ba)Va(3.
(7).

?/

/3p

a,

and

are

If

any

gag

-1

gag"

|8)

b,

aV(3y

then g

Syp

c,

bVya

(x/3

then

cFa/5.

y)/(a

/3)

where x and

Or we may write

scalars.

+ 0(a +

(9). If

|3

y, q^q'

..

where

wFa?/3

8,

V(y
S(T

then

a)(8

ft!

+ )(- ft

w#a(a:

/3).

VECTOR CALCULUS

124
(10). If
S-flft

qaq-

- ) - 0,

hence Fg

is

qpq~

f,

S-q( V

qyq~

*,

ft

f,

0,

then

a)

2/(77

+ H(f -

ft

7)

7)

0,

we have

coplanar with the parentheses, and

x(i

flf.gtf

where

The

2S 7 (r?

:*:*->-

six vectors are

ft

2Sy(i

a)

not independent.

S(

Vq

is

a)(i,

easily

ft.

found

and thence Sq from

qa
(11). If (p

0,

then

if

we

~ aT =
1

ifi'

a)"

(p

ft"

where

p', a', 0',

(P

7)"

(P

5)-

let

(TO

5)"

5,

q.

5]

(p

7' are the vectors

[(a

8)(p

a)

- 5])
5),
(

6)"
_1

etc.,

from D, the extremity

of

to the inverses with respect to D, of the extremities of

p, a, ft 7,

then

(p'

a')"

(p'

ft)"

- 7T =
1

(p'

0.

Prove that
1

- ft _ y -

ft

'

-y_

y - /n

i/2

whence

p'

and

(12). If (q

=
(q

0,

we

p.

a)"

(q

6)"

(q

(R. Russell.)
1

c)"

(q

d)~'

set

d)(q'

- d)= (a-

d){a'

d)

=
=

(b
(c

- d)(b' - d)
- d){c' - d) -

1,

VECTORS IN SPACE

125

thence

- d)-> -(q- a)' = (4 - d)-\a - d)(q - a)'

- d)/(q- e)]
d)~i [(a~d)/(q-a)+(b- d)l(q- b)- (c
(q
- (?' - a')' + (?' - &T ~ W ~ cT
1

(q

and we have
(V

from

q'

cW
=

C)

(q'

c')l(a'
=

6')/(g'

(g'

c')

[(V

c')Ka'

c')]K

(R. Russell.)
13. Characteristic Equation.

and square both

whence
2

This equation

The

we have

sides

is

2qSq

If
2

S2 q

we

= S

write q

- Vq=
2

(Vq)

+ Vq
2Sq-Vq

Sq

0.

called the characteristic equation of

q.

coefficients

S2q

and

2Sq

- Vq=
2

T2 q

are the invariants of q; they are the same, that is to say,

-1
q is subjected to the rotation r()r
They are also the

if

same

Kq is

substituted for

Hence they

will not define

but only any one of a class of quaternions which may be
derived from each other by the group of all rotations of the
if

q.

form rQr~ l or by taking the conjugate.

The equation has two roots in general,

Sq

Tqyl

and

Since these involve the

Sq

Tq^

1.

1 it leads us to the algebra of

biquaternions which we do not enter here, but a few remarks will be necessary to place the subject properly.
Since the invariants do not determine q we observe that

we must

also

have

parameters involved.

UVq

in order to

have the other two

VECTOR CALCULUS

126

we look upon UVq

If

known then we may write the

number field of

as

roots of the characteristic equation in the

quaternions as Sq

TVqUVq and

Sq

and

Kq.

q
If

we

set q

-f-

TVqUVq or

and expand, afterwards drop

r for q

all

the

terms that arise from the identical equations of q and r

separately, we have left the characteristic equation of two
quaternions, which will reduce to the first form
are made to be equal. This equation is

qr+rq-2Sq-r-

2Sr-Vq

We

might indeed start with

whole algebra from it.

We may
qr-\-

write

rq-

2SqSr

this equation

when they

2SVqVr =

0.

and develop the

it

2qSr

2rSq

+ 4Sq-Sr +

which involves only the scalars of

S-qr

q, r, qr,

and

S-rq

rq.

We should notice that if the param-

14.

Biquaternions.
can be imaginary or complex then
division is no longer unique in certain cases.
Thus if
eters involved in q

Q
we have

Vq

x(i

=q

as possible solutions

Q =
If

and

also

Q =

V (- l)UVq-q.

and we have
then TVq =
and Vq =

+ j V 1) where X is any scalar and i, j are any

two perpendicular unit

vectors.

CHAPTER

VII

APPLICATIONS
1.
1.

The Scalar of Two Vectors

The

Notations.

two vectors
on vector algebra, as

scalar of the product of

writers

is defined independently by
a product. In such cases the definition is usually given for
the negative of the scalar since this is generally essentially

A table

positive.

define

two

fields,

of current notations

we

is

given.

If

a and (3
two

shall call S*cfi the virial of the

fields.

S-a(3

= aX

Cfft
a/3

(aft)

/3

Grassman, Resal, Somoff, Peano, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Timerding.

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung, Fischer.

Heaviside, Silberstein, Foppl, Ferraris,

Heun, Bucherer.

Gans,

Bucherer,

Lorentz,

Abraham,

Henrici.

a|/3

Cos

a/3

Grassman, Jahnke, Fehr, Hyde.

Macfarlane.

[a/3]
Caspary.
For most of these authors, the scalar of two vectors,

though called a product, is really a function of the two

While it is
vectors which satisfies certain formal laws.
evident that any one may arbitrarily choose to call any
function of one or more vectors their product,

seem desirable to do

it

does not

For Gibbs, however, the scalar

is defined to be a function of the dyad of the two vectors,
which dyad is a real product. The dyad or dyadic of
Gibbs, as well as the vectors of most writers on vector
so.

analysis, are not considered to be

127

numbers or hypernumbers.

VECTOR CALCULUS

128
are looked

They

upon as geometric or physical

entities,

from which by various modes of "combination" or determination

other geometric entities are found, called

essence of the Hamiltonian point of view,
the definition by means of geometric entities of

The

products.

however, is
a system of hypernumbers subject to one mode of multiplicaFunctions
tion, which gives hypernumbers as products.
of these products are considered

when

but are called

useful,

functions.
2.

Planes and Spheres.

It is evident that the condition

for orthogonality will yield several useful equations,

of these

we

will consider

The plane through a point A, whose

vector

pendicular to a line whose direction is 8 has for

since p
a is any vector in the plane,

is

its

S-d(p-a) =
If

we

set p

8Sa/d

we have the equation

satisfied

and as

from the

The perpendicular from a point B

origin to the plane.

b~ l S{a

a, per-

equation,

0.

this vector is parallel to 5 it is the perpendicular

is

and

a few.

0)5.

a sphere has center D and radius T(3 where /? and

(3
are the vectors from the center to the extremities of a
If

diameter, then the equation of the sphere

is

given by the

equation
S(p

-3+

fi)(p

-d-

The plane through the

p
is

The form

25ip

P)

0,

orp

2S8P

intersection of the

+ ci = =

2S(5i

of this equation

5 2 )p

ci

shows that

+5 -

it

2
/3

0.

two spheres

2S8 2P
c2

+c

represents a plane

APPLICATIONS

129

perpendicular to the center line of the spheres.

where

it

crosses this line

X18]

we

solving,

3. Virial.

If

+x8
+x
2

find

= v(h

point

Xi

whence

The

is

(3 is

+ 8 )-\V8,8 + i(cj - <*)>.

2

the representative of a force in direction

and magnitude then its projection on the direction a is

a~ Sa^ and perpendicular to this direction crWafi. If a
1

is

in the line of action of the force, the projection

is fit

If

a direction not in the line of action then the projection

If a
gives the component of the force in the direction a.
is

is

the vector to the point of application of the force then

is the virial of the force with respect to a, a term intro-

Sa(3

duced by Clausius.

It

is

the work that would be done

by

the force in moving the point of application through the

vector distance a. If a fe an infinitesimal distance say,
8a,

then

S8a(3

The

placement.

2S8a n (3 n
4.

is

work of a small virtual disvirtual work would be 8V =

the virtual
total

for all the forces.

Circulation.

In case a particle

is

in a vector field

and it is subjected to
along an assigned path from

(of force, or velocity, or otherwise)

successive displacements 8p
A to B, we may form the negative scalar of the vector
If the vector
intensity of the field and the displacement.
intensity varies

must be
is

finite

of the
If

The sum

number, or the

sum

a point

force of

from point to point the displacements

infinitesimal.

/3

definite

of these products,

integral which

is

if

there

the limit

in the infinitesimal case,

is

moving with a

is of great importance.
velocity a [cm./sec] in a field of

dynes, the activity of the

field

on the point

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

130

S-(3<t

[ergs/sec.].

remain stationary,
activity

is

The

may move and

field

which case the activity is

also called the effect, and the power.
in

the point
If

<r

vector function of p which gives the field at the point

have for the sum

This integral or

sum

is

the

P we

- // Sa8p.

or

2Sa8p

The

S-(3a.

called the circulation of the path for

is

the field a.
5.

Volts, Gilberts.

work done
field E,

is

For a force

field

A to B.

If

from

the circulation

A and B.
tion

in passing

If

the

field is

is

field

is

the

an electric
voltage between

field is

the difference in

a magnetic

the difference in gilbertage

measured

the circulation
the

H, then the circula-

from

to B.

It

is

magnetic field being a

no name yet approved for

in gilberts, the unit of

gilbert per centimeter.

There

the unit of the electrostatic

per centimeter.

The

is

field,

unit of force

and we must call it volt

is the dyne and of work

the erg.

Gausses and Lines. In case the field is a field of flux

and
the vector TJv is the outward normal of a surface
a,
through which the flux passes, then
6.

SaUv

the intensity of flux normal to or through the surface

per square centimeter. The unit of magnetostatic flux B
is

is

called a gauss; the unit of electrostatic flux

The total flux through a finite surface

line.

is

is

the areal

called a

integral

fSaUvdA,

written also

fSadv.

The flux-integral is called the transport or the discharge.

Thus if D is the electric induction or displacement, the

APPLICATIONS
discharge through a surface

coulombs.

in

fSDUvdA,

is

measured

Similarly for the magnetic induction

the discharge
7.

131

measured

is

B,

in maxwells.

Activity-Density.
Among other
we find the following. If
are the electric intensity in volts/cm. and induction

Energy-Density.

scalar products of importance

E and D

in lines at a point,

magnetic intensity

|$ED

is

the point in joules/cc.

field at

2^#HB

is

If

the energy-density in the

H and B, likewise, are the

in gilberts/cm.,

and gausses, respectively,

the energy in ergs.

If J is

the electric cur-

2
S E J is the activity in
rent-density in amperes/cm.
If G is the magnetic current-density in heaviwatts/cc.
2
S H G is the activity in ergs/sec. If the
sides*/cm.

the electric activity

field varies also,

$H(G +

the magnetic activity

is

>S-

E(J

D) and

B).

EXERCISES
An

1.

insect has to crawl

up the

inside of a hemispherical bowl, the

how

high can it get?

force of gravity may be expressed in the form a =
mgk.
Show that the circulation from
to
is the product of the weight by
the vertical difference of level of
and B.
coefficient of friction

being

1/3,

The

2.

A B
A

3. If the force of attraction of the earth

that the work done in going from A to B is

hiTa-

The magnetic

4.

field at

is

<r

= hUp/p 2 show

T0-1 ].

a distance a from the central axis of an

infinite straight wire

and the

0.2ia -1 (

carrying a current of electricity of / amperes

sin di
cos 6j)
(i andj perpendicular to wire)

differential

+ a cos 9j)dd.

tangent to a circle of radius a

that the gilbertage is 0.2/ (0 2

Show

is

0i)

is

a sin 6

gilberts,

which for one turn is OAirl.

Prove that we get the same result for a square path.
5. The permittivity k of a specimen of petroleum is 2 [abfarad/cm.],
and on a small sphere is a charge of 0.0001 coulomb. The value of
the displacement D at the point p is then
D
*

heaviside

is

9^2

UplTp2

a magnetic current of

maxwell per second.

[lineg]

VECTOR CALCULUS

132

What is the discharge through an equilateral triangle whose corners

are each 4 cm. from the origin, the plane of the triangle perpendicular
to the field?
If

6.

magnetic inductivity

then the magnetic induction

1760 [henry/cm.] and a magnetic

= la

7 -1760a

[gilbert/cm.],

is

What

is

p.

given by

field is

[gausses].

the flux through a circular loop of radius a crossing the

at an angle of 30?
7.

is

the velocity of a stream

If

<r

what

is

field

given by

24(cos 6

i -f sin dj),

the discharge per second through a portion of the plane whose

is Sip = 12 from

is

equation

d
8.

10

to

The electric induction due to a charge

D

= -

20?

at the origin of e coulombs

eUp/T P Hir

is

[lines].

What

is

the total flux of induction through a parallelepiped whose

center

is

the origin?

9.

The magnetic induction due

B

What

to a magnetic point of

= - mUp/Tp 2

m maxwells is
[gausses].

the total flux of induction through a sphere whose center is

the point?
10. In problem 8, if the permittivity is 2 = k, then the electric
is

intensity

= rH>4r.

What

is the amount of energy enclosed in a sphere of radius 3 cm. and

center at a distance from the origin of 10 cm.?
11. In problem 9, if the inductivity is 1760 and the magnetic in-

tensity

is

= p~%

how much energy

is enclosed in a box 2 cm. each way, whose center

10 cm. from the point and one face perpendicular to the line joining
the point and the center?
is

12. If the current in

the drop in voltage

is

a wire

mm.

0.001 per cm.,

in

what

diameter
is

is

10 amperes and

the activity?

APPLICATIONS

133

13. If there is a leakage of 10 heavisides through a magnetic area of

4 cm. 2 and the magnetic field is 5 gilberts/cm., what is the activity?
14. Through a circular spot in the bottom of a tank which is kept
,

level full of water there is a leakage of 100 cc. per second, the spot
2
If the only force acting is gravity what is
having an area of 20 cm.
.

the activity?

wave

front from the sun has in its plane surface

10 volts per cm., and a magnetic intensity of
0033 gilberts per cm., and if for the free ether or for air y. = 1 and
k = -10~20 what is the energy per cc. at the wave front?
(The

an

15. If

an

electric

electric intensity of

average energy

is

maximum energy and is according to Langley

half this

4.3 -10 -5 ergs per cc. per sec.)

16. If a charge of e coulombs

at

is at a point A and a magnetic point

B has m maxwells, what is the energy per cc. at P, any point in space,

the

medium being

8.

air?

Geometric Loci in Scalar Equations.

(1).

of the

The equation

of the sphere

forms
S(p

+
S2a/(p +

T(Sp/a

(p

a) (a

a 2 Sfiyp

j3

a)

(a
2

Syap

-) 2
(Y-)

(5

a)

(Y-0)

(5

(5

1,

1,
1,

T(cp

Sa(3p

p Sa(3y

y)

2
2

/3)

0,

0,

(a

/3)

Kp[a,

- p) -

(/5-t)

5)

ca)

(p-7)

(/?
2

+ -Vp/a) =

B)(S

=
=
=

<*)

Tip

(p-/3)

(P-T)

7)(Y

(p-aO

(p-/?)
(p

- 08 2

a/p
a)
a)

a)/(p

S2p/(p

S{p

be written in each

may

7)

(P-5)
(a

a),

2
2

5)

(0-S)
(7-5)

Interpret each form.

(2).

The equation

of the ellipsoid

forms

S 2p/a
where a

is

not parallel to
T(p/y

rOup

may

- V p/(3 =

be written in the

1,

ft

Kpjb)

T(p/8

+ pX)=x

-/*

2
.

tfp/7),

VECTOR CALCULUS

134

The planes

cut the ellipsoid in circular sections on Tp = Tfi.

These
are the cyclic planes.
Tfi is the mean semi-axis, Ufi the
axis of the cylinder of revolution circumscribing the ellip-

a is normal to the plane of the ellipse of contact of

the cylinder and the ellipsoid.
In the second form let

soid,

r 1

7-

-,

= -

2
t

>

TJ,

then the semi-axes are

6=

a=rX+7>,

TfX

c=T\-T.

>

T(\

n)

The hyperboloid of two sheets is S 2p/a + F 2p//3

The hyperboloid of one sheet is S 2p/a + V 2p/(3 =
The elliptic paraboloid of revolution is

(3).
(4).

(5)

^~-

SplP+V p/(3 =
2

1.

1.

0.

The elliptic paraboloid is Sp/a + V 2p/(3 = 0.

The hyperbolic paraboloid is Sp/a Sp/fi = Sp/y.
The torus is

(6).
(7).
(8).

- p) = a,
=
(Tp +b - a ),
2bTVap
=
4b T p - (T p + b - a 2
4b S ap
4b S ap = (T p - b + a
Aa T p
2
- b )) =
SU(p - V (a - b ))l(p + cW (a
=
r
bJJoTWar + at/Y,
p
any vector.
T( bUarWap

2 2

(9).

Any

surface

is

given by
p

<p(u, v).

b/a,

APPLICATIONS

developable is given by p
- a])
(10). A cone is f(U[p

=
=

The quadric cone is SapSfip

The cone through a, (3, y, 8,

135

<p(t)

ucp'it).

0.

0.

e is

S-V(Va(3V8e)V(V(3yVep)V(Vy8Vpa)
which

is

on

Pascal's theorem

The cones

of revolution

The cones

of revolution

Svp

0,

conies.
X, n, v are

through

which touch S\p

0, Sfxp

0,

0, are

The cone tangent

2

c (p

to (p

a)

+c =
2

from

-a-$) = V (3(p 2

The polar plane of /3

The cone tangent to

is

/3(p

a
from 7

a)

/?

is

a).

is

(*i-

F,

S- )(

fl,

J'-

p i-0

SV?V?-- lY=0.
-(\ S^S^-a a
a a
/
The
s
(

cylinder with elements parallel to

*i-

1-

is

)H- p ?)
2

=
_(s>sl-sv>vl)
a a)
\ a a

o.

VECTOR CALCULUS

136

For further examples consult Joly

Manual

of Quater-

nions.

The Vector of Two Vectors

2.

Notations,

If

a and

the torque of the two

Va(3

are

/3

two

fields,

we

shall call V-a(3

fields.

Va(3

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Heaviside, Foppl,

cqS

Grassman, Jahnke, Fehr.

aX

Gibbs, Wilson, Fischer, Jaumann, Jung.

[a,

/3]

Lorentz, Gans, Bucherer, Abraham, Timer-

[a

/?]

Caspary

Ferraris, Carvallo.

ding.

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Jung.

j3

Heun.

aj8

Macfarlane.

Sin a/3

Peano.

Iaccb
1.

Lines.

The

condition that two lines be parallel

is

that

Therefore the equation of the line through the

0.
origin in the direction a is Vap
Vafi

The

0.

line

Va(p fi) =
The perpendicular from 5 on the
parallel to

through

Vap = Va(3 =
Vap = 7 is

y.

The

a~ l Vab

is

or
line

+ a~ y.
l

= a, S^p = b, is
Vpa y and Vp& = 8

line of intersection of the planes,

S\p

If we have lines
6X.
VpV\fx = a/x
then a vector from a point on the first to a point on the
ya. If now the lines insecond is 5/3" 1 7a-1
#/3

we can choose x and y

corresponding to the two

tersect then

so that this vector will

vanish,

coincident points, and

thus

S{bp~

ya~ )$a

S8a

Syp.

APPLICATIONS
If

we

resolve the vector joining the

perpendicular to Vaft
-1
5/3

ya~

xfi

= (Va^S

137

two points

ya
l
VaP(bpr

yoT

+ zp - ya)
Spy)

- -* f-

Vap]

SaPS ^~ + a2 S JL 1
Vap
Vap]

Hence the vector perpendicular from the

Fa/3 J

Fa/3

Va0

is

and

we have*

= -(VaP)-\S5(x+

second

parallel

(Vafl-KStct

first line

to the

Spy)

and vectors to the intersections of this perpendicular with

the first and second lines are respectively

ya

1
\

'

Va(3

and

Note that

l
(Va0)- V(Vu0)(z0 - ya) = xp - ya
1 3(y S)- F-7a/3(5
ya~ l ) = (Vc0)-l (- a'^Sfiya
1

Va
10

(rlS<*&)

,(-^S^ + p-S^)

VECTOR CALCULUS

138

The

projections of the vectors a, y on any three rectangular

For applicaaxes give the Pluecker coordinates of the line.
tions to linear complexes, etc., see

Joly:

Manual,

p.

40,

Guiot: Le Calcul Vectoriel et ses applications.

2.

The

Congruence.

differential

equation of a curve or

whose tangents have

the vector lines of a vector field <r,

set of curves forming a congruence

given directions
is

cr,

that

is,

given by

Vdpa
or

its

equivalent equation

dp

adt.

The moment of the force /3 with respect

3. Moment.
to a point whose vector from an origin on the line of @ is
If the point is the origin and the vector to
Fa/3.
a, is

some point

in the line of application of the force

moment

the

on the

is

point

with respect to the origin

vanishes.

If

is

is

Vafi.

a, then
If

the

moment obviously
common plane then
plane will have a common

line of application the

several forces have a

moments as to a point in the

unit vector, the normal to the plane.
the

If several forces are

normal to the same plane, their points of application

in

their values being a\a>
the plane given by ft, ft, ft,
,
then the moments are
a 2 a, a s a,

F(aift
If

we

[dyne cm.].

set

ift

then

+ a ft + a ft +

/3

is

02ft

03ft

the vector to the

ftai

mean point

a2

az

ai

#2

a3

is

0,

)/

of application, which,

in case the forces are the attractions of the earth

set of weighted points,

upon a

called the center of gravity.

we cannot make this

If

substitution.

APPLICATIONS
4.

Couple.

139

couple consists of two forces of equal

magnitude, opposite directions and different lines of action.

In such case the mean point becomes illusory and the sum
of the

moments

on the

lines of

any point from which vectors to points

action of the forces are a h a 2 respectively, is
for

V{a x

a 2 )P.

But a\ a 2 is a vector from one line of action to the other,

and this sum of the moments is called the moment of the
It is evidently unchanged if the tensor of /? is
a 2 decreased in the same ratio,
increased and that of a\

couple.

or vice versa.

Moment

5.

of

Momentum.

If

a cm./sec, then the

mass
defined to be ma gr. cm./sec.
being
to be

p,

is

the

moment

of

the velocity of a moving

of the mass is

momentum
The

momentum

vector to the mass

of the

mass

Vpma = mVpa
6. Electric Intensity.

If

medium

is

defined

2
[gm. cm. /sec.].

is

moving

in a

mag-

B gausses, with a velocity a cm./sec,

be set up in the medium an electromotive

netic field of density

then there will

intensity E of value

E=Fo-B-10~ 8
For any path the volts

will

be

- fSdP E= +
If this

[volts/centimeter].

fSdpBa-10-

8
.

be integrated around any complete circuit we shall

arrive at the difference in electromotive force at the ends

of the circuit.
7.

in

Magnetic Intensity.
an induction field of D

will

be produced in the

a magnetic medium is moving

lines, with a velocity a, then there
If

medium

at every point a magnetic

VECTOR CALCULUS

140
intensity field

H = OAwVDa
For any path the gilbertage
8.

will

[gilberts/cm.].

be OAirf SdpaD.

If an electric field of inducmoving with a velocity a, then

the medium at the point a mag-

Electric Field.

Moving

tion, of value

lines, is

there will be produced in

netic field of intensity

gilberts/cm. where

H m OAirVaD.
For

(eUp/4:irTp

along a path

with charge e, this will be

a continuous stream of electrons

electron

moving

For

).

we would have

the point being the origin.

9.

Moving Magnetic

Field.

duction of value B gausses

it

will

a magnetic field of inmoving with a velocity cr,

If

produce at any given point in space an

intensity E
10.

is

= V

BolO-8

a particle of length dp is in a field of

which tends to turn the particle along the lines

Torque.

If

intensity <r
of force, then the torque produced

element

electric

volts per centimeter.

by the

field

upon the

is

V-dpa.
If

a line runs from

to B, the total torque

//
For instance

if

is

V-dpe.

a non-uniform distribution
magnetic units, maxwells, of a wire
to B, in a field a, then

dp, or in case of

cdp, is the strength in

magnet from

fIV-dpa
is

or

f/V-cdpa

the torque of the field upon the magnet.

APPLICATIONS
11.

141

An electric intensity E volts/cm.

H gilberts/cm. at a point in space

Poynting Vector.

and magnetic intensity

are accompanied by a flux

cm. 2 R, given by

of energy per

the formula

4xR =
This

is

12.

[ergs/cm.

sec.].

the Poynting vector.

The force density in dynes/cc. of

induction on a magnetic current is given by,

Force Density.

field of electric

= 4ttFDG

10

[dynes/cc],

where D

is the density in lines of electric displacement

the magnetic current density in heavisides per cm. 2
If the negative of F is considered we have the force per cc.

is

required to hold a magnetic current in an electrostatic

field of

The

density D.
force density in dynes/cc. of a field of magnetic

induction on a conductor carrying an electric current

is

F-ijr.il.

single

moving charge

with velocity a

will give

F =AweVaiJiVaD.
13.

Momentum

The

of Field.

field

momentum

at

point where the electric induction is D lines and magnetic

induction B gausses is T = 3-10 9 V- DB [gm. cm./sec.]. If
the magnetic induction is due to a moving electric field then

T =

0.047rF- D/jlVDct,

and

to a

moving magnetic

field,

if

the electric induction

=
47T-3-10 10

VB/cVaB.

is

due

vector calculus

142

The Scalar of Three Vectors

3.

Area and Pressure. If we consider two differential

vectors from the point P, say dip, d2 p, then the vector area
of the parallelogram they form is Vdipd2 p.
If then we have
a distribution of an areal character, such as pressure per
square centimeter, /3, the pressure normal to the differential
1.

area will be in magnitude

S(3dipd 2 p.

The vector Vdipd 2 p may be represented by dp or JJvdA.

The vector pressure normal to the surface will be
UpS(3dipd 2 p.

There

will also be a tangential pressure or shear, which is

the other component of /3.
2. Flux.
If j8 is any vector distribution the expression

S($d\pd2 p

Vd\pd 2 p.

It

is

often called the flux of

is

to be noted

of the result in physical units

Thus the

flux of

/? through the area

however that the dimensions

must be

magnetic intensity

carefully considered.

is

of dimensions that

do not correspond to any magnetic quantity.

If /3 is the velocity of a fluid in cm./sec, then
3. Flow.
the volume passing through the differential area per second
is

4.

[cc./sec.].

The dimensions

of the Poynting energy

the current of energy per second across
hence the total flow per second through an area is

Energy Flux.

flow R show that

a cm. 2 ,

Sfid\pd2 p

it is

-SRd^p-- 8 -^

[ergs/sec]

In the case of a straight conductor carrying a current of

electricity, we have at a distance a from the wire in a

APPLICATIONS

143

direction at right angles to the wire directly

away from

it

the value

R=

T
Consequently

if

we

(4ir)- 10 JS;(0.2Ja-

).

consider one centimeter of wire in

length and the circumference of the circle of radius a

shall have a flux of energy for the centimeter equal to

J(ft-0
This

is

the usual

J2 R

of a wire

and

we

[jouks].
is

represented by heat.

For a moving conductor we have already

5. Activity.
expressed the vector E, and as the current density J can
be computed from the intensity of the field (J = k E) we

have then

for the expression of the activity in watts per

cubic centimeter of conductor

A= -SaBhO- = -S(V(rB)k(VaB)-lO8

ie

[watts].

Likewise in the case of the magnetomotive force due to

motion and the magnetic current G = IH we have for the
activity per cubic centimeter of circuit

A=- SDaQ =
6.

Volts.

two points

The

total

S-(VDa)l(VD(r)-10-

[watts].

electromotive difference between

conductor

in a

conductor

is

the line-integral along the

fSdpaBlCr*

[volts].

7. Gilberts.
The total magnetomotive difference between two points along a certain path is the line-integral

4.
1.

Stress.

AirfSdpDo-

[gilberts].

Vector of Three Vectors

We

find with

no

V-a(Ua Uy)y =
and

V-a(Vay)y =

difficulty the equations

TyTa(Ua
Say -V -ay.

Uy)

VECTOR CALCULUS

144
If

now we have a

state of stress in a

0i

92

7V dynes/cm.
to U(U\+ Un),
S\fx dynes/cm.

medium, given by

its

form

three principal stresses in the

2

normal to the plane orthogonal

normal to the plane orthogonal

to UV\fi,
gz

+
to

2
T\p dynes/cm. normal

U{U\

to the plane orthogonal

Un),
gi

<

gi

<

gz,

then the stress across the plane normal to

V\fo
If

the scalars g it

gz

g%,

/? is

0.

are dielectric constants in three

directions (trirectangular) properly chosen, then the dis-

placement

If

is

D = FXE/x

gE.

the scalars are magnetic permeability constants,

B
If

V\Hfi

g W.

the scalars are coefficients of dilatation, then

(T--

becomes

VWp+gp.

the scalars are elasticity constants of the ether, then

according to Fresnel's theory, the force on the ether is,
If

for the ether displacement ft

V\fo
If

gp.

the scalars are thermoelectric constants in a crystal,

then

D = FXQm

gQ.

the scalars are

If g =
the scalars are 7V>

where Q

TV>

along X and

is

the flow of heat.

TV, - TV, T\p, that

SXfi.
is,

If V\fi

practically

in all directions perpendicular to X.

0,

CHAPTER

AND INTEGRALS

DIFFERENTIALS

DlFFEKENTIATION AS TO A SCALAR PARAMETER

1.

Differential of p.

1.

scalar

parameter

t,

the vector p depends upon the

If

say

then for two values of

Pi
ti

now we suppose

Pi

<p(h)
t%

in the

t\

that

<p(t),

which are supposed to be

range of possible values for

If

VIII

<

<

<p(ti)
t

^1

t2

and that h and

can

t2

independently approach the limit, t then we shall call

the limit of the fraction above, if there be such a limit, the
,

right-hand derivative of p as to t, at t and if t 2 < h < t

we shall call the limit the left-hand derivative of p as to
t at t
In case these both exist and are equal, and if p
,

has a value for

<p(ti),
t

at

which

is

the limit of the two values of

then we shall say that p is a continuous function of

and has a derivative as to t at to.

There

no essential difference analytically between the

<p and the ordinary functions of a single real
variable, and we will assume the ordinary theory as known.
is

function

It is evident that for different values of

sider the locus of

which

will

we may

con-

be a continuous curve.

Since p 2
pi is a chord of the curve the limit above will give
a vector along the tangent of the curve. Further the tensor
of the derivative, Tp' = T(p'{t) is the derivative of the
y

length of the arc as to the parameter

parameter then the vector

p' is

t.

If

the arc s

a unit vector.

145

is

the

VECTOR CALCULUS

146

EXAMPLES
(1)

The

circle

= a

cos

The

(2)

-f

sin

p'

= a

= a cos +
= a sin

p'

The

sin

Sa0 =

Fft
cos

sin

70,

0+7.

cos

conic

+ 20< + 7
+2U+C
- ap) + 2*(0 (a
_

a*2
at

Multiplying out,

'

bp)

(7

0, p
7/c, and
=
p
a/a, hence the curve goes through a/a and
We have

for all values of

rfp/d<

Hence

2
[t

0,

0.

helix

(3)

To:

0,

(ba

For

+ <(ca 07) +

a0)

(c0

for

cp)
t

=
00

7/c.

by)] times scalar.

the direction of the tangent is 0/6

7/c
of the tangent is
00, the direction
7/c,
a/a at a/a. Since these vectors both run from the
0/6
points of tangency to the point 0/6, the curve is a conic,
at

for

for

0,

tangent to the lines through 0/6 and the two points a/a
and 7/c, at these two points. If the origin is taken at
0/6, so that p

0/6,

= w

and

if

a!

a/a

0/6, 7'

7/c

then
at\a!

is

+ 0/6,

tt)

26/tt

+ c(y f

w)

the equation of the curve.

If

now we

let

w run along the diagonal

of the parallelo-

gram whose two sides are a'y' so that tt = x(a!

substituting we have
2
at x
2btx - c(l - x) = 0,

at (l

x)

2btx

ex

0.

+ y'), then

DIFFERENTIALS

From

these equations

147

we have
2
t

c/a

and
x

= Vac/2(Vac

b).

These values of x give us the two points

between these two

in

which the

The middle point

diagonal in question cuts the curve.

is

Referred to the original origin this gives for the center

k=

ca + ay
+ p b = 2b(3
b=
2(ac
,,

If

we

calculate the point on the curve for

bh

+e

ah+
we

so that k

is

pi we have J(p 2
Pi)
the center of the curve and diametrically

shall find that for the points p 2

k,

opposite points have parameters

h and

= r-x

t2

>

ati ~t o

an involutory substitution. If ac =
= 0.
cept when also the numerator

2
,

[Joly,

becomes

co

Manual, Chap.

VII, art. 48.]

In general the equation of the tangent of any curve
IT

differentiating as before.
let

= a

cos 6

of p,

where Ta

when

expression

Thus

+ P sin 6

is

Xp'.

We may also find the derivatives of functions

= (p(t), by substituting the value of p in the

and

ex-

Tp.

VECTOR CALCULUS

148

Then
Tp

= V [- a2

cos 2 6

2Sap

sin 6 cos 6

sin

6],

We may then find the stationary values of Tp in the manner

usual for any function. Thus differentiating after squaring
a2

sin 26

2Sa(3 cos 26

tan 26
2.

2Sap/(a

Frenet-Serret Formulae.

is

expressed in terms of

differentiation as to

2
fi

sin 26

we

0,

2
/3 ).

will

is

essentially

suppose now that

and accents

will

mean only

Then both

s.

and

p
are points

s,

Since the arc

the natural parameter of a curve

p

+ dsp'

upon the curve.

The

derivative of the latter gives p'

a unit vector since the parameter is s.

a unit vector along the tangent

vector is a chord of a unit circle

is

dsp", which

is

also

Thus the change in

dsp", and since this

its

limiting direction

is

perpendicular to p', and its quotient by ds has a length whose

limit is the rate of change of the angle in the osculating plane
of the tangent and a fixed direction in that plane which
turns with the plane. That is to say, p" in direction is
along the principal normal of the curve on the concave side,

and

the curmture of the curve, which

shall indicate by the notation
in

magnitude

is

Unit tangent is
Unit normal is
Unit binormal

The

is

=
=
y =
a

|9

we

p',

Up", curvature

is

Va(3, so that

Ci

Ciy

=
=

Tp",
Vp'p".

rate of angular turn of the osculating plane per centi-

meter of arc
the plane.

is found by differentiating the

Thus we have

Ti

= cf

hW -

unit normal of

Fp'p"-c 2 ].'

DIFFERENTIALS

But

149

d = T p" = 2

Sp"p" and therefore

we have

Substituting for c 2
71

where

=
=
=
=

".

+ SpV'Wl

cr3 [- Sp"p"Vp'p
,,,
crz [Vp Vp"Vp p"]
,

crWaVc (3Vp'"c p
crW-aPVp"^ = cr VyVp'"p = cr pSyp"'
1

is

tortuosity.

lft

written for the negative tensor of 71 and

It may also be written in the form

/?

Thus we have proved

Frenet's formulae for

ft

erf,

obvious

the

is

= ya we have at once the relations

= 7i + 7i = i7 ~~ C\a.
j3i

Again since

"

= - SP "p

Cl c 2

now

ai7

71

ci,

any curve

a$.

we may

that

express derivatives of any

order in terms of a, ft y, and Oi, Ci, and the derivatives of
It

ai

is

and

Ci.

For instance we have

Pi
Pa
Pi

0c 3

ftci

+ 2{yai

The vector w

+ Pc

aai

= fe

aci)c 2

7C1

p2

OL,

(ya 2

is

fci,

(701

useful, for

turn each one of the vectors a,

/3,

7,

aci)ci,

ac 2 )ci

if

then

77

771

^( ai

Cl

represents in

= Fa^

the vector along the rectifying line through the point.

The centre of absolute curvature k is given by
K

lip"

+ Pld.

) Cl .

It

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

150

The

centre of spherical curvature

yd/da c{~

yc 2 /aiCi

2
.

The
It

given by

is

in the direction of 7.
polar line is the line through
the ultimate intersection of the normal planes.
Developable s. If we desire to study certain de-

is

3.

velopables belonging to the curve, a developable being the

locus of intersections of a succession of planes, we proceed

The equation
where t is the vector
thus.

a plane being S(w p)rj = 0,

to a variable point of the plane, and
of

a point on the curve, while

is

any vector belonging

is

rj

to the curve, then the consecutive plane

S(t

The

p)f)

intersection of this

whose equation

ds'd/dsS(w

is

p)r)

0.

and the preceding plane

is

the line

is

7r

r)Sar)

t)lVr}r}i.

This line lies wholly upon the developable. If we find a

secOnd consecutive plane the intersection of all three is a
point upon the cuspidal edge of the developable, which is
also the locus of tangents of the cuspidal edge.

This vector

is

tv

By

(VwySar}

2Vr)7]iSar)i

substituting respectively for

77,

Vr}7}iS^rjCi)/ST]r}ir]2'

a, ft 7,

we

arrive at the

polar developable, the rectifying developable, the tangentline developable.

EXAMPLE
Perform the substitutions mentioned.
4.

of a
eter

Trajectories. If a curve be looked upon as the path

moving point, that is, as a trajectory, then the parambecomes the time. In this case we find that (if
dp/dt, etc.) the velocity is p

av, the acceleration

is

DIFFERENTIALS

151

= ficiv2 av. The first term is the acceleration normal

p
to the curve, the centrifugal force, the second term is the
In case a particle is forced to
tangential acceleration.

describe a curve, the pressure

2

(3civ

There

+ (3(2cii +

c 2 v)

upon the curve

be a second acceleration, p

will

The

yaiCiV.

term

last

is

given by

a(v

wi 2 )

represents

draw the

particle out of the osculating

tendency per gram
plane, that is, to rotate the plane of the orbit.

to

If we take a point on the curve

p.
express p in the form

Expansion for

5.

we may

as origin,

sa

%cis

(3c 2 cia:

(3

~~

%s*(ci
~~ c

I C3

c cmy)
Clttl2 ~~ T[2c
2 /3

2 ai

da 2 ])

EXERCISES
1.
is

Every curve whose two curvatures are always

in a constant ratio

a cylindrical helix.
2.

The

straight line

is

the only real curve of zero curvature every-

where.
3. If the principal normals of a curve are
fixed plane it is a cylindrical helix.
4. The curve for which
Ci

1/ms,

ai

everywhere parallel to a

1/ns,

a helix on a circular cone, which cuts the elements of the cone under
a constant angle.
5. The principal normal to a curve is normal to the locus of the
centers of curvature at points where Ci is a maximum or minimum.
6. Show that if a curve lies upon a sphere, then
B sin a = C cos (a e), A, B, C, e are constants.
cr 1 = A cos a
The converse is also true.
7. The binormals of a curve do not generate the tangent surface of
a curve.

is

8.

Find the conditions that the unit vectors of the moving trihedral
remain at fixed angles to the unit vectors of the

afiy of a given curve

moving

trihedral of another given curve.

Two Parameters
6.

Surfaces.

If

the variable vector p depends upon two

it will terminate upon a surface of

arbitrary parameters

VECTOR CALCULUS

152

some kind.

For instance

if

<p(u,

then we

v),

may

write for the total differential of p

dp

We

dud/du(<p)

-f-

dvd/dv((p)

du<p u

+ dv<p

v.

find then

Fdp = dw2

+ 2Fdudv +

GW,

where

E=
We

F=

2
tt

have thus two

G=

S<p u <p v ,

differentials of p,

one for

^t,

constant,

one for u

constant, which will be tangent to the parametric curves upon the surface given by these equations,

and may be designated by

p 2 dv.

pidu,

The normal becomes then

v

= vPlp 2

Tv

= V (EG - F =
2

H.

For certain points or lines v may become indeterminate,

the points or lines being then singular points or singular
lines.

Curvatures.

7.

we

If

consider the point p and

dvp the two normals will be

point p + dupi
v
and v + duV(p n p2 + P1P12)
dvV(pi2p2 + P1P22) +
-f-

the

-f-

which

may

be written
v

The equations
V(w

They

P )v

intersect

and

+ dv.

of these lines are

=0,

V(w- p-

dP )(v

dv)

0.

if

Sdpvdv

0.

Points for which this equation holds

lie

upon a

line of

DIFFERENTIALS
curvature so that this

du2 Spivi>i

We may
dp

total differentials

2dudvS(piw 2

+ Pivv\) +

also write the equation in the

xv

the differential equation of such

is

we expand the

If

lines.

153

ydv

Multiply by

(pi

pidu

-\-

+ yv

yv\){p 2

p 2 dv

we have

dv 2 Sp 2

w =

form

xv

yv\du

and take the

2)

0.

yv 2 dv.

scalar part

of the product, giving

S(pi

yvi)(pi

= o
= y Svviv

P2#>

The ultimate

intersection of the

t =
that

is

and

point.

by

yv.

Hence we

dp

2ySv{piv 2

two normals
yv

+
is

2
.

given by

y<&>,

solve for yTv, giving

which are the principal

^ip 2 )

two values

radii of curvature at the

The product and the sum

of the roots

are re-

spectively

RR' = yy'Tv 2

R+
The

R'

reciprocal of the

by the

first,

that

- Tv%- Sw

2TvSv(piv 2

first,

-\-

v 2 ),

vip 2 )/Swiv 2

and one-half the second divided

is,

Spvivt/v

and

are the absolute curvature

Sv(piv 2

vip 2 )/Tv*,

and the mean curvature

of the

surface at the point.

The equation of the

vSdpvdv

lines of

curvature

= V-VdpVvdv =

may be also written

VdpV(dv/vv)

VdpdUv.

Hence the direction of dUv is that of a line of curvature,

when du and dv are chosen so that dp follows the line of
curvature.
That is, along a line of curvature the change
li

VECTOR CALCULUS

154

in the direction of the unit

normal

is

parallel to the line

of curvature.

When the mean curvature vanishes the surface is a

minimal surface, the kind of surface that a soapfilm will
take when it extends from one curve to another and the
pressures on the two sides are equal. The pressure indeed
is

the product of the surface tension and twice the mean

if the resultant pressure is zero, the

curvature, so that

mean curvature must

vanish.

If

the radii are equal, as in

will be twice the

a sphere, then the resultant pressure

surface tension divided

by the

radius, for each surface of the

and air pressure = 4

times surface tension/radius. The difference of pressure
is thus for a sphere of 4 cm. radius
equal to the surface
film, giving difference of pressure

tension, that

When

is,

27.45 dynes per cm.

is developable the absolute curvature

a surface

is

and conversely.

Surfaces are said to have positive

or negative curvature according as the absolute curvature
is positive or negative.
zero,

EXERCISES
1.

The

differential equation of spheres is

Vp(p
2.

The

The

a)

0.

differential equations of cylinders

Sva =
3.

differential

0,

Sv(p

a)

and cones are respectively

0.

equation of a surface of revolution

Sapv

is

0.

Why the center of spherical curvature of a spherical curve not

of necessity the center of the sphere?
5. Show how to find the vector to an umbilicus (the radii of curvature
are equal at an umbilicus).
4.

is

6. The differential equation of surfaces generated by lines that are

perpendicular to the fixed line a is

SVav<pVocv

where

<p

is

a linear function.

0,

DIFFERENTIALS
7.

The

differential equation of surfaces generated

the fixed line V(p

(3)

a =

The

differential

P)a<p{V V V(p

0)a)

is

0.

0.

that the catenoid

p

is

meet

is

SV(Va&-p)v(VYa0-p) =

Show

lines that

equation of surfaces generated by equal and

similarly situated ellipses

9.

by

is

SVvV{p
8.

155

xi

+ a cosh x/a(cos

+ sin 6k)

8j

a minimal surface, and that the two radii are db Tv, the normal which
drawn from the point to the axis.

Differentiation as to a Vector

2.
1.

Definition.

Let q

where a

is

be a function of

/(p)

a unit vector, then the change in q

dq=

q'

dq/dt

= Lim

p,

Let p be changed to p

scalar, vector, or quaternion.

= f{p+

dt-a)

and
[/(p

is

either

If

in

given by

we have dq a

term

first

dtf(p, a)

which a will enter only linearly.

In a linear function of a however

multiplier into every

- f(p)]/dt

dta)

we

dq

- /(p),

consider only the terms in

order of the infinitesimal scalar dt we can write

as dt decreases.

dt

in

a and

we can introduce the

write dta

dp, so that

linear function of dp,

dq

= f'(p,

dp).

needs to be noted that the vector a

It
is a function of the variable dt,
although a unit vector. The differential of q is of course a function of
the direction of dp in general, but the direction may be arbitrary, or be
a function of the variable vector p. It may very well happen that the
limit obtained above may be different for a given function / according

to the direction of the vector a.

In general, we intend to consider the

VECTOR CALCULUS

156

vector dp as having a purely arbitrary direction unless the contrary

is

stated.

EXAMPLES
Let

(1)

= "

2
.

Then
dq

= -

[p2

2dtS-pa

= T p we
2

Also since q

2
]

= -

2Spdp.

have

= 2TpdTp=-

dq

= -

2dtSpa

2Spdp,

whence

dTp/Tp

From

(2)

or

Sdp/p,

the definition

d(qr)

dTp

= -

SUpdp.

we have
dq-r

g-dr,

hence

d(Tp-Up)

and

= dTp-Up+ Tp-dUp =

utilizing the result of the preceding

dUp/Up
Also

=
'

we may

dUp =

write
etc.

p~ VpdpjTp,

dp

example, we have

Vdplp.

Vdpp-p/T p

= pVdpp/T p
3

This equation asserts that the dif-

the part of the arbitrary differential of p

perpendicular to Up, divided by the length of p, that is,
it is the differential angle of the two directions of p laid off
in the direction perpendicular to p in the plane of p and
ferential of

dp.

Up

In case dp

is

is

along the direction of p

dUp =

We

(3)
l

d{pp~ p)

itself,

0.

have since
dp

dp-p~ p

+ pd{p~ )p + pp~ dp
l

2dp

+ pd(p' )p
l

DIFFERENTIALS

and thence

dp
i.p-i

= -

p-Hpp-

pd{p~

157

)p,

- p-WpdpWFp

[p-'Spdp

=
That

is,

the differential of p~

is

p-'dp-p/rp.

the image of dp in p divided

by the square of Tp.

Hence
diVap)This vanishes
(4)

If

if

(Vap)- Vadp-VapjTWap.

dp is parallel to a.
a2p~ l dppj T 2p, and for two
a 2 /p then dir =

different values of dp, as dip, dip,

diir/diTT

we have

p~ dipld\p-p.

Therefore in the process of "inverting" or taking the

"
we find that the biradial of two dif"electrical image
ferential vectors

(5)

Tp

merely reflected in

Interpret this.

p.

a family of spheres with

c is

limit points.
of

is

For a

a and

as

differential dp confined to the surface

any sphere we have then

Sdp[(p

a)-

(p

a)-

1
]

0.

plane section through a can be written Syap = 0, in

which Syadp =
gives a differential confined to the plane.

Therefore a differential tangent to the line of intersection

any plane and any sphere will satisfy the equation

of

Vdp[VVyap
But the expression

+ a)- 1

in the

()

is

which passes through A and

such a sphere would be
p

2Sadp

(p

a)"

)]

0.

a tangent line to any sphere

A. For the equation of

a2 =

VECTOR CALCULUS

158

where
S(p

5 is

to

VaS)dp

a(p

vector, hence for

any

+ -

2piSap]

and

2pSap

Sap[p

any dp along the sphere,

-1
(p + a)

But

0.

a2

a) -1 is parallel
- Va8)[a(p + a

(p

5(p

For points on the

2pa5].

sphere the [] vanishes, hence the vector in question is a

tangent line. Also Vttt is perpendicular to it or r, therefore
the differential equation above shows that the tangent dp
of the intersection of the plane and the sphere of the

system

is

Hence

all

through
(6)

perpendicular to a sphere through A and A.

spheres of the set cut orthogonally any sphere

and A.

The equation SU

duced by the rotation

From

radical axis.

pa

this

of

a system of

+ a)(p-a) =
VU(p + a)(p - a) -

-e,
V

(1

Differentiating the scalar equation

P+

)UVap =

a.

we have

OL

TJ(p

+ a)V-^ >U(p
P

or

Sadp[(p

Now in

about their

circles

we have

SU(p

a familv of tores pro-

e is

+ a)- 1

a meridian section a
Vdp[(p

is

+ a)" -

(p

a)-

a)l

1
]

OL

0.

constant so that

(p

a)"

1
]

and dp is for such section tangent to a sphere through

and A.
EXERCISES

1.

The

potential due to a

mass

at the distance

Tp

is

m/Tp

in

DIFFERENTIALS
Find the

gravitation units.

and determine

tion,

The magnetic

2.

what

in

differential of the potential in

directions

is

this and determine in what direction,

dH = 0; for dp = dsVa^Vap, dH =
dH - V<rUd8./TV<rp.

The

3.

free

is

tion units

da

= -

due to an infinite straight

Find the differential of
= 0,
any, it is zero. For Vdpa

if

Hds/TV<rP

differential of

{pHp

<x

= -

SpSpdp)/T P

for

origin

dp

= dsUVap,

on a

particle of

variation in directions

P per unit mass in gravita-

Up/T*p.

Up and

in the directions
5

UaVap.

UVap,

Find the

attraction of gravitation at a point

is

to

parallel

p,

F/3p.

2/p

3
;

perpendicular,

The

5.

of current

force exerted

a at the

upon a

direc-

2h/Vap.

magnet a at the
u = Sap/T 3p. Find the

Up,

The

any

zero.

potential of a small

magnetism at p

4.

it is

force at the point

wire carrying a current a

159

particle of

UV@p/T sp.

magnetism at p by an element

origin is

H = - V<xP IT p.
Then dH = {pWadp
3VaP Spdp)/T P in the
in the direction Vap, VaUVap/T p.
s

direction of

p,

37a/p

3
;

6. The vector force exerted by an infinitesimal plane current at

the origin perpendicular to a, upon a magnetic particle or pole at p is

Find

its

2.

(ap

SpSap)/T*P

variation in various directions.

Differential of Quaternion.

We may

define differen-

functions of quaternions in the same manner as

functions of vectors. Thus we have T 2 q qKq so that
tials of

2TqdTq

d(qKq)

= [(q + dtUq)(Kq + dtUKq) = dtlqUKq + UqKq]

= qKdq dqKq
= ZSqKdq = 2SdqKq.
-f-

That

is,

dTq

= SdqUKq = SdqUq' =
1

or

dTq/Tq

Sdq/q.

TqSdq/q

qKq]

VECTOR CALCULUS

160

In the same manner we prove the other following formulae.

dUq/Uq = Vdq/q,
dSq = Sdq,
dVq = Vdq,
=
=
0,
dKq
Kdq,
S(dUq)/Uq
dSUq = SUqV(dq/q) = - S(dq/qUVq')TVUq

= TVUqdzq,
=
dVUq
VUKqV(dqlq),
dTVUq = - SdUqUVq = SUqdzq,
d-q = 2Sqdq + 2Sq- Vdq + 2Sdq- Vq,
q~ dqq~
d-q~ =
=
2V -qdq^qVaq- = 2V-dq(Va)q-\
d-qaq2

that
dr

is, if

gag

2V(dqjq>r)

-1
,

then

= - 2V(q-dq- -r)
= 2V(Vdq/q)r - 2q-V 'V{q- dq-a)q~
l

dUVq=
dzq=
We

define

when 7a

ax =

V'Vdq/Vq-UVq,
S[dqKUVq-q)].

cos irx/2

+ sin

7nc/2

catf

%tx;

thus

d-a*
If

Ta #

1,

tt/2-o:^

^.

then

d-a x

dz[log

7W* +

tt/2

-a x+1 /Ta\,

For a stationary value of /(p) in the

we have ay(p) = 0. If /(p) is to be
at
the
same time the terminal point of p
and
stationary
is to remain on some surface, or in general if p is to be subject
3.

Extremals.

vicinity of a point p

*Tait, Quaternions, 3d ed., p. 97.

DIFFERENTIALS

we must

to certain conditioning equations,

there

one equation, q(p)

is

maximum

we

0, dq(p)

and h(p)
two equations, g(p) =
= 0. Whether in all these
dh(p)
a

161

also have,

and

0,

if

then also dg(p)

0,

if

there are
0,

different cases /(p) attains

of numerical value or a

minimum,

or otherwise,

will consider later.

1.

g(p )

(p

a)

EXERCISES
= 0, find stationary

-f-

values of Tp

f(j>).

Differentiating both expressions,

Sdp(p

a) =

Sdpp,

Hence we must have dp

for all values of dp.

parallel to

a) = 0, for all values of

arbitrary, and hence Srp(p
we must have Vp(p a) = 0, or Yap = 0, or p = ya.
and solving for y,
p = a aUa.
y = 1 a/Tcc,

tp where t

r.

is

Therefore

Substituting

2. g( p )

Sdp(p
7/3(p

a)

3. ^( p )

Sdp( P

and

since

(p

Find stationary values of &/3p.

- a) = 0,
whence
'T,3(p
dpP.WjS,

0.

a )2

-f

y
2

0, &G>)

= V0VaP(l

SapSpp

V[a

a2

= x(aS$p

+ /8/Sap)

whence

*S/3p

at//3.

0, find stationary values

S-p0(p

a)

(a/3p

Substituting in the

c,

first

>Sap

equation,

c',

S*a0)/TVal3).

S/8p

jSflap),

+ pSap)/(Sa(3

Ta0),

za/3 -f

2
2//3

c,

U0)/(SUaU0

we

find

1).

SpUp, thence

p.

find stationary values of Tp.

SdP p = Sadp = Spdp =

xa2

pa/S,

Find stationary values of Tp.

Sap = TaSpU/3,

= SpU(3(Ua
5. Sfip

0.

dPp = o = dp(p
p

= a

a/T(3,

= = Spdp = Spdp, whence

= 0, p = yV-fiVafi.

a)

p0

*S/3ap,

a =y0,

p
4. #(p)

0.

of Tp.

a)

0,

ySafi

= xa
c',

+ y$

and

whence x and

y.

VECTOR CALCULUS

162

Find stationary values of Sap when

6.

Sctdp

(p

Sdp(p

a)

2
-f-

a2

0.

a);

hence
p

= ya = a

and
Sap = a 2
Find stationary values

7.

Sadp =

Find stationary values

(p

Find stationary values

9.

Sap when

for

= dP (p -

=xa+ fiSyp +

P
8.

aJ7a
aTa.

(p

)857P

TV8p when

a)

+a =
2

of

SaUp when
a)

+a =
2

a2

0.

etc.

0.

SppSyp +
- ySfip),

ySfip,

of

0.

Find stationary values of SaUpSpUp when

10.

Syp

+c

0.

4. Nabla.
The rate of variation in a given direction of
a function of p is found by taking dp in the given direction.
Since df(p) is linear in dp it may always be written in the

form

where

a linear quaternion, vector, or scalar function

is a scalar function, $ takes the form

is

In case /

of dp.

where

v is

Sdpv,

p, which is usually independent of

independent of the direction of dp, we

a function of

dp.

In case

call

/ a continuous, generally

Functions

v is

may

differentiable,

be easily constructed for which

function.
v varies

with the direction of dp. If when v is independent of dp we

take differentials in three directions which are not in the

same

plane,

pS dipd2 pd 3p
-

we have

V'dipd 2 p-Sd 3 pp

+V

'

d 2 pd 3p Sdipp
V d3pdipSd2 pp

= V 'd pd p'd f' Vd pd p-dif

1

V-d 3pdip-d2f.

DIFFERENTIALS
It

is

evident that

we

if

163

divide through

by

Sdipdipdzp, the

different terms will be differential coefficients.

The

entire

be looked upon as a differential operation

may

expression

upon/, which we

Thus we have

by V.

will designate

v= V/ =

Vdipdip d z
-

V- d2 pd s p

We may

k,

i, j,

V=
is

di

V- d^pdip d 2 )

= -

SdpVfip).

easy to find

then
id/dx

+ jd/dy +

V/ for any

kd/dz.

scalar function

from the equation

SdpVf. For instance,

ally differentiate
is,

,,

dipdipdzp

the three differentials are in three mutually rectangular

directions, say

It

then write
df( P )

If

df(p)

VSap =

Vp = -

nn~
V(Tp) = nTp Up = nTp
V
VSaUp = - p-WUpa,

a)-'

= -

gener-

2p,

V-log TVap

VT(p -

is

VTp = Up,
V TVap = TJVap-a,
-p,
SapSpp = - pSd$ - Vap(3,

a,

which

for df(p) above, that

U(p

-^~,
vap

- a)lT\p-

a),

VSaUpS(3Up = p-WpVap^P,
Vlog Tp= UP /Tp= -p~\
V(ZpA*) =
5.

/(p)

Gradient.

C,

If

then we

tangent to

it

S dp p

p~

UVpa =

pUVap

we

consider the level surfaces of /(p),

have generally for dp on such surface or

df(p)

where

p.

is

the normal of the

VECTOR CALCULUS

164
surface.

hold for

Since Sdp\7f
and since the two expressions
values of dp in a plane

all

M
or since the tensor of

p.

is

*V/,

arbitrary,

we may say V/(p)

is

the normal to the level surface of /(p) at p. It is called

the gradient of /(p), and by many authors, particularly in

books on electricity and magnetism, is written grad. p.

The gradient is sometimes defined to be only the tensor
of V/, and sometimes is taken as V/.
Care must be
exercised to ascertain the usage of each author.
Since the rate of change of /(p) in the direction

&*V/(p),

it

follows that the rate

direction that coincides with

is

UVf, hence

maximum

is

for the

the gradient

V/(p)
gives the

That

is,

maximum

TVf

is

rate of

the

change off(p) in direction and

maximum

size.

rate of change of /(p) and

UVfis the direction in which the point P must be moved in

order that /(p) shall have its maximum rate of change.
6. Nabla Products.
The operator V is sometimes called
the Hamiltonian and

it

may

be applied to vectors as well

These
have occasion to study at length farther on. It
be sufficient here to notice the effect of applying
and

as to scalars, yielding very important expressions.

we

shall

will

combinations to various expressions. It is to be observed that

may be found from dq, by writing dq
its

VQ
VQ =

$-dp, then

i$i

+ j$j +

k$k.

For examples we have

Vp =

{Vdipdzp-dzp

= -

Vd2pdsp-dip

Vdzpdip d 2 p) I'( Sdipd 2 pd 3p)

since the vector part of the expression vanishes.

DIFFERENTIALS

Vp_1 =
- -

1
1
(Vdipd2 p-p~ d 3 pp~

P"

165

)/( Sd 1 pd 2 pd 3p)

2
.

Since

V^

dUp =

dTp

Up,

= -

SUpdp.

Hence

VUp = 2iV--Up=

-~,

VTp=

Tp

Up.

Expressions of the form 2F(i, i, Q) are often written

F($ r> Q)> a notation due to McAulay.
>

Vap =

VfaSfap

cx 2 S/3 2 p

a,

= -

mSfop)

0m +

/5 2

a2

1830:3),

VFap = 2a,
VVap(3 = &xft
=
VSapVfip
Sapp + 3/3a<p - pSa(3,
V TTap = C/Fap
VVaUp= (a + p^Sap)/ Tp,
VTVpVap
(Fap + ap)UVpVap,
VVap/T p m (ap - SpSap)/T p,

V UVP

=Tkp>

a,

VUVpVap =

'

V(Vap)-i=0,

^P-,

(g)=0.

EXERCISE
Show
of a,

/3,

that (Fa/3 -<l>y

7,

where $

is

-+-

y0y<>a

any rational

quaternion) of the vector following

pression

is 5

Vy<x'3?P)/Sa0y

is

independent

linear function (scalar, vector, or

If

it.

<*>

S8(

+ 2ai<S/3i(

+ S/Siai.

Notation for Derivatives of Vectors

Directional derivative

SaV, Tait, Joly.

a- V, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann,

Tp

-a,

Jung.

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

the ex-

VECTOR CALCULUS

166

Circuital derivative

VaV, Tait, Joly.

a X V, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann,

Jung.

Projection of directional derivative on the direction.

l

S-<r vSau, Tait,

Joly.

Fischer.

>

da
Projection

of

directional

derivative

perpendicular

to

the

direction

V-trhi'SV'a, Tait, Joly.

Fischer.

da
Gradient of a scalar

V,

Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson,

Jaumann, Jung, Carvallo,

Bucherer.
grad, Lorentz, Gans,

Abraham,

Peano, Jaumann, Jung.

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo,

grad, Jahnke, Fehr.

[Fischer's multiplication follows Gibbs, d/dr

p.

dr

being after the operand, the whole being

read from right to left; e.g., Fischer's
Vfl is equiv. to
vSV.]

Gradient of a vector

V,

Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson,

grad,
-=-

>

Jaumann, Jung, Carvallo.

Jaumann, Jung.

Fischer.

dr
7.

Directional Derivative.

operators in

which

occurs

One

of the

is SaV,

most important
which

gives, the

DIFFERENTIALS

167

rate of variation of a function in the direction of the unit

vector a.

The operation is called directional

differentiating.

SaV-p = - 2Sap,
SaV'Sfo = - SaP,
SaVTp- = - Sap/Tp* = UY^pSaVTp - SaUp,
2

SaVTVap=
An

SaV-Up= -

0,

iteration of this operator

rational spherical

and

solid

- SaVTp- = 1

^~

l
upon Tp~ gives the

harmonics as follows

Sap/Tp*

2
,

series of

UYiTff*,

2
5
Sl3VSaVTp- = (3SapS(3p+ Tp Sa(3)Tp- = 2\Y2 Tp~\
1

SyVSWSaVTp- = 1

(3.5SapS(3pSyp

+
For an n

axial

Yn = S.(-

l)

32S(3ySapTp )Tp-

3\Y 3 Tp~\

harmonic we apply n operators, giving

s
n-28
8
n
(2n

2s)!/[2 -*nl(n

aUpS a a 2

s)l\ES

^ s^
The summation runs over n

n/2.

2s factors of the type

and s factors of the type SajCtjSotnar
SaiUpSoi2Up
each subscript occurring but once in a given term. The
expressions Y are the surface harmonics, and the expressions

arising

from the differentiation are the

of negative order.

When

multiplied

solid

by Tp

harmonics

2n+1

we have

corresponding solid harmonics of positive order.

The use of harmonics will be considered later.
8.

Va\7

Circuital Derivative.
called

Another important operator

the circuital derivative.

It

is

gives the areal

density of the circulation, that is to say, if we integrate

the function combined with dp in any linear way, around
an infinitesimal loop, the limit of the ratio of this to the
area of the loop
to the area.

is

We

the circuital derivative,

give a few of

its

a being the normal

formulae.

We may

also

VECTOR CALCULUS

168
find

from the

it

differential,

for

FaV
VaV Tp - VaUp,
=
VaV Up (Sap
pSap)/Tp\

Fa V

FaV
Fa V

V(3p

7Tft>

dQ = $dp, Fa V Q

if

= a(3+ S-aP,
- - V-apUVpp,

= nTpn~2 Vap
VaV-SQp = F/3a,
FaV -ft> = 2Sa(3,

Tp

FaV -p - -

2a,

p + a S/3 p) - Sa( A + "A

(aiSftp + a
a
+ fo) + FaiFa/3i + Fa Fa/3 + Fa Fa/3

2 S/3 2

VQ =

3.

Q =0. In a preceding
formula we saw that V(Vap)~ = 0. We can easily find
to any vector
a number of such vectors, for if we apply Sa
9.

Solutions of

0,

new vector of the same

and
Sa V are commutative
kind.
The two operators V
in their operation.
For instance we have
of this kind

we

shall arrive at a

d(Vap)~

= - (VapyWadp-iVap)-

1
;

hence

= ^V-(Fap)- =
1

T
is

a new vector which gives

{Vap)- V$a>{Vap)-

Vr =

0.

The

series

can easily

be extended indefinitely. Another series is the one de3

rived from Up/T 2p. This vector is equal to p/T p, and its
differential is

(-p2dp+SSdpp.p)/T%
The new vector

for

which the gradient vanishes

is

then

(-ap +3Sap-p)/7V
The

however is easily seen to arise from the

Tp~ and hence is the first step in the process of
2
l =
So also
0.
twice, and it is evident that S7 Tp~
2
case above is the first step in applying V to log

latter case

V
V

vector

using
the first

TVap-a~

so that

(log

TVap-a)

0.

Functions of p

that satisfy this partial differential equation are called

DIFFERENTIALS

harmonic functions. That

Indeed

if

we

is,/(p) is

169

harmonic

if

V /(p) =
2

0.

any harmonic scalar function of p

have a vector whose gradient van-

start with

and apply V we shall

ishes, and it will be the beginning of a series of such vectors
However we
to it.
produced by applying &*iV, Sa 2 V,
may also apply the same operators to the original harmonic

function deriving a series of harmonics. From these can

be produced a series of vectors of the type in question.
2
The concentraF(p) is called the concentration of F(p)

tion vanishes for a harmonic function.

EXERCISES
Show

that the following are harmonic functions of p:

Tp- 1 tan" 1 Sap/Spp,

1.

where a and
2.

/?

are perpendicular unit vectors,

VECTOR CALCULUS

170

If

is

w/7p

harmonic and of degree n homogeneously in

(n 1). For
is a harmonic of degree

p,

then

2n+I

(fp2n+1)-1

. V[ _ 2n+
(

l) p

rp-2n-3]

= - (2n+

l)(2n)Tp~

2n- 3

and

SVuVTp- "- = - (2n+

2

2n

l)Tp- -*SVup

= (2n+

l)(2n)uTp-

2n

-*;

hence

-u/Tp

2n+1

0.

a solid harmonic of degree n and uTp~ 2n l

a solid harmonic of degree
n
1.
Also uTp"11 is a

In this case w
is

is

The converse

corresponding surface harmonic.

is

true.

EXAMPLES OF HARMONICS
Degree n

= 0;

<p

tan-1

>pp

where Sc&

^ =

log cot

0,

a2 =

2
/3

= ^/ -a
a

1;

S-a(3UpSapS(3p/V

Sa(3UpS(a

= -

+ 0)pS(a

1;

-a(3p;
2

/3)p/F a/3p.

The

gradients of these as well as the result of any operaare solid harmonics of degree
1, hence multiply= 1, 2n 1 = 1] gives harmonics
ing the results by Tp[n
again of degree 0. These will be, of course, rational
tion

Sy V

harmonics but not integral.

any
Taking the gradient again or operating by $71
number of times will give harmonics of higher negative
n by Tp2n~1
degree.
Multiplying any one of degree
will give a solid harmonic of degree n 1.
= 1. Any harmonic of degree divided by
Degree n
Tp, for example,
2

1/Tp,

ip/Tp,

f/Tp,

Saf3UpSaUpS(3p/V

a(3p,

DIFFERENTIALS

Degree n

SaUp/p

2.
2

<pSa(3Up/p

Degree n

171

xPSa(3Up/p

+ P"

1.

Sop,

Other degrees

may

^Softa

*>&*ft>,

7p

easily be found.

Rational Integral Harmonics. The most interesting

harmonics from the point of view of application are the
rational integral harmonics.
For a given degree n there
11.

are 2n

independent rational integral harmonics. If

n
by Tp we have the spherical harmonics

these are divided

When

these are set equal to a constant the

level surfaces will be cones and the intersections of these
of order n.

with a unit sphere give the lines of level of the spherical

harmonics of the given order. A list of these follow for

certain orders.
Drawings are found in Maxwell's Electricity

and Magnetism.
Rational integral harmonics, Degree
a, ft, y a trirectangular unit system.

Degree

2.

1.

SapS(3p, SfoSyp, SypSap,

Sap,

3S 2ap

S(3p,

+p

2
,

Syp,

S 2ap

s pP
These correspond to the operators 7p 5 [ 2 7V, SyVSaV,
SyVSPV, S(a 0) VS(a - 0) V, SaVSQV] on Tp'K
.

3.

Degree

2z 3

Representing Sap by

Dx
z, SaV by
3x z 3y z,
2

x2z

4:Z

xz

xyz,

z,

3xy

y, Syp by
D we have
xy y
y

by

by

x, Sfip

D y SyV
x* y x,

S(3V by

A.z

3x2 y

corresponding to

^7)3
zzz

7)3

-lszzx

7)3

Lf zzy

7)

7)
^xxz

LSyyy

3
j

3
>

_
_

7)

J^xyz

7)
^xxx

Q7)
OJ^xxy

3
>

_ OU
Q7) X
yy

3
,

VECTOR CALCULUS

172
Degree

4.

+ 3y + 8z + 6*y -

- 24yV,
- Sx - 3y
3^ - 3i/
*z(4z
yz(4z
x y

x
(^
y
xy(6z
y )(6z
x* + y* - My
xz(x>
yzQx
y
Sy
-y
xyix
3z4

24z2z2
2

),

),

),

),

),

2
,

DIFFERENTIALS

173

plane normal to a. If we follow the vector

we leave the point we shall get a determinate
/3
We may
curve, provided we consider a to be its normal.
however draw any surface through the point which has
lines in the

after

line for

normal and then on the surface draw any curve

through the point. All such curves can serve as ft curves
but a might not be their principal normal. It can happen
therefore that the j8 curves and the y curves may start out
for its

However

from the point on different surfaces.

a,

(3,

and y

are definite functions of the position of the point P, with

the condition that they are unit vectors and mutually

perpendicular.
If we go to a

a becomes
and
becomes
a + da, ft becomes fi + dp,
y
y + dy. The
new vectors are unit vectors and mutually perpendicular,
hence we have at once
new

position infinitesimally close,

S-ada = S-pdp = S>ydy

Spdy = - Sydp,

Sadp

0,

Syda = -

These equations are used frequently

We have likewise since a2 = 1,

Va-a = -

VW,=

vy-t
where the accent on the

in

We

V(3-a=

making

n
{L)
.

reductions.

VW,

(2)

v'rr'j

indicates that

on the accented symbols following.

Va-j8

S(3da,

Sady.

= -

V/3-/3

= -

V'a0'

it

operates only

Similarly

V'j&x',

we have
etc.

(3)

notice also that

S-a(SQV)a =

S-a(SQV)0 =
We now

0,

etc.

S-p(S()V)a,

operate on the equation

y =

afi

with

(4)

V, and

VECTOR CALCULUS

174

remember that for any two vectors

+ 2<SX/x, whence

V7 =

Va-j3

V'aP'

Va-/3

we have

X/x

V/3-a

now we take

If

Sj8V0

juX

(5)

vectors are

2V'Sct(3'-y.

the scalar of both sides

SyVy = SaVa +

We

Vj8-|8

2V'Sa(3'.

The corresponding equations for the other two

found by changing the letters cyclically.
Multiply every term into y and we have

Vt-7 = Vo-a

X/x

(G)

we have

2SyV'Sa(3'.

(7)

now

set

2p

+ &*Va +

SjSVjS

#7 Vt

(8)

gives, with the similar equations

and the equation (7)

deduced by cyclic interchange

of the letters,

SyVSctP - - SyV'Sa'Q = - p + S7V7,

SaV'SPy' m - SaV'Sfi'y = - P + 5a V,
SpVSya' = - SpV'Sy'a = - p + S0V/3,
- S-Tf- 5a V y] = 5a V 77' = |&* V 72 = 0,
- 5-a[- 5aV-7] = - SaV-Sa'y
= Sy( SaV -a) = Sy(u(3 + vy) =

That

is

to say, the rate of change of y,

along a,

is

(p

if

the point

p). Likewise
= 7( p + 5aVa)

is

v.

moved

]8(5aVa
dfi/ds

The

trihedral

SaVa)

as

therefore rotates
its

We may also
h -

about a with the rate

Now we

vertex moves along a.

ta

+p-

-ya.

SaVa.

let

(10)

write at once, similarly,

+ V - S0VA

= +

5 7 V7,

(10)

from which we derive

t+

V+ <-+*

(ID

DIFFERENTIALS

175

It is also evident that

*.

+U

= SrVy,

tfi

*,

- SaVa, 7 +
/

/a

= 5/3 V/3.

(12)

The

expressions on the left hold good for any two perpendicular unit vectors in the plane normal to the vector
on the right, and hence if we divide each by 2 and call the
result the

mean

rotatory deviation for the trajectories of the

vector on the right,

TjSctVct

we have

= mean

rotatory deviation for a.

Again the negative rotation

what we have
along

mean

j3.

for the

trajectory gives

called previously the rotatory deviation of

Hence, as a similar statement holds for y, the

rotatory deviation

is

one half the sum of the rotatory

Hence %Sa\7a

deviations.

is

the negative rate of rotation

whose central
moves along a. Or

of the section of a tube of infinitesimal size,

trajectory

is

a,

we may go back

about

a, as the point

to (9) and see that

SaVa = (+ p ~ SPVB)

(+ V

~ SyVy)

= - SpV'Sya'

SyV'Sfa',

which gives the rotatory deviations directly.

The scalar of (5) and the like equations are

SVa = SyVP - Sj3\7y, SVP = SaVy - SyVa,

SVy = SfiVa - SaVP,
We

multiply next

SyVa =
SfiVa m
SaVP =
T V/3 =
SfiVy =
SaVy =

(5)

by a and take the

(13)

scalar, giving

- SaV'Sfia' = SaV'Sa(3
- SaVSay* = SaV'Sya',
- SpV'Sy? = St3V'S(3y',
- SpV'Spa' = S(3V'Sa(3',
- SyV'Say' = SyV'Sya',
- SyV'Sy(3' m SyV'Sfiy'.
f

(14)

VECTOR CALCULUS

176

We

can therefore write

SVa = - SWSPa' -

SyV'Sya',

is SVa equals the negative sum of the projection of

the rate of change of a along (3 on /3, and the rate of change
But these are the divergent deviations
of a along y on y.

that

a and hence

of

section.

SVa

is

the geometric divergence of the

expansion of the area of

It gives the rate of the

the cross-section of the tube around a.

corresponding equations of

/8

and

We may

write the

y.

Again we have

FVa = aSaVa (3S(3Va ySyVoc

= cx(ta - v) - PSy(SaV-a) + ySp(SaV-a)
= a(ta p) Va(SaV-a).
Now

from the Frenet formulae

where

c a is

Sa'V

/i

one

is

is

c a v,
is

the

Hence

Wa =
where

the curvature of the trajectory and v

principal normal.

fore that

'Ol

a(t a

p)

+ CJh

(15)

the binormal of the trajectory. We find thereconsists of the sum of two vectors of which

VVd

twice the rate of rotation of the section or an elemen-

tary cube about a, measured along a, and the other is twice

the rate of rotation of the elementary cube about the
binormal measured along the binormal.* But we will see
*

This should not be confused with the rotation of a rigid area mov-

ing along a curve. The infinitesimal area changes its shape since each
point of it has the same velocity. As a deformable area it rotates (i.e.

the invariant line of the deformation) with half the curvature as its
The student should picture a circle as becoming an ellipse,

rate.

which

ellipse also rotates

about

its center.

DIFFERENTIALS
later that this

sum

is

177

the vector which represents twice the

and the axis as it moves along

rate of rotation of the cube

the trajectory of a. Hence this is what we have called

the geometric curl.
We may now consider any vector a defining a vector

not usually a unit vector.

field

SVa = SUaVTa

Since a

TaUa, we have

TaSvUa.

The last term is the geometric convergence multiplied by

the length of a, that is, it is the convergence of a section
The first term is the negative rate of
at the end of a.
a.
The two together give therefore
the rate of decrease of an infinitesimal volume cut off from

change of TV along
the vector tube, as

moves along the tube.

it

guage of physics, this

we have

The

last

Wa=
term

is

is

the convergence of a.

In the lanSimilarly

VvTaU<r+ TaWUa.

the double rate of rotation of an elementary

a, while the first term is a rotation about

cube at the end of

that part of the gradient of Ta which is perpendicular to

Ua. It is, indeed, for a small elementary cube a shear of

one of the faces perpendicular to Ua, which gives, as we

have seen, twice the rate of rotation corresponding. Consequently
tary cube.

VVa is twice the

vector rotation of the elemen-

EXAMPLES
(1)

Show

aSVa +
(2)

(3S

Show

that

V0 + yS Vt
= -

that

if

VaWa - V(3WP - VyV\7y.

zero VaWa =
This
the

dipt) is

0.

is

condition that the lines of the congruence be straight.

is

necessary and sufficient.

It

VECTOR CALCULUS

178

- SaVa z, then Tf = V + *%
= &x V = #ia + c^/3 + c%y where the subscript

(3)

Wot -

Let

[c

f,

fi
1

means

differentiation as to

s,

that

is,

along a line of the

congruence.

S^ -

a!

cip;

cr'Sfei

+ x,

or

This gives the torsion in terms of the curl of a and

its

derivative.
(4)

If

the curves of the congruence are normals to a set

of surfaces, then

= UVu

V = V u/TVu 2

and

SaVa =

Hence we have at once

necessary and sufficient.

x.

V(l/TVu)-Vu.
This condition

is

(5)

If

also

VaWoi

0,

we have a Kummer normal

In this case by adding the two

that is, Wot = 0. This condition

system of straight rays.

conditions,
is

aV\/a =

also necessary
(6)

If

+ SyVy

and

0,

sufficient.

the curves are plane, i

or $/?i

xci,

which

=
is

Sa\7a = $/3V/3
necessary and suffior

cient.
(7)

If further

+ SyVy = =

they are normal to a set of surfaces

The converse holds.
jS|8f i.

and conversely.
Syi =
or
and therefore circles, #/3i =
This
is
and
sufficient.
C\x(3.
necessary
For a normal system of circles we have also

S8VP

(8) If Ci is constant,

If also plane,

VVa =
(9)

For twisted curves

const

X\a

C\y.

of constant curvature i

= ciaifi.

differentials

179

Notations
Vortex of a vector

VVu,

VX

Tait, Joly, Heaviside, Foppl, Ferraris.

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

u,

curl u,

Maxwell, Jahnke, Fehr, Gibbs, Wilson, Heaviside,

Foppl, Ferraris.
[Vm], Bucherer.

Jaumann, Jung, Lorentz, Abraham, Gans, Bucherer.

rot u,

Quirl also appears.

rot u, Burali-Forti,

Marcolongo.

Fischer.

dr

Vort u, Voigt.

(Notations corresponding to
some that use curl or rot.)

VVu are also

in use

by

Divergence of a vector

SVu,

Tait, Joly.

S\7u

is

the "convergence" of

Max-

well.

u,

div

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

u,

Jahnke,

Fehr,

Gibbs,

Wilson,

Jaumann, Jung,

Lorentz, Bucherer, Gans, Abraham, Heaviside, Foppl,

Ferraris, Burali-Forti,

\7u, Lorentz,

Marcolongo.

Abraham, Gans, Bucherer.

Fischer.

dr
Derivative

- SQV-u,

Vw,

Gibbs, Wilson.

u,

dyad

Tait, Joly.

Jaumann, Jung.

du
-p=

aJr

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Fischer.

dr

Du

Shaw.

of a vector

VECTOR CALCULUS

180

Conjugate derivative dyad of a vector

VS(), Tait, Joly.

Vm-, Gibbs, Wilson.

V; u- Jaumann, Jung.
f

Ki(), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

-j-, Fischer.

drc

D u -,Shaw.
Planar

dyad of a

derivative

vector

WVuQ, Tait, Joly.

VX(mX

0), Gibbs, Wilson.

V *u, Jaumann,

Jung.

du

CK
Burali-Forti,
x(D u ), Shaw.
,

Marcolongo.

Dispersion.

2
,

Tait, Joly.

is

the "concentration" of Maxwell.

Lorentz, Abraham, Gans, Bucherer.

V-V,

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

div grad, Fehr, Burali-Forti,

Concentration

Marcolongo.

div grad, Jahnke.

.
A2, for scalar operands, 1^,
,*,, A . % A/, for vector operands, jBurah-Forti, Marcolongo.

-7-5

>

dr

Fischer.

Dyad

of the gradient.

VSV, Tait, Joly.

VV-, Gibbs, Wilson.
V; V, Jaumann,
grad

Gradient of the divergence

Jung.

div, Buroli-Forti,

Marcolongo.

DIFFERENTIALS
Planar dyad of

VVVV(),

V*V,
rot

Vortex of the vortex

the gradient.

Tait, Joly.

Jaumann, Jung.

Lorentz, Bucheoer, Gons, Abraham.

2
,

curl

181

2
,

Heaviside, Foppl, Ferraris.

rot rot, Burali-Forti,

Marcolongo.
Vector Potential, Solenoidal Field.
then we say that a is a vector potential of .
13.

v = SV

2
<r

If

= VVv,

Obviously

0.

The

vector potential is not unique, since to it may be added

When the convergence of a
of vanishing curl.
vector
any
of
the vector in a given region
vector vanishes for all values

we

call

the vector solenoidal.

the vector

We
which
for

is

the curl vanishes then

If

lamellar.

have an example of lamellar fields in the vector field

is determined by the gradient of any scalar function,

WVu =

In case the

0.

field of

a unit vector

is

solenoidal

we

see

from

the considerations of 12 that the first and second divergent

If
deviations of any one of its vector lines are opposite.

then we draw a small circuit in the normal plane of the

vector line at P and at the end of dp a second circuit in
the normal plane at p
circuit back upon the
will overlie

the

and if we project this second

normal plane, then the second
such a way that if from P a radius
dp,

first

first in

vector sweeps out this circuit then for every position in

which the radius vector must be extended to reach the

second circuit there

angles to

amount.
of the

two

a corresponding position at right

must be shortened by an equal
It follows that the limit of the ratio of the areas

it

in

is

which

circuits

is

it

unity.

followed throughout the field

Hence
it will

if

such a vector tube

is

have a constant cross-

VECTOR CALCULUS

182

In the general case it is also clear that SVcr gives

the contraction of the area of the tube.

section.

When

<r

is

not a unit vector then we see likewise that

12 has a value which is the product of the contraction in area by the TV -f- the contraction of TV multi-

SVcr by

Hence SVv repreplied by the area of the initial circuit.

sents the volume contraction of the tube of a for length TV
per unit area of cross-section. When the field is solenoidal
it follows that if TV is decreasing the tubes are widening

and conversely.
For instance, S\/Up

2/Tp signifies that per unit

the
area
of
a
circuit
which is normal to p
p
length along
is increasing in the ratio 2/Tp, that is, the flux of Up is

3
Also Vp =
increasing at the rate of 2/ Tp along p.
an infinitesimal volume taken out of the

indicates that

Of this the increase 2

p is increasing in the ratio 3.
due to the widening of the tubes, as just stated, the
increase 1 is due to the rate at which the intensity of the

field of
is

field is increasing.

of increase of

If

volume

per second.
It is evident

volume dv that

the
of

field is

a velocity

field,

an infinitesimal mass

now if we multiply SVo" by a

we have an expression for the

is

the rate
3 times

differential

differential

the velocity of a moving mass

of air, say unit mass, then SV<? is the rate of compression
of this moving mass, and SVcrdv is the compression per
flux into the

volume.

If

unit time of this mass,

mass per unit time

is

and

fffSVcrdv

is

the increase

density or comunit
time
of
a
finite
mass
which occupies
pression per
given
the
volume
the
initially
moving
furnishing
boundary pf
in

of

matter at

initial

the integral.
If r is the specific momentum or velocity of unit volume
times the density, then SVr is the condensation rate or

DIFFERENTIALS

183

rate of increase of the density at a given fixed point,

SVrdv

is

and

the increase in mass in dv per unit time. Hence

is the increase in mass per unit time in a

SffSVrdv

given fixed space.

Since

1
-t

where

c is

density at a point,

SVo-

= --SVct
cr

= _
=

e,

S(TV

+ -SVt
c

B log c
logc+ _JL_ =

_iLc
d log

total relative rate of change of density

due to velocity and to time,

=
SVc-dv=

relative rate of

moving point.
increase in mass of a

by the

fffSVv-dv =

change of density at a

increase in

mass

in a

unit of time divided

moving dv divided

original density.

moving volume per

by original density,

decrease in volume of an original mass.

=
=
fluid SVt
=
salinity #Vcr

For an incompressible
and for a homogeneous
In water of differing

fluid

SVcr

or a

is

solenoidal,

or t

is

solenoidal.

0,

SVr

=\=

0.

We

have a case of constant r in a column of air. If we take

a tube of cross-section 1 square meter rising from the ocean
to the cirrus clouds,

we may suppose

that one ton of air

enters at the bottom, so that one ton leaves at the top, but

the volume at the bottom

is

1000 cubic meters and at the

top 3000 cubic meters. Hence the volume outflow at the

top is 2000 cubic meters. In the hydrosphere a and r

VECTOR CALCULUS

184

the atmosphere r is solenoidal. We

measure a in m?/sec and r in tons/ra2 sec. At every staare solenoidal,

in

and r are tangential, and at a surface

normal component of the
velocity must be the same on each side of the surface, as
for example, in a mass of moving mercury and water.
It is evident that if a vector is solenoidal, and if we
tionary boundary

<r

of discontinuity of mass, the

know by observation

or otherwise the total divergent devia-

tions of a vector of length TV, then the

sum

furnish us the negative rate of change of

of these will

TV along

a.

we can observe the outward deviations of r in the

case of an air column, we can calculate the rate of change of
TV vertically. If we can observe the outward deviations of
a tube of water in the ocean we can calculate the decrease
Thus,

if

forward velocity.

in

EXERCISES.
1.

An

infinite cylinder of

20 cm. radius of insulating material of

permittivity 2 [farad/cm.], is uniformly charged with l/207r electrostatic

units per cubic cm.
Find the value of the intensity E inside the rod,

and
the

also outside, its convergence, curl,

find it.

and

if

there

is

a potential for

field,

2.

conductor of radius 20 cm. carries one absolute unit of current

per square centimeter of section. Find the magnetic intensity H inside

and outside the wire and determine its convergence, curl, and potential.
14. Curl.

of the curl

We now turn our attention to another meaning

of a vector.
We can write the general formula

for the curl

W<t= -aSUaVUa- pSyVTa + y(cT(T+ SfiVTa)

Ua =

a'.
These terms we will interpret, one by one.
was shown that the first term is a multiplied by the sum
of the rotational deviations of <r'
But if we consider a
small rectangle of sides t)dt = dip and rdu = d2 p, then the

Let
It

corresponding actual deviations are

Sdipd 2 a

and

Sd2 pdia'

DIFFERENTIALS

185

and the sum becomes

Sdipdtff'

Sd 2 pdi<r'.

But d2 a' is the difference between the values of a' at the

origin and the end of d 2 p, and to terms of first order is the
difference of the average values of a' along the two sides

and d\p + d2 p dip. Likewise dia is the difference

between the average values of a' along the side d 2 p and its
Hence if we consider Sdpa' for a path consisting
opposite.
of the perimeter of the rectangle, the expression above is

dip

the value of this Sdpa' for the entire path, that is, is the
Hence the coefficient
circulation of <j' around the rectangle.

- SUaVUa
the limit of the quotient of the circulation around dip d 2 p
divided by dtdu or the area of the rectangle.
is

If we divide any finite area in the normal plane of a into

elementary rectangles, the sum of the circulations of the
elements will be the circulation around the boundary, and
we thus have the integral theorem

fSdpa = ffSdipd2P V\7<j

when Vdipd 2 p is parallel to Fy<r. The restriction, we
see, may be removed as the theorem is always true.
The component of V\7<r along a is then

Ua
as the area decreases

Lim

shall

j^Sdpcr/area of loop

and the plane of the loop is normal to a.

(3SyV Ta. It is easy to reduce

Consider next the term

to this form the expression

[- S*'(SyV)<r

But

this
13

is

Sy(S&'V)<r][-

j8].

>

id

the circulation about a small rectangle in the

VECTOR CALCULUS

ISC.

plane normal to
direction

(3

Hence the component

/?.

of

VVcr

in the

is

Lim

J'Sdpff/aresi of loop in plane

normal to

/?.

Likewise the other term reduces to a similar form and the

component

of V\7<r in the direction

7 Lim

It follows

V\7(T along

is

tfSdpa/sLYea of loop in plane normal to 7.

if

a Lim

is

any unit vector that the component

of

is

JfSdpa/sLfesL of loop in plane

as the loop decreases.

The

direction of

normal to a

UVS/a

is

then

that direction in which the limit in question is a maximum,

and in such case TV\7a is the value of the limit of the circulation divided

mum

by the

area.

That

TVS/v

is,

is

the maxi-

circulation per square centimeter.

Another interpretation of VV<? is found as follows: Let

us suppose that we have a volume of given form and that a
is a velocity such that each point of the volume has an inde-

Then the moving volume will

The
shape.
point which is originally
change
be found at the new point p + cr(p)dt. A point

pendent velocity given by

in general

at p will

near

and

p,

a.

its

say p

+ dp + a(p + dp)dt,
+ dp has become instead

dp, will be found at p

the line originally

from p to p

of dp,

dp

But

this

dp'

-f-

dt[a(p

+ dp)

<r(p)]

dp

SdpV 'vdt.

can be written

= dp- [W-^'dpa'

idpSVo-

iV(W(r)dp]dt.

This means, however, that we can find three perpendicular

axes in the volume in question such that the effect of the

DIFFERENTIALS

motion

move the points of the volume parallel to these

and to subject them to the effect of the term

to

is

directions

dp

Now

187

if

we

iV(W(r)dp

dt.

consider an infinitesimal rotation about the

e its effect is given by the form (du being half of the

instantaneous angle)

vector

(1

edu)p(l

edu)

2Vepdu;

+ dp will become the vector

p + 2Vepdu + dp
2Vedpdu,

hence the vector joining p and p

p

joining

and

2Vepdu

-f-

2Vedp du. We find therefore

that the form above means a rotation about the vector
UVV<r of amount \TV\7adt, or in other words V\/a,
that

is,

dp becomes dp

when a is a velocity, gives in its unit part the instantaneous axis of rotation of any infinitesimal volume moving
under this law of velocity, and its tensor is twice the angular velocity.

is

For

When

rotation.

this reason the curl of

V\/<r

0,

called a velocity potential.

still call

ua

is

often called the

a has the form a

If

is

\/u,

and u

not a velocity, we

potential for a.

EXERCISES.
1.

If

a mass of water

is

rotated about a vertical axis at the rate of

two revolutions per second, find the stationary velocity. What are the
convergence and the curl of the velocity? Is there a velocity potential?
2. If a viscous fluid is flowing over a horizontal plane from a central
axis in such way that the velocity, which is radial, varies as the height
above the plane, study the velocity.
3. Consider a part of the waterspout problem on page 50.
15. Vortices.
lines,

line of

FVc

Since

VVc

is

a vector

it

has

its

vector

we start at any given point and trace the vector

FVo" such line is called a vortex line. The field of

and
is

if

called a vortex field.

vector and the

field

If

a vector

is

lamellar the

are sometimes called irrotational.

The

VECTOR CALCULUS

188

equation of the vortex lines

- 8dp V a -

VdpWa =
The

rate of

V'Saa'.

is

V'Sdpa'

- -

da

V'Sdpa'.

change of a then along one of its vortex lines

Since

SvV^a

the curl of a

0,

is

is

always

is, an elementary volume taken along the

vortex lines has no convergence but merely rotates.
=
The curl of the curl is
S/SVa and

solenoidal, that

VV

VvVVa

thus

if

is

harmonic the curl of the

curl

is

gradient of the convergence, and if the vector

the curl of the curl is the concentration VV.

If Sa<r

1.

so that V-X"

EXERCISES
= = SaV '<r, and if we set =
= t, then Xa is a vector potential
<r

Determine the vector

2.

lines in the

the negative
is

solenoidal,

V-ar, and determine

of the vector

<r.

preceding problem for

a.

Also

show that the derivative of X in any direction perpendicular to a is

2
equal to the component of a perpendicular to both. What is V A^?
Sy V w = 0, then either Xa or F/3 will be
3. If a = wy and
vector potentials of <r where (iy = a and all are unit vectors and

SyV'X =0 = SyVY.
4. If the lines of <r are circles whose planes are perpendicular to y
and centers are on p = ty, and To = f(TVyp), then any vector parallel
to y whose tensor is F(TVyp), where f = dF/dTVyp is a vector

potential of
If

5.

from p

a.

Is a solenoidal?

the lines of

ty

and

<r

T<r.

are straight lines perpendicular to y and radiating

then what is the condition that <r be

= f(TVyp),

If Ta = /(tan -1 TVyp/Syp) a cannot be solenoidal.

a =/(*Sap, S0p)-Vyp-y, then what is FV<r? Show that if/
-1
is a function of tan
Sap/Spp, that SypVf is a function of the same
and no vector of
if
a
function of TVyp, SypV / =
is
but
/
angle,
the form a = f(TVyp)Vyp-y can be a potential of yTVyp. If

solenoidal?
If

6.

=
7.

If

=
1).
./V0*)eW0*
Sap/Sfip, then/0*)
What are the lines of a = f(Sap, Sfip) Vyp

is

a function of TVyp, so

is

the curl, and

and what

is

the curl?

if

F{TVyp) = (TVyp)-2 fTVyp<pTVypdTVyp

then
If / is

is a vector potential of the solenoidal vector y<pT{Vyp).

a function of p. the curl is a function of p., and \f(ji) Vyp is a vector

F-TVyp

potential of 7/O*).
8. If <r is solenoidal

and harmonic the

curl of its curl is zero.

If its

DIFFERENTIALS

189

lines are plane and it has the same tensor at all points in a line perpendicular to the plane, then it is perpendicular to its curl.
9. The vector <r = f- Up, where / is any scalar function of p, is not

necessarily irrotational, but

SaVv =

0.

a function of the two scalars S\p, Sup where X, p.

are any two vectors (constant), or if S\p = 0, then what is true of

a vector

If

10.

11. If

S<rV<r

show that

4= 0,

SaX7 9 then

which added to

is

if

is

determined from S\7<rVF

the scalar potential of an irrotational vector r

= 0. Is the equation for
gives a vector a', &cr'V
is

<r

always integrable?

The

12.

following are vectors whose lines form a congruence of

f(Vap)a, [where/ is a scalar function], which

are respectively neither solenoidal nor lamellar, lamellar, solenoidal.
The case of both demands that To = constant.
parallel rays f(p)a, f(Sap)a,

13.

of vectors of constant intensity

Examples

but varying direction

are

o-

aUp,

aVocp

+V(6 2

a2 V 2 ap).

Determine whether these are solenoidal and lamellar.

14. If

the lines of a lamellar vector of constant tensor are parallel

If the lines of a solenoidal vector are parallel

rays, it is solenoidal.

straight lines,

at

all

a(x

it is

lamellar.

An example

15.

points,

2yz)

of vectors whose convergences and curls are equal

and whose tensors are equal at all points of a surface, are
+ &(y + Szx) + xyy, and 2yza + Szx/3 -f- y(xy + 2z)

and the surface

is

x2

z2

6xyz

0.

Therefore vectors are not fully determined when their convergences and
curls are given.
What additional information is necessary to determine
an analytic vector which does not vanish at oo
Determine a vector
which is everywhere solenoidal and lamellar and whose tensor is 12
.'

for

Tp m oo
Show that
.

16.

eV

2
<Z

lim r=0 [average value of q over a sphere of radius

value at the center] divided by r2

less the

r,

\V q = average of (- SaV) q in all directions a.

xVV g = lim =o [excess of average value of q throughout
2

a small

sphere over the value at the center} divided

17.

Show by expansion
a(p

8p)

that

= a(p) - S8pX7 -(r(p)

- VS P [- Sa8p + S8pV P Sa8p] - W8pVSJ p*
= VVS P [~ |F5pa +
- 8pSV
iSSpVpVSpa]

P <r.

by

r2 .

VECTOR CALCULUS

190
i

The

first

expansion expresses

<r

in the vicinity of p in

terms of a gradient
expresses a in

The second

and an infinitesimal rotation.

the form of a curl and a translation.
18. Show that for any vector <r we have

of a scalar

V(W'V"&r\r"<r/7V) =0,
where the accents show on what the
(Picard, Traits, Vol.

left.

If

19.

a,

I, p.

acts,

and are removed after the

V acts on what is

136.)

are two functions of

<r 2

The unaccented

operation of the accented nabla.

p,

and d<n

<pi(dp),da 2

widp),

show that
&<riV -SaiV

S<r 2

V -SaiV

Exact Differentials.

16.

differential

Sadp

of a function

= SdpVu,

is

S(<pi<r 2

<p 2 <Ti)^7

the expression Sadp is the

u(p), then it is necessary that
If

for every value of dp,

When a

which gives

= Vw.

the gradient of a scalar function of u(p), u is

It is evident at once

sometimes called a force-function.

that
VS7<r

FOV)cr =

or

0,

for every

v.

This

is
obviously a necessary condition that Sadp be an
exact differential, that is, be the differential of the same

expression, u, for every

VVa =

0,

SVudp =

it

will,

dp.

It

is

also sufficient,

be shown below that a

= Vu,

for

and

du.

In general

if

Q(p)

is

a linear rational function of

scalar or vector or quaternion, then to be exact, Q(dp)

Q(dp)

SdpV -R(p)

Hence formally we must have the

for every dp.

identity

C()= -S()V-R(p).
if

we

fill

the

( )

with the vector form

Q(Vi>S7)

for every

v.

VvV

p,

must

take the form

But

if

we have

DIFFERENTIALS
This

191

be written in the form

may

Q'VV'l ) .-

identically.

EXERCISES
1.

For VaV\7 v =
exact only when a = a a constant vector.
for every X, v, and for X
that is S\(vSS7p- VSav) =

Vadp

for every

is

v,

perpendicular to

SXS/Sav =

therefore

or Sdav

0,

perpendicular to the dp that produces da.

Again

SV* + SvVSav =
Therefore S\/a
every dp in the direction of v.
a constant.

for every

2.

v.

if

=
=

for every v
v,

0,

and Sv\7 Sav = 0, or Sdav =

for
Hence da = for every dp and a = a

Examine the expressions

S^,

F.&.

V(Vap)dp,

Integrating Factor
If

an expression becomes

ezactf &?/

multiplication

scalar function of p, let the multiplier be m.

mQ(W) =
where

operates on

and

0,

Q, or

QWm() + mQVV() =
V

by a

Then

0,

operates on
only in the first term and on
only in the second. This gives for Sadp

where

SaVmi

mS(

This condition

is

)Vo-

when

But

is

is

arbitrary,

any

0.

this condition holds,

VVawhere r

0.

equivalent however to the condition

Sa\7<7

Conversely,

VaVm + mVV<r =

or

0,

hence

we must have

V(tt,

StVv =

0,

and Sa\7r

variable vector conditioned only

0.

by being

VECTOR CALCULUS

192

perpendicular to FV<r, hence we must have for all such

VVt 0, or a = 0. The latter is obviously out of the
= 0, that is t = Vw, or we may
question and hence VVt

choose to write

it

Vu/u.

VV<r+ VVua/u =

is

Hence,
thus proved to be exact.

We may

also proceed thus.

Vv(ua), and S(ua)dp=0

Since every vector line

is

= v, then we can
two surfaces, say u =
a, which is a vector, in the form

the intersection of
write the curl of

VV<r
and

if

S<tS7<t

Vw,

plane of

But

0, it

Vfl

= xVu

= hVVu\7v,

follows that

we must have a

in the

and
-f-

Sadp

yVv.

xdu

ydv.

also

VVcr

= VVxVu + VVyVv = hVVuVv.

Hence

SVuVyVv =
These are the Jacobians
since their vanishing

pendence,
of

u and

it

v.

= SVvVxVu.

v, x and u, v, y however, and

the condition of functional de-

of u,

is

and y are
Hence we have

follows that x

x(u, v)du

expressible as functions

+ y(u, v)dv

0.

this equation in two variables is

a
Therefore
always integrable by using
multiplier, say g.
=
Further
we
is
exact
for
a
chosen
S(ga)dp
g.
properly
It

is

known, however, that

see that ga
If

SVo-

= Vw, or that when SaV.a = 0,

= for all points, then we find
a

= Wr.

For
a

= hVVu\/v,

= mVw.

easily that

DIFFERENTIALS
so that

193

= SvhVuVv =

SV<t
and

h(u, v).

Integrate h partially as to u, giving

w = fhdu

+ f(v),

then

VX/wVv = hVX/uX/v =

Vw = hVu + fvVv,
Set r

wX/v or
that

It is clear

w and two

and

if

and we have at once a = VX/j.

we draw two successive surfaces W\
v X7w

successive surfaces

m = Aw

T\/ w

and the

Vi

tube are

area

= AniAn

esc

6,

v 2 , since

= Av
An

T\7v

Ani

A<?2

and

and

sides of the parallelogram

the

o\

Arii esc

then

TVx

which

area

is

the section of

= An

6,

and

= AwAv, and

these

Asi

6,

esc

numbers are constant for the successive surfaces, hence the

four surfaces form a tube whose cross-section at every point
For this reason a is said
is inversely as the intensity of a.
to be solenoidal or tubular.

Vx/a =
For SvVo- =

for all points

If

is

a function of

If

X7d

X7(T

0,

<t

and a
gVv,
and we may write

= V.

VX/gX/v, hence g

X7u.

since Sx/c = 0, a = VX/r, and

2
whence
X7 u 0.
Therefore, if
0,
X7u,
the gradient of a harmonic function and also the

0,

is

VX/a =

v,

since VX7(T

then we must have a

we must have,
a

curl of a vector r, the curl of the curl of r vanishing.

if

VX7VX/t =

therefore

0, since

SV^Vr =

we must then have Vx/t

= V 2 we can say that
fl,

=
if

X/v,

Also

and

the curl

VECTOR CALCULUS

194

of the curl of a vector vanishes

is

it

must be such that

the gradient of a harmonic function.

Also

its curl

SdpVr= dv.

Functions related in the manner of v and r are very important.

Since in any case

Vv<r

SvVVcr

= VVuVv

whence
a
so that in

we must have

0,

or

VV(<r

uVw =

Vp,

u\/w)

any case we may break up a vector a

= Vp + uVw.
SaV<r = SVp\7u\/w.

0,

into the form

It follows that

and x as independent

variables,

Vp = PxVx +

If

we choose

u,

we have

pu Vu

+ p w Vw,

whence
S<tX7(t

and we can

find

= px SVxVuVw,

p from the

integral

= fSaVv/SVxVuVw-dx.
= 0, p = constant, and a = uVw.

p
In case SaVcr

theorem due to Clebsch

is

useful,

namely that a can

always be put into the form

<r

= Vp + VVt,

that

is, <r

where

V\/Vp =

0,

SVFVr =

0,

can always be considered to be due to the super-

position of a solenoidal field

upon a lamellar

field.

We

merely have to choose p as a solution of

Vp=
2

for
o-

we have

at once Sv(<r

Vp = VVt.

SVcr,

Vp) =

0,

and therefore

DIFFERENTIALS
This

195

easily be seen to give us the right to set

may

= Vp

<r

(Vv)

r.

SOLUTIONS OF CERTAIN DIFFERENTIAL

EXAMPLES.

FORMS
If

(1).

SV<t

V<r

(2).

If

= 0, then a = VVr, and if Vv<r =

= Vh where V ^ = 0.

= Vp.

a linear function dependent upon p continu-

is

<p

0,

= OVvQ- If <poV =
= VV(6 VV0),

<p

<Po

8, do

<r

<7

0,

and <pV

ously,

0,

0,

For the notation see next chapter.

are linear functions.

= 0,
VVvQ = 0, = - VSaQ. If e(Fv
~
= fcFVO V-SerO. If (FV^())o = <W = p() V^().
= - S()V- Vp.
Fv^o = 0,
(3).

<p

</>())

<P

<?o

(4).

follows

particular solution of certain forms

*SVo"

Vp =

a,

oc,

VV<pQ =
?

given, as

is

= -

cr

= -

<p

p{),

- -

<p

= \Vap,
= Sap'Q,
(p
(VV<pQ) - a,
a

eat,

ol,

iVpdQ,

(Fvrio =

&*p.(),

Fw

yXJ

Sap,

6,

Fv<r

Jap,

- - i^oO,

O,

ip

fo7p()

V&r().

EXERCISES
1.

Consider the cases

o-

following values: f = g, g g
g has the values y/r, (y
2

x/y,

y/x, etc.,

(x

t -\-jf(g(p))

<g,fg, g~\

'ax) /(ay

2
)

where/ and

cfc,

g~

2
,

+ ),

e,

log

(bx

g,

gr

have the
and

sin g, tan #,

jf)/(a;

&y),

x/y,

a.

Consider the vector lines of

2.

cos

(3-n-r)

+j

Consider the significance

If rf<r = Vt dp find F
<r.

3.

4.

= p

17.

dp,

da

= Vradp where

Groups.

= V (x + y ).
of S-Ua\/Ua = 0; give examples.
Likewise if da = adpd, da = aSpdp, da

sin (3xr),

a function of

t is

If Si, Sj,

S n are

p.

any functions

linear

VECTOR CALCULUS

196

in

but of any degrees in

tion group (Lie's)

if

p,

and only

then they form a transformaif

any two

for

Si, S;,

S n and a, /?
For instance, we have a group in the
formal coefficients of the two vector operators

where

a linear function of Si, S2,

is

arbitrary vectors.
six

Si
for

SaZiSpEi

SaE2 S/3E2
&*SiS/3S

The

S2 = - FpV,

= - V - pSpV,

= Sa(3Z
- &x/3S
=
/3E &*E 2
- SapBi.
S/SSt&xSi =
S0Ei&*Ei
2

general condition

Kt

may

S E/

2,

where the accented vector

2,

be written without a,

Si'SZj
is

/3

- v e 0,

operated on by the unaccented

one.

Integration
18.

We

Definition.

of p,f(p),

define the line integral of a function

by the expression
flf(p)<p{dp)

= Lim
n

= 00

2f( Pi)(p(dpi),

1,

pi for the n values of i are drawn from the

n points chosen along the line from A to B along

where the vectors

origin to

which the integration

which is homogeneous

is

in

to take place,

a and of

first

<p(cr)

is

a function

degree, rational or

p _i, and the limit must exist and be

the same value for any method of successive subdivision
of the line which does not leave any interval finite.
Likeirrational, dpi

wise

we

pt

define a definite integral over an area

by the

expres-

sion

ffi(p)<P2{dip,d2 p)

= Lim

2f(j>i)<to(dipit

d2 pi),

INTEGRALS
where

<p 2

is

differentials

197

a homogeneous function of dipi and d2 p{, two

on the surface at the point pi, and of second
definite integral throughout a volume is simi-

A
degree.
larly defined

by

= Lim 2/(p)>g(dipt, d pi, d pi).

For instance, if we consider /(p) = a, we have for ffadp
= + #7, dp = cfo-7 and
along the straight line p
%

J J .ff(p)<P3(dip,

d2 p, d z p)

fi

Lim "Zadx-y

from

hence

# to x

^P =

(Pi

Xi

is

0:7(21

Xo),

Po).

The same function along the ellipse p = /3 cos + 7

where dp = ( /? sin 6 + 7 cos 0)d0 has the limit
(a/3

between

O,

0i,

cos 6

ay

-\-

that

is,

sin 0,

sin 0)

again a(pi

).

EXAMPLES
(1).
(

2 )-

(3).

= log TWpo, for any path.

j dp/p
l
_1
l =
1
~
for any path.
q~ dqq~
qr g
Su
,

The magnetic

force at the origin

straight current of direction

due to an

infinite

a and

intensity / amperes is
the vector perpendicular from

H = 0.2-I-Va/p, where p is
the origin to the line. In case then we have a ribbon whose
right cross-section by a plane through the origin is any
curve,

we have the magnetic

force

due to the ribbon,

expressible as a definite integral,

H = 0.2IfVaTdp/p.
For instance, for a segment of a straight
= dx,
/3, 7 unit vectors Tdp

H =

0.27

= -

/'(ay -

xt3)dx/(a

0.2/0 -log (a

* 2 )/(a
-f-

0.27/3 -log

OA/OB

line p

a(3 -\-

xy,

x2 )
2

+ *i

2
)

0.2 -I-yitsoT 1 x 2 /a

+ O.27J.

L AOB.

tan-1

xj/a),

VECTOR CALCULUS

198

Apply the preceding to the case of a skin current in a

rectangular conductor of long enough length to be practically infinite, for inside points, and for outside points.
(4).

Let the cross-section in

(5).

b3

a(3

be a

(4)

cos 6

Study the particular case when

ay

circle

sin

0.

and the

is

origin

the

center.

The area

(6).

of a plane curve

when the

origin

is

in the

is

plane

\TfVpdp.
If

the curve

is

not closed this

made by drawing
calculate the

is

the area of the sector

vectors to the ends of the curve.

same

If

we

for a curve not in the

integral \fVpdp
plane, or for an origin not in the plane of a curve

we

will

the result the areal axis of the path, or circuit. This

term is due to Koenigs (Jour, de Math., (4) 5 (1889), 323).
call

The projection of this vector on the normal to

gives the projection of the circuit on the plane.
(7).

If

a cone

is

immersed

in a

any plane,

uniform pressure

field

(hydrostatic) then the resultant pressure upon its surface is

"~
2^Vpdp-P, where p is taken around the directrix curve.

According to the Newtonian law show that the attraction of a straight segment from A to B on a unit point at
(8).

in the direction of the bisector of the angle

is

and

its

intensity

dicular from

is 2/x

sin

^AOB/c, where

c is

AOB,

the perpen-

to the line.

From

the preceding results find the attraction of an

infinite straight wire, thence of an infinite ribbon, and an
(9).

infinite prism.

(10).

Find the attraction of a cylinder, thence of a

solid

cylinder.
19. Integration

by Parts.

We may

integrate

by parts

INTEGRALS

199

For example,

just as in ordinary problems of calculus.

V-adpSp P

iVa(B8P8

+ \VaVPf*Vpdp,

ySfa)

which is found by integrating by parts and then adding to

both sides J*y V -adpSpp. The integral is thus reduced to
an areal integral. In case y and 5 are equal, we have an
integral around a loop, indicated by J?.

EXAMPLES
(1).

= HdVaS - yVay) - \Vaf*Vpdp

SfdpVcxp

+
=

(2).

f *V.VadpV(3p

(3).

f *S'VadpV(3p = i(Sa8S(35 -

ilaSPSy'Vpdp

iSafjVpdp.

+ pS-afy'Vpdp
5 Sap 5 + ySofty].

Say Spy

SaP

-y Sap- S-a(3f Vpdp).

= U*Spf Vpdp + pSafjVpdp
JfV-adpVPp
- dSa(38 + y Softy + Sa5S(38
- Say Spy - 8 SaP + y SaP
s

(4).

SaPffVpdp).

f SapSpdp = USadSpd - SaySPy

s

(5).

-S-Voftf'Vpdpl
(6).

= itfSad - ySay + V-affVpdp].

ffdpSap
fy VaP Spdp = HVadSpb - VaySPy - SoftffVpdp
s

(7).

(8).

(9).

fjapdp

Vap-dp

As an example

i[Va6'B

h[a(8

+ PSaJfVpdp].
- Vayy + af Vpdp
+ SaffVpdp].
+ 2af*Vpdp].
y

2
)

of this formula take the scalar,

and notice

that the magnetic induction around a wire carrying a

VECTOR CALCULUS

200
current of value

Ta amperes,
B

- -

path a

for a circular

2p.Vap/a

2
.

Therefore

- fO^Sapdp/a = - SfdpB = 2

=
For

fj,

1, r

2
2
ATafia~ wr

OAwC.

a, this is

OSfia^SafVpdp

This gives the induction

in gausses per turn.

(11).

SfSdpw - i[S8cp8 Sy<py] + SeffVpdp.

/^prfp = h[Vy<py - V8<p8 + <p'f*Vpdp

(12).

=
XVprfp

(10).

+
-

}[**.

^y. 7

rmffVpdp]*

SeffVpdp

tp'f'Vpdp]

m.ffVpdp.

For any lineolinear form

SfQip, dp)

hm, ) -

Q(y, y)]

+
(*,

*)

Q(r

(13). State the results for

dp)

ifAQiP,

t)]

Q(dP

p)}

+ WSfVpdp.

preceding 12 problems for in-

tegration around a loop.

(14).

Consider forms of second degree in

p,

third degree,

etc.

20. Stokes*

page 189,

We

Theorem.

refer

now

where we have the value of

cro,

to problem

a function of

po,

stated for the points in the vicinity of a given fixed point.

If we write <tq for the value of a at a given origin 0, its

value at a point whose vector

o-

where

wii(v)

5p

[-

S<r 8p

refers only to

Si(pi

+
<r

Sj<pj

is

dp

is

%S8pVS(ro8p]
,

- F5pFVo%

and gives a value

Sk<pk.

of the curl at

For notation see Chap. IX.

INTEGRALS
the origin

0.

If

201

we multiply by ddp and take the

scalar,

we have
Sadbp

d Sp [Sa 8p

Therefore
radius

is

if

dp

ffcSed&p

- iS8pVSa

we integrate
we have

[So- 8p2

+
The

last expression,

$[FVovareal

dp]

+ iSSpd6pVV<r

this along the curve

Saodpi

is

whose vector

S6p 2 VS<ro8p2

iSSpiV Saotpi]

however,

+ %SW<T fVdpd8p.

the value of

axis of the sector

between

dpi

and 5p 2 ].

Therefore for an infinitesimal circuit we have

fSvodbp

= [FVovareal

axis of circuit]

= SUvVVvo-dA.

FWo is the curl of a at some point inside the loop. If now

we combine several circuits which we obtain by subdividing
any area, we have for the sum of the line integrals on the
left

the line integral over the boundary curve of the area

and for the expression on the right the sum of

in question,

the different values of the scalar of the curl of a multiplied

into the unit normals of the areas and the areas themselves
or the area integral
for

any

finite loop,

ffSV\/(rdipd 2 p.

That

is,

we have

plane or twisted, the formula

fSadp = ffSVV(TVd lP d2 p.
This

is

called Stokes' Theorem.

It is

assumed

in the proof

of a or V\/a,
although certain kinds of discontinuities can be present.
The diaphragm which constitutes the area bounded by

above that there are no discontinuities

the loop is obviously arbitrary,

a singularity of a or V\7a.
It follows that

of the
X4

it is

not deformed over

along a given path is independent

expression on the right vanishes for

fSadp

path when the

if

VECTOR CALCULUS

202

the possible loops, that is, is zero independently of dip,

= 0. This condition is necessary and
dip, or that is, V\7<r
sufficient.

that the surface integral of the curl of a

It follows also

vector over a diaphragm of any kind is equal to the circulation of the vector around the boundary of the diaphragm.

That

is,

the flux of the curl

the circuitation around the

is

boundary.

We may generalize the theorem

as follows, the expression

on the right can be written ffSUvVVo- dA, where v is

the normal of the surface of the diaphragm and dA is the
area element.

now we construct a sum of any number

a u a2
a n each multiplied by a
form Saidp, Scr^dp,
Scr n dp, we will have
If

of constant vectors

function of the

a general rational linear vector function of dp, say

arrive at the integral formula

<pdp,

and

fvdp = ff<p(VUpV)dA,

If

refers now to the functions of p implied in <p.

the vector generalized form of Stokes' theorem.
the surface is plane, Uv is a constant, say a, so that

where the
This

is

for plane

paths

fipdp

= ff<pVVa-dA.

We may arrive at some

interesting theorems

various values to the function

<pdp

<p.

by assigning
For instance, let

a dp,

then

<p(VUvV) = <t'VUvVv'=-Ui>SV<t+V'S<t'Uv+SUpV(t,
whence

ffS^a-dv = ffV'Sa'dv+ fVadp.

If

<fdp

pSdpa,

INTEGRALS

203

then

<pVUvV = pSUvVo-

VaUv,

therefore

ffV-adv = ffpSdvVa -

fpSadp.

If

= pVdpa,
=
pV(VUvV)<r - SUva +
tpVUvV
ipdp

aVv,

therefore

ffvdv +

Sadv

= - ffpV(VUvV)<r

fpVdpa,

hence

2ffSadv = - ffSp(VUvV)<r

fSpdpa.

EXERCISES
Investigate the problems of article 19, page 198, as to the application of the theorem.
1.

2. Show that the theorem can be made to apply to a line which is

not a loop by joining its ends to the origin, and after applying the
theorem to the loop, subtracting the integrals along the radii from
to the ends of the line, which can be expressed in terms of dx, along a line.
Also consider cases in which the paths follow the characteristic lines of

Vadp
is

0.

The theorem may be

stated thus: the circulation around a path

the total normal flux of the curl of the vector function a through the
3.

loop.
4.

If

the constant current la amperes flows in an infinite straight

magnetic force H at the point p (origin on the axis) is for

circuit the

Tp<a
and

for

a<T P

H
H

= ^IVa P

0.2a?I/Va P

7vH =

/(a/10) inside the wire and

equals zero outside. Integrate H around various paths and apply
In this case the current is a vortex field of intensity
Stokes' theorem.

is

the radius of the wire.

Then

7ra 2 7/10.
5.

If

we

consider a series of loops each of which surrounds a given

lines, it is clear that the circulation around such tube

tube of vortex

If the vector <r defines a velocity field

everywhere the same.
which has a curl, the elementary volumes or particles are rotating, as

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

204
we have

seen before, the instantaneous axis of rotation being the unit

and the vector lines of the curl may be compared to wires

of the curl,

on which rotating beads are strung. It is known that in a perfect

fluid whose density is either constant or a function of the pressure only,
and subject to forces having a monodromic potential, the circulation in
any circuit through particles moving with the fluid is constant. [Lamb,
Hydrodynamics, p. 194.] Hence the vortex tubes moving with the fluid
(enclosing in a given section the same particles), however small in crossIt follows by passing to an
section, give the same integral of the curl.
elementary tube that the vortex lines, that is, the lines of curl, move
with the fluid, just as if the beads above were to remain always on the
same wire, however turbulent the motion. In case the vortex lines
return into themselves forming a vortex ring, this leads to the theorem
in hydrodynamics that a vortex ring in a perfect fluid is indestructible.
It is proved, too, that the same particles always stay in a vortex tube.

Show

6.

Sa& =
path.

that for

a-

a(3S

ot

2Sp P )

+ (4# /Sp 3

2Sa P ), where

0, the integral from the origin to 2a -J- 2/3 is independent of the

Calculate it for a straight line and for a parabola.

7. The magnetic intensity H, at the point 0, from which the vector

p is drawn to a filament of wire carrying an infinite straight current in
the direction a, of intensity I amperes, is given by

0.27/Fap.

Suppose that we have a conductor of any cross-section considered as

due to all
made up of filaments, find the total magnetic force at
the filaments.

Notice that

and that a
Hence

is

0.2/ Fa

log

TVap,

the unit normal of the plane cross-section of the conductor.

ffHdA = ff0.2IVaV

log

TVapdA = f0.2I

log

TVapdp

around the boundary of the cross-section. This can easily be reduced

to the ordinary form 0.21 j? log rdp. This expression is called a logarithmic potential. If I were a function of the position of the filament
in the cross-section, the form of the line-integral would change.
For a circular section we have the results used in problem 4. Consider also a rectangular bar, for inside points and also for outside points.
8. If or and r are two vector functions of p, we have the theorem

SVUuVVo-t = St(VUvV)* - S<t(VUpV)t,

whence

ffSr(VUpV)o- = ffS<r{VUvV)r

fSdpar,

INTEGRALS
Show

for a closed circuit.

applications

205

when a

or t or both are sole-

noidal.

Show

9.

that

= fSdpaa + ffSdv(SaV)<r,
ffS-Vuadv = JTuSadp - f fuSV adp,
ffS-X7uS7vdv= fuSsjvdp = - fvS\7ud P
f hiSVvd P = [uv] p - f^vSS/udp.

ffS-dvotS\7<x

pl

Prove Koenig's theorems and generalize.

Any area bounded by a loop generates by translation a volume
Saw, where co is the areal axis;
J] Saco +
(2) The area for a rotation given by (a + Vap)at is
10.

(1)

f Scf
t

VpVpdp.

Green's Theorem.

21.

The

following theorem becomes

treatment of surface integrals. Referfundamental

ring to the second form in example 17, page 189, for the
in the

expression of a vector in the vicinity of a point, which

0"

we

= FV Sp [-

see that

if

iV8pa

+ iS8pVVdp<ro] -

is

l&pSV<To

we multiply by a vector element

of surface,

Vdi8pd2 dp, and take the scalar

Scdrfpdidp

= SUvVs p []dA -

iSV(r Sd l dpd 2 dp8p.

If now we integrate over any closed surface the first term

on the right gives zero, since the bounding curve has become a mere point, and thus, indicating integration over
a closed surface by two J',
j> $&<jd\hpd<ihp

\S\7(TQjf jfSdibpd'ibpbp.

hand member is the volume

of an elementary triangular pyramid whose base is given by
didpd 2 8p. Hence, the integral is the elementary volume of
the closed surface, and may be written dv, so that we have
for an elementary closed surface
But the

last part of the right

j> \fSad18pd2dp

SVvodv.

VECTOR CALCULUS

206
If

now we can

dissect

any volume into elements

which

in

the function has no singularities and sum the entire figure,

then pass to the limit as usual, we have the important

theorem

ffS<rd lP d2 p =
This

is

in the

fffSVv dv.

Greens theorem, or sometimes Green's theorem

form. It is usually called Gauss' theorem by

called

first

German

writers, although Gauss' theorem proper was only

a particular case and Green's publication antedates Gauss'

by several years.
The theorem may be stated thus: the convergence of a
vector throughout a given volume is the flux through the
bounding surface.
It

is

evident that

Stokes' and thus

$ fQvdA

we can

generalize this theorem as

we

did

arrive at the generalized Green's theorem

ff f$\/

v is

dv.

the outward unit normal.

The

applications are so numerous and so important that

they will occupy a considerable space.
The elementary areas and volumes used in proving Stokes'

and Green's theorems are often used as

integral definitions

of convergence or its negative, the divergence,

and

of curl,

For such methods of approach see Joly,

Burali-Forti and Marcolongo, and various German texts.

rotation, or vortex.

very obvious corollary

is

that

$\fSad1pd2p
It follows that the flux of

any

if

curl

SVc =

then

0.

through any closed sur-

the particles of a vortex enter a

closed boundary, they must leave it.
Therefore, vortex
tubes must be either closed or terminate on the boundary
face

is

zero.

wall of the

about

Hence,

medium

infinitely.

if

in

which the vortex

We may

differential expression

also state that

Sadipd 2 p

is

is,

or else

wind

if

SVa =

the

exact in the sense that

INTEGRALS
%

207

J J S(rdipd p
2

is

invariant for different diaphragms bounded

by a closed curve, noting the usual

restrictions

due to

singularities.

We proceed to develop some theorems that follow from

Green's theorem. Let $Uv be
pSUvcr, then

3>V

pSv<r

o-

and we have

fffadv = fffpSVvdv - ffpSUvadA.

Let $Uv = pVUva, then <i>V = pVVv + 2a and
SSfvdv = ifffpVVvdv - \ffpVUvodA.
Let

$Uv =

pSpUva, then

fffVpa dv
Let $17V = -

= -

<J>V

= pSpVv

fffp&Va dv +

pVpVUixr, then $V =

Fpo-,

whence

ffpSpUvadA.

pFpFVo"

3PV,

hence

SSSVpadv = ifffpVpWadv- \ffpVpVUvadA.

Let $E7V

SprUiHT, then 3>V

SprV<r

Spa\/r

Sot,

thence

fffSar

dv

= - fffiSprV*

&rVr)<fo

+ f f&prTJva dA.
In the first of these if a- has no convergence we have the
theorem that the integral of cr, a solenoidal vector, throughout a volume is equal to the integral over the surface of p
multiplied by the normal component of a. In the second
we have the theorem that if the curl of a vanishes through-

out a volume, so that

a- is lamellar in the
volume, then the
a throughout the volume is half the integral
over the surface of p times the tangential component of a

integral of

taken at right angles to

a-.

In the third,

if

the curl of

cr

VECTOR CALCULUS

208

vanishes then the integral of the moment of a with regard

2
to the origin is the integral over the surface of Tp times the

comand by the fourth

this also equals the surface integral of the component
perpendicular to p of the negative tangential component of

component along p

of the negative of the tangential

ponent of a taken perpendicular to

<r

taken perpendicular to

if

a solenoidal vector

is

<r,

According to the fifth formula,

multiplied by another and the scalar
a.

is integrated throughout a volume, then the

the
SpaVr throughout the volume
integral of
integral
-f- the integral of ScrprUv over the surface.

of the product

is

If in

and

the

first,

we set c<t for a,

we have from the

second, third, and fourth

in the fifth ca for

a and

\<t

for r,

and second the expression for X, the momentum of a

moving mass of continuous medium, of density c, and from
the third and fourth the moment of momentum, /x, and
from the fifth the kinetic energy. If the medium is in= V\/v, since SVca = 0, then
compressible, and we set 2k

first

ju

= fffcadv
= - ffcpSUvadA

+ fffpSaVcdv
+ SSfcpSV* dv

= fffpcKdv+lfffpWcadv - \cpVVvadA.
= fffcVpadv
= ffcpSpUvadA - SSfcpSpVa - fffpSpVca
= UffcpVpK + \fffpVpWcadv

- \ffcpVpVVvadA.
- hSfSSa cdv
= - hffSpvUvac dA + SffhcSpaVo- dv

T=

+ hfffSpvVca dv.
In case

c is

we

set

If

uniform these become

S/u and r

\/w

still

simpler.

in the

above formula we

INTEGRALS

209

The

arrive at others for the gradients of scalar functions.

we suppose

that u, or w, or
so
that
the
harmonic
are
both,
convergences also vanish
number
of
useful
theorems.
a
we have
curls will vanish.

If further

Othei forms of Green's theorem are found by the followSet $Uv = uS\7wUv, then

ing methods.

$V =

u\/

and we have the second form

SfS&VuVw dv =

+ SVuVw
of Green's

theorem at once

ffuS\/wUv dA fffu\7

wdv,

and from symmetry

yWSvWw
Subtracting

= ffwSVuUv dA fffw\/ u
2

w\7 2 u) dv

= ~
22. Applications.

fffV

dv.

we have

J J*J (u\7 w
%

dv

dv

In the

f(,STJv[u\7w
these let

first of

J'.fSUj'VwdA.

monic function, the surface integral

= 47Tju, which is Poisson's equation

If

wVu])dA.

then

will vanish,

1,

is

and

then

a harif

for potentials of forces

varying as the inverse square of the distance, inside the

masses, ju being the density of the distribution, then

ffSUvS7w dA =
where

is

ttM,

the total mass of the volume distribution.

This

Gauss' theorem, a particular case of Green's. In words,

the surface integral of the normal component of the force
is

is
47r times the enclosed mass.
The total mass is l/4x
times the volume integral of the concentration.
In the first formula let u = 1/Tp and exclude the origin

VECTOR CALCULUS

210

(a point of discontinuity)

by a small sphere, then we have

fffSV(l/Tp)Vwdv
= ffdA SUrVw/TP - fffdv V

w/Tp

between the sphere and the bounding surface

and over the two surfaces, the normals

for the space

of the distribution w,

pointing out of the enclosed space. But for a sphere we

have dA = Tp 2 dw where co is the solid angle at the center,

and dv

Thus we have

Tp dwdTp.

fffV w/Tp dv
2

= ffSdA UuVw/Tp -fffSv(l/TP )Vwdv

= ffSdA UvVw/Tp -fffSv(wV[l/TP ])dv
since V l/7p =
= ffSdA UvVwjTp -ffSdA UvwV(l/Tp)
= ffSdA UvVwjTp+ffSdA VvVp\T pw.
2

0,

Now

of the integrals on the right let us consider first the

surface of the sphere, of small radius Tp. The first integral
is

then

and
is,

if

- ffSUpX/wlTp- T pdco = - ffSUpVw- Tpda,

2

we suppose that the normal component

the component of

Vw along p,

this integral will vanish

the

sphere is
and the value of

is

J?rf'SUpUpwT

at the origin

everywhere

The second

with Tp.
2

pd(x)lT p

is

Vw,

that

finite,

then

of

integral for

tfj'wdu,

Wo, then this integral

47TWo since the total solid angle around a point

is

is

47r.

Hence we have

fffdv V

w/Tp

= ffSUv{\/wlTp

wUp/T p)dA

+ 4twq
and

4x^o=

fffdvV w/Tp
2

- ffSUp(Vw/Tp

-f

2
wUp/T p) dA,

INTEGRALS

211

is over all the space at which w

the origin excluded, and the surface integral is over
the bounding surface or surfaces. In words, if we know the

where the volume integral

exists,

value of the concentration of

at every point of space,

w at every point

and the value of the gradient of w and of

of the bounding surfaces at which there

then we can find

is finite

with

lower than
the integral

is

with Tp when

itself

its

is discontinuity,
at every point of space, provided

gradient.

If X7

we do not need

is

of order in p not

to exclude the origin, for

///V ^
2

Vw
2

is

TpdcpdTp, and this will vanish

not lower in degree than 1.

EXERCISES
1.

We shall

examine

in detail the

const, over a given

everywhere, \/w =
on the outside. Then for the

problem

surface, zero over the infinite sphere,

on the inside of the sphere, but not zero

of

w =

inside of the sphere the equation reduces to

4:irw

= - fwSUvUplT*pdA =

4ttu;,

hence

w is constant throughout the sphere and equal to the surface value.

On

the outside of the sphere, we have to consider the bounding surand the sphere of infinite radius, so that we have

faces to be the sphere

4^0 = _ ffSdA UvVw/Tp- wffSdA UuUpfTp

where the

2
,

taken over both surfaces and the second

integral
The second
at
integral is over the given surface only, since w =
integral vanishes, however, since it is equal to w times the solid angle
of the closed surface at a point exterior to it.
If we suppose then that
\/w is at 3 we have a single integral to evaluate
first

is

4:irw

simple case

is

j> j>'SdAU i>\?'w/T'p

SUv\/w =

Then
4ttWo

The

and

const.

over the surface.

C.

= CffdAITp.

of the forms arising from a different assumpnormal component of V^ can be effected by the use of
fundamental functions proper to the problem and determined by the
boundary conditions, such as Fourier's series, spherical harmonics,
and the like. One very simple case is that of the sphere. If we take

integration of this

tion as to the

VECTOR CALCULUS

212

we have

the origin at the center of the sphere

,f,fdA/T( P
where

Now

po is the vector to the point.

to find the integral

P o)

the solid angle subtended

r~l ffdASpU{p po)/T*(p p )

by po is given by the integral
and equals 4t or 0, according as the point is inside or outside of the
sphere. This integral, however, breaks up easily into two over the
surface, the integrands being

r-^T-Kp
but the

last

term gives

po)

or

- SpoU( P - P0 )/T*(p - po),

47rr /7 p as the point is inside
,

ffdAlT{p as the point

is

Hence the other term

of the sphere.

po)

We

inside or outside.

or outside

gives

or 4Trr 2 /Tp

47rr

find then in this case that

w m Cr2 /Tpo.
the law above for

If in place of

we

SUvS7w,

equal to

it is

C/T2 (p

find that

ffdAIT\ P -

po)

47rr/(r'

+p

2
)

or

47^/(7^0

r^po).

Inside

~ pp)(p +
_ ffdA
r r ,A S(p
TKp - po)
dA =

27rr2 sin

po(p
T*(p

Odd
po)

=-a d[a + r
2

= ax
"

cos

4/

r+a a+r

'

(p

= xdx,
a

x2]

2x*

ffdAS^f^=^f
T
aJr-a,a-r
2

'

+x r

a2

x3

po)

po)

po)

(
\

X2

=
+ l)dx
J

or
47TT2

The

by using Vp as operator under

the sign leads to some vector integrals over the surface of the sphere.
2. Show that we have
differentiation of these integrals

UvdAIT(p -

po)

|ttpo

for inside or outside points of a sphere.

or

|7rr

3
/^ Po-po

INTEGRALS

213

Find ffdAUu/T 3 ( P - Po ) for the sphere.

7
2
2
Prove
fdAT^{p-fi)T-\p-oc) =4 7rr/[(r -a )7 ( S-)] or

3.

4.

= ^r

J[a(r

-a

2
1
)T(r a- +0)].

5. Consider the case in which the value of w is zero on a surface

not at infinity but surrounding the first given surface. We have an
example in two concentric spheres which form a condenser. On the
inner sphere let w be const. = Wi, on the outer let w = 0, on the inner
let SUpVw = 0, inside, = E h outside, on the outer let SUv\/w
= E 2 on the inside, = Oon the outside.
6. If w is considered with regard to one of its level surfaces, it is
SdAU vU p\T2 pio
constant on the surface, and the integral
becomes for any inside point 4:irw, hence we have

4irw
If

then

is

A. = fffdv\7 2 wlT P

harmonic inside the

and
since

V(w
and

is

Wo)

level surface, it is constant at all points

we approach the surface, V^o =0, and

Hence w = w. If w vanishes at
0.

constant as

0,

- to) m - fSdAUv\7wlTp.

47r(w

But

- SdAUuVw/T P

so that

X7w =

everywhere harmonic it equals zero.

two functions Wi, w 2 are harmonic without a given surface,
vanish at and have on the surface values which are constantly in the
oo

7.

is

If

X a constant, then W\ = \W2.

8. If the surface Si is a level for both the functions u and w, as also
the surface S 2 inside Si, and if between Si and $2, u and w are harmonic,
then
ratio X

1,

(U

For

if

w =

<p(u),

Ui)(w 2

then

Wi)

w =

=
=

(W

Wi)(ll2

Ui).

au

<p"(u)T \7u, hence

<p(u)

+ b,

etc.

[A scalar point function

scalar function

if

and only

w
if

expressible as a function of another

is

V\/w\7u =
S, Wi and w 2

0.]

Outside a closed surface

are harmonic and have the
same levels. Si vanishes at while w 2 has at 00 everywhere the constant value C. Then w 2 = Bwi
C.
9.

2
For Vw 2 = tVw h
w 2 = V^V^i = 0, thus
and t = B or wi = const.
10. There cannot be two different functions

V* =
W\,

0,

or

V^i =

0,

both of which

within a given closed surface are harmonic, are continuous with their
gradients, are either equal at every point of S or else SUvX/Wi
at every point of S while at one point they are equal.

Let u = Wi w 2 then V 2 w
and at one point Vw = 0.
,

0,

SJu

on

or else

=SUv\/w 2

SUv\/u =

0,

VECTOR CALCULUS

214

11. Given a set of mutually exclusive surfaces, then there cannot be

two unequal functions w\, Wi, which outside all these surfaces are
l
harmonic, continuous with their gradients, vanish at < as Tp~ their
-2 and at
of
the
either
as
surfaces
Tp
gradients vanishing
every point
,

equal or

SUvVwi = SUvVwt-

The last problems

we wish to invert

23. Solution of Laplace's Equation.

in the preceding application

w =

we need

if

are the

boundary conditions, in order

V 2 u is a function of
we can proceed by the method of integral equations
0, all

to have a unique solution.

P>f(p)>

show that

to arrive at the integral.

form of a

ible in the

In case

However the

integral

is

express-

definite integral, as well as a series,

w = l/4:w[fSSdvV 2w/Tp

- ffSUviVw/Tp + wUp/T p)dAl

2

The
Pot.

first of

Thus

these integrals is called the potential and written

for any function of p whatever we have

Vot

= fffqdvlT(p-

q,

pQ)

where p describes the volume and p is the point for which

Pot qo is desired. Let Vo be used to indicate operation as
to po, then

Vo Pot

we have

= VoffSqdv/T(p - p
= fff[dvU(p - p )/r (p - -SSfV[qlT(p- p )]dv
)

Po )]q

+ SffdWq/T(p=
If

Pot

Vg - ffdAUvqlT(p -

we operate by Vo

Vo2 Pot

Pot

again,

V?2

Po ).

we have

ffdA[Uv\7qlT(p

+
But the

po)

expression on the right

is

po)

V'Uvq/T'(p

4x^0, hence

we have

po)].

the

INTEGRALS

215

important theorem

Vo2 Pot
That

is,

4:irq

the concentration of a potential is 4x times the

we have the potential. In the case of a

function of which

material distribution of attracting matter, this is Poisson's

equation, stating that the concentration of the potential
of the density is 4r times the density; that is, given a
distribution of attracting masses, they have a potential at

any given

point,

that point

is

and the concentration

the density at the point

-5-

of this potential at
4-7T.

The gradient of Pot q was called by Gibbs the Newtonian

of g when the function q is a scalar, and if q is a vector,
,

then the curl of

its

potential

is

convergence of

its

potential

is

and the

called the Laplacian,

called the

Maxwellian of q

Thus

New

We

= Vo Pot P,
= V\/o
Lap
=
Max (To Vo Pot co.

Pot

<r

<r

have the general inversion formula

47rVo~

Vo2 ? =

47rgo

SSfV q/T(p - Po )dv

2

- ffdA[UvTqlT{p - p
+ U(p - p )qUr/T*(p )

)J.

This gives us the inverse of the concentration as a potential,

plus certain functions arising from the boundary conditions.

We may

also define

an

integral,

sometimes

useful, called

the Helmholtzian,

Him. Q

m fffQT{p -

Po )dv.

Certain double triple integrals have been defined:

Pot 0,

v)

ffffffu(p

)v(p2)dv 1 dv 2 /T(p 1

p 2 ),

216

VECTOR CALCULUS

= fffffS - Sh dvidvJTfa - p ),
Lap (to) = ffffff + 5to(Pi - p )^i^ /P( Pl -p ),
New (, f) = SSSSSS-S{i(pi-p2)v dvidv2 IT'(pi-p ),
Max(,*) = - ffffffv SUpi-P2)dv dv ir( Pl - P2 ).
Pot

(to)

EXERCISES

VP

1. Iff
is a field of force or velocity or other vector arising
from a scalar function P as its gradient, then

= - SSSSVdv/[4irT( P -

Po

po)]

ffdA[SUvll&*T{p -

po))

+ PC/ y V^(p-po)/47r].
If

is

harmonic the

first

V<r, that

if =
the first two vanish.
a curl of a solenoidal vector,

term vanishes,

2.

If

fffVV* dv/[4irT(p -

is, it is

po)]

f<fdA[VUv<rl[TcT{p

+
We may,

U(p

po)]

p 9 )<rlU,[4*T*(j>

po)].

up (in an infinity of ways) any vector

into two parts, one solenoidal and the other lamellar.
= 0, then Sv <r = SVx
0, and Wir
Thus, let a = 7T + t where v r
and since VVt = 0, this may be written Vt = &Vo" whence x.
VVc = FVt = Vr whence t. We have, therefore, from these two
3.

47T<r

therefore, break

= VfffSdvV<r/T(p -

- V SdAUvalT{p - Po
+ V jffPSdA UvV (UT(p - po) + V V SSfVV*dv/T(p - Po
-WffVU*adA/T(p-po) + VVffDSU*S7(p+( P -po)dA
P is such that V P = *S'V<r and D such that \7 D = Vs/a.
Po )

where
3.

Another application is found in the second form of Green's

According to the formula

theorem.

= - tf(SUv[u\7w - w\/u])dA
it is evident that if G is a function such that V G = 0, and if, further,
G has been chosen so as to satisfy the boundary condition SUvS7G = 0,

SffiyW - wV
1

u) dv

then the formula becomes

SffGs^wdv = - SUv\7wGdA.
If

then

is

a given function

we have the

integral equation

JfGSUvVwdA - - fffGj{ P )dv.

Similar considerations enable us to handle other problems.
4.

If

u and w both

satisfy

V/ =
2

0,

then we have Green's Reciprocal

Theorem:

ffuSUvSfw dA = ffwSUvVudA,

INTEGRALS
Thus

217

let

therefore

ff
5.

If

Let

^p

A relate to a as V

dA =

ffuSUvV

-L dA.

to p then
;

A Pot Q = ff/QdvU(p - a)/T*( P - a)

= fffV(Q/T(p - cc))dv + fffdWQ/T(p = Pot VQ - ffdAUuQ/T( P - a).
Q on the surface, the surface integral = 0.

a)

New P = Pot V - ffVvP dAjT{p - a) = A Pot P when Pot exists.

Lap a = V Pot Vo- - VTJvadA\T{p - a) = VA Pot a when Pot
exists.

Max

= S Pot

o-

V<r

Q -

-a) = SA

fSUvadAITip

Pot

when Pot

o-

exists.

PotQ = Pot

v \7QdAIT(p

a)

+ //diVi[^/7

If

Q =

A
A
A
A
6.

If

j8

is

i( P

-)].

has no surface of discontinuity,

Q
is,
Q - Pot V Q,
New P = A 2 Pot P,
= A7A Pot
Lap
Max a = A/SA Pot

on the surface, that

if

Pot

o-

a function of the time

a,
<r.

then

t,

d--^[yy/i(rvFv^+M^J t+br
r

+ VV <fj Vdu p

t+br

where the subscript means

have occurred.

15

- ff

+ br

is

Vdv WPt+br

put

for

after the operations

on

CHAPTER IX
THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION
Definition.

1.

there

If

rational function

<p

and

if

is

an integral

<p'

we substitute for p a scalar multiple

the vector function a linear vector func-

in this function

if

tp of p, then

tion

a vector a which

is

of the vector p,

we

call

a becomes

ta

under

<p

transforms the vector

this substitution.

It

is

also called

a dyadic.

The

function

direction, into the vector

p,

which

which

may

be

not in every
case be able to take all directions. If p = a, then we have
= <pa, and <p as an operator has a value at every point
(pp
in

any

We

in space.

<r,

in fact, look

may,

upon

<p

formation that deforms space by a shift in

invariant the origin and the surface at

may

as a space transits

points leaving
In the

infinity.

case of a straight line

Vap =
we

or

/?,

see that the operation of

and

this

is

x<pa

only,
lines.

218

will later
<p(3.

The

on

+ cT

xa

all its

(5,

vectors gives

V<pa(pVa~

is

^,

be shown to reduce to a function of

Hence
lines

(pVa~ ^

a straight line whose equation

Vipaa

which

<p

<p

(3

converts straight lines into straight

for

which Vacpa

0,

remain

parallel

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

219

to their original direction, others change direction.

or
if we consider the plane S-afip

Again

xa

y(3,

x<pa

y<pf},

so that
S(r<pct<pp

Hence planes through the

origin,

These

are converted into planes.

original direction

Va(3

<p(3

va

0.

and likewise

all

planes,

be parallel to their

will

uV<pa<p(3, or

Scx<pa<p(3= S(3<pa<p(3= Sa(3<pa

So@<pP.

normal to the plane, and /3 is any vector in the

by the equation is normal to Vafi, hence

is

plane, and

Va(3

VVa$V(pa<p&

Now

if

<p(3

in the plane.

w(3 for all vectors

0, the function leaves the origin invariant.

<p0
the
lines and planes through the origin that
Consequently
to
remain parallel
themselves are invariant as lines and

Since

These lines we will call the invariant lines of <p,

and the planes the invariant planes of tp.
2. Invariant Lines.
In order to ascertain what lines are

planes.

invariant

we

solve the equation

Va<pa
that

(pa

ga,

is
(tp

First

or

0,

we

write

in the

aS\fiv

where

X,

ju,

v are

g)a

0.

form

\SfJiva

+ ixSvka +

any three noncoplanar

vSXfxa,

vectors.

Then we

have at once
(<p

g)\Sixvicx

(<p

g)nSv\a

(<p

g)pS\fxa

0.

220

VECTOR CALCULUS

But

this

means that we must have

coplanar vectors X,

S(<p

g)\(<p

/i,

g)fi(<p

an equation to determine

mig

rri2

=
=

(S\jA<pV

(S\(pii(pp

g (S\ii<pv

S\jJl<pV

g,

#>,

S\<ptxi>

S(f\(pfJLP)

which we

S\<pflP

-+-

+mg- m

called the /a<6n< equation of

Wl

g)v

tfSXiiv

g(S\(pfJL(pV

any three non-

for

shall write

0,

where we have set

S<p\fAl>)/S\fJLl>,

S<pkyupv

S(p\<piJLp)lS\fjLv,

These expressions are called the nonrotational

variants of

That they

<p.

substituting X'

v/jl

for X.

S<p\nv)

S<p\<piJ.<pi>,

are invariant

The

is

scalar in-

easily seen

resulting form

is

by

precisely

and from the symmetry involved this

/x, v we can substitute any other three
noncoplanar vectors, and arrive at the same values for
It is obvious that m 3 is the ratio in which the
mi, m2, m 3
v is altered.
If m 3 =
volume of the parallelepiped X,
one or more of the roots of the cubic are zero. The number
the same for X

means that

p,

ju,

for X,

jjl,

of zero roots

is

called the vacuity of

(p.

If is

obvious that

the latent cubic has either one or three real roots.

General Equation. We prove now a fundamental

equation due to Hamilton. Starting with <p we iterate the
3.

function on any vector, as

p,

writing the successive results

thus
p, <pp, <p<pp

We

<p

p,

<p<p<pp

<p<p

have then for any three vectors

coplanar

X,

=
,u,

<p

p,

".

that are not

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

3

S\pi>(<p p

221

= (p (<pp m\p)S\pv
pSpv(p\
= [<p\Spvp -\=
<p [V-VppV<p\p+ ]
= <p\V'V<p\pVp.v+ ]
= <p[<p\Sv<ppp + <pp<S\<pvp + <pvSp<p\p
2

mi<p p)

<p

S\pv((p p

mnp p

<p[\S<pfi<pvp

(fpSvcpXp

<pi>S\(pfxp].

we have

to this result S\pu> -m%ipp,

Adding

<p\SpL(pvp

+ m<npp)
+ pSipVipkp +

vS<p\(pp,p]

pS(f\cppapv.

Subtracting SXfMV-rritp from both sides and dropping the

nonvanishing factor S\p,i>, we have the Hamilton cubic for <p
s

<p

mi<p p

This cubic holds for

all

+ m*<pp

vectors

p,

mzp

0.

and hence, may be written

symbolically
3

<p

mnp

+m

2 (p

ra 3

This is also called the general equation for <p.

the same equation so far as form goes as the latent
equation. Hence we may write it in the form
identically.
It

is

(<p

gi)(<p

g*)(<p

gz)

0.

In other words, the successive application of these three

operators to any vector will identically annul it.
We scarcely need to mention that the three operators
written here are commutative and associative, since this
follows at once from the definition of linear vector operator,

and

of its powers.

It is to

be noted, too, that

lower degree.

<p

may

This, in case there

characteristic equation of

<p.

Since

is
<p

satisfy

an equation

one, will

must

of

be called the

satisfy its general

VECTOR CALCULUS

222

equation, the process of highest common divisor applied

to the two will give us an equation which <p satisfies also,

and as

this

cannot by hypothesis be lower than the char-

and must divide it, it is the

Hence the factors of the char-

acteristic equation in degree

characteristic equation.

those of the general

to prove that the general

acteristic equation are included

among

equation. We proceed now

equation can have no factors different from the factors
of the characteristic equation.
(1) Let the characteristic equation be

(<p

g)p

then assuming any

for every vector;

X,

v,

/x,

we

find easily

for the latent equation

2

x*-Sgx +3g
so that the general equation

(cp

x-g*=

0,

is

gf

0.

In this case
if

where

= [g\SM)

gpSrkQ

+ gpSlnOV&V,

X, /z, v are given for a given <p.

Let the characteristic equation be

(2)

(<P

9i)(<P

then by hypothesis, there

we have
(<p

and at

least

one

fi

for

92) P

0,

at least one vector

is

gi)a

0,

which
(<p

gt)0 4= 0.

Let us take then

O-

gi)a

X,

(<p g2 )(S

M-

for

which

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

223

Then
(<p

g 2 )\

(<p-

0,

Hence, we cannot have X and ju parallel,

we assume is not the case, since from

(<p- g2 )U\

gi)fx

0.

else gi

(<p- g 1 )U x=

0,

g2 which
,

0,

we have

g 2 U\

and

giUn,

g2

gu

X is parallel to /z, that is if U\ would

Up,
There is still a third direction independent
say v. Let

if

cpv

av

(a

bjjL

of

X and

/z,

+ cX.

Then we have
(<p

ft)*

gi)j>+

bfx

cX.

Since

(a

(<p- fc)(*

gx)(<p

g 2 )v

= (a

We

must have,

b(g 2

g Y ){a

0,

fi)p

g 2 )v

9i)v

c(a

immaterial,

let

6 (a

g 2 )fx

g{)\.

therefore, either

gi

and

6=0,

g2

and

or

As the numbering
a

gi t

<pv

We

0,

notice that

whence

ipv'

is

0.

us take

then

giv

of the roots

+
if

giv'

cX,

<pX

#2 X,

^>m

9iV>

we can choose v' = v

and we could therefore take

0,

(cjg 2 )\,

Hence
3

<p

g\2gi

+ ^(2fir^ + g - g?g = 0,
+ givSXpQ + # XmK)]ASX/xj>,
2

g2 )

[guiS\vQ

Y )

0.

221

VECTOR CALCULUS

and the general equation

(<P

(3)

there

and there

may

There

0.

0.

g\,

be other directions for which the same

g)fi

\i

is

such that

X.

have, therefore,

Let now

av
(a

(pv

+X

<?X

+ cK,
+ + c\,
= (a - gfv + b(a

g\.

bjj.

g) v

6/x

+ + c(a - g)]K.
6=0, <pp = gv + cX and

= g,
= gv'

we have a

Therefore,
c/x)

be a third independent direction, then we have

- g)v =
(<p
(<p
gfv =
<>(*>

g)*p

at least one direction

is

<PV

one direction X for which we have

is

(cp

We

92)

Let the characteristic equation be

<p\

true.

9i) (<P

(<p

Then

is

g{y

c/jl)

i*
<p

[b

and the general equation

g)p

g)

0,

g + XSj/XO/SX/x*'.

We are now in a position to say that the general equation

has exactly the same factors as the characteristic equation.
Further we can state as a theorem the following:
(a)

// the characteristic equation is of first degree,

O-

g Y )p

0,

then every vector is converted into g\ times that vector, by the

operation of

(p.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

is of the

// the characteristic equation

(6)

O-

9i)(<P

92)

form

0,

then there is one direction X such that <pk

a given plane of the form

every vector in

+ yv) =

(<p- #i)Om
Hence <p multiplies by gi
and by g 2 all vectors in the

x\i.-\-

92K, while for

yv we have

0.

every vector in the plane of

/a,

v,

x\x-\-

yv

direction X.

If the characteristic equation is

(c)

W - g,f =
there is

and a given plane such

we have

(<P

(<P

0,

a direction such that

<p\

If

225

gi)v

= v\

(<P

gi\

that for every vector in

9i)(w

+ yv)

= w\ we may

gi)v

it

^X.

set

w
giving
gi,

(p/i

4.

Therefore

gip.

and shears

all

<p

extends all vectors in the ratio

components parallel

Nondegenerate Equations.

We

to v

in the direction X.

have

left to

consider

the three cases

(<p

9i)(<p

O
In the last case
vectors X,

ju,

we

92) (<p - gz) =

- gi) (<P - 02) =
- g,f =
(v

see easily that there

such that

0,

0,
0.

is

a set of unit

VECTOR CALCULUS

226

<p\

<PH
<pv

=
=

+ mo,
+ vb,

g{K
giii

giv.

Hence we see that

<p(x\

+ yi* + zv) =

+
gi(x\ +

+ zv) + a*M + 6y*>

2/M + *) + a(a*M + 0*0
+ (6 = gi(xn +
+ fo^,
= gi + [apSuvQ + bvSv\Q]/S\nv.
gi{x\

+ yv)

<p(x

extends

<p

vectors in the ratio

all

vectors X in the direction of m> and

direction

In the

a)yy,

?/*>)

<p

Therefore

y\x

g\,

vectors

all

shears
/x

all

in the

v.

first

case

we

p such that

see that there

{<P

9\){<P

9s) P

at least one vector

is

A,

where
<p\

g{K.

v where
/x and
These are independent, and there-

Likewise there are vectors that lead to

<PH

fore

if

g2 n, <pp

we

gzv.

consider any vector

x\

+ yn + zp,

we have
<pp
<p

[g^SfivQ

xg{K

+ zg
+ gsvS\nO]lS\fiP.

2/02M

fwJSrhO

3 v,

Evidently we can find

X, /x, v by operating on all vectors

necessary in order to arrive at nonvanishing results by
(<P

9z)(<P

9s),

(<P

9i)(<P

9*)>

(<P

9\)(<P

9t)

respectively.

In the second case,

we

see in a similar

manner that there

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

227

are three vectors such that

=
= g
+
<pv
= IgiQiSpvQ + nSvkQ + fiwStoQ + jtSMW&Vv.
>X

<P

g{K

We may now

Summary.

5.

the following theorem, which

Every linear

may

vector

also satisfy

acteristic equation.

cubic, then

may

it

p,

summarize these

results in

of highest importance.

is

function

an equation

giii,

<pfi

\x,

satisfies

a general cubic, and

of lower degree called the char-

If the equation of lowest degree is the

have three distinct latent roots, in which

case there corresponds to each root a distinct invariant line

through the origin, any vector in each of the three directions

being extended in a given ratio equal to the corresponding root;
or it may have two equal roots, in which case there corresponds

unequal root an invariant line, and to the multiple root

an invariant plane containing an invariant line, every vector
in the plane being multiplied by the root and then affected by
to the

a shear of
or there

its

may

points parallel to the invariant line in the plane;

be three equal roots, in which case there is an

invariant line, a plane through this line, every line of the

plane through the origin being multiplied by the root and its
points sheared parallel to the invariant line, and finally every
line in space not in this
its

the function satisfies

this quadratic
is

plane

is

an invariant

may

a reduced equation which is a quadratic,

have unequal roots, in which case there

line corresponding to

plane corresponding

and
In case

multiplied by the root

points sheared parallel to the invariant plane.

to the other,

any

one root and an invariant

line in the

plane through

by the corresponding root; or there

in which case there is an invariant

the origin being multiplied

may be two equal roots,

plane such that every line in the plane is multiplied by the
root and every vector not in the plane is multiplied by the root
and

its

points displaced parallel

to

an invariant

line.

In case

VECTOR CALCULUS

22$

the reduced equation is of the first degree, every line is an

invariant line, all vectors being extended in a fixed ratio.

Where

there are displacements, they are proportional to the

from the origin, and the region displaced is called a

shear region.
Hence <p takes the following forms in which g if g 2 gz maydistance

be equal, or any two

[g&SpyQ

I.

III.

9l

Let

P, v

mi
and the

cy)80yQ

c,

or a

g2

#3

g 2 , or

if

0;

bySya ()]/SaPy, reduced

m = -

Sap,

a2/? 2

characteristic equation of
(tp

Sap)(<p

Tap)(<p

Hence there are three invariant

by

(<p

Safi)(<p

if

c.

EXAMPLES
<pp=V-app, where SaP + 0. Take X
Vafi, then we find with little trouble

= -

ating on p

+ mScfiO + a0Sj8y()]/So0y;

giPSyaQ

gi

[(a/3

reduced

g^ySapOVSapy;

g 2 or g x

reduced equation for

a

(1).

aSPyQ

g 2 pSya()

equations for g x
II.

be equal:

may

ra 3

a,

= a p SaP,
2

<p,

Tap)

0.

lines in general,

TaP),

we

and oper-

find the invariant

line corresponding,

+ SaP)p = aSpp + pSap,

+
Sap)p
TaP)(<p
= a pSPp + P aSap - aTaPSPp - pTaPSap
(<p

(<p-

= - (TaSpp+ TpSap)(Ua+

Hence the invariant

Ua

Up.

line

corresponding to the root TaP

The other two

Ua - Up

UP)Tap.

are

and

UVap.

is

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

(2).

Let

<pp

Vafip.

<pp

g 2 aS(3yp

(3).

Let

(4).

Let <pp=

gp+

Vep.

(5).

Let

<pp

Solution of

6.

+ frtfSyap + ySo&p) + hfiSaPp.

+ ly)Sfap + r(3Syap.

(fifi

cpp

229

a.

obvious that when

It is

<p

satis-

the general equation

fies

<p

+m

mi<p

2 (p

ra 3

<^

ra 3 4= 0,

0,

then the vector

l

m%<p~ p

For

if

we take

the

(w 2

a vector

a had

added to the
equation <pa

to be

left side,

But

0.

miv?

)p.

we have an

function of this vector,

<p

Also this vector

identity for all values of p.

if

is

unique, for

added to the left side, or could be

then it would have to satisfy the
if

ra 3 4= 0, there is

no vector

satis-

fying this equation, for this equation would lead to a

2
zero root for <p.
Hence, if cpp = X, ra 3 p = 2 X
mnp\ <p X,

which solves the equation.

If

<p

satisfies

the general equation

(pi

mnp

m<2<p

m%

0,

#= 0,

then we have one and only one zero root of the latent equation, and corresponding to it a unique vector for which
<pa

0,

m
If

(p

and
2

if (pp

xa

satisfies

X,

[m\(p

(p

)p

xa

w&iX

<pX.

the cubic
z

(p

rriiv

=0,

mi

0,

the vacuity is two, and we have two cases according as

is not a reduced equation, or a reduced equation exists

there

VECTOR CALCULUS

230

form

of the
is

2
<p

There

mi.

vector

m\<p

is

(3

Hence,

<pp

is

such that respectively <p(3 = a, or

= 7, we must have in the two cases

x\

mip

If

^>/3

x\

is

or where

0,

<pfi

<p(3

0.

x\.

Hence

impossible.

+ za + yj3 = 7 +

a, <pa

or

yot,

Otherwise the equation

where

In either case the other root

0.

a corresponding invariant line X, and if the

such that <pa = 0, then we have in the two cases

a vector
if

ua

-f

2/0,

^ck-

satisfies the cubic

^>

and no reduced equation, there are three vectors (of which

= fi, <fP = a, <^a = 0,
fi and 7 are not unique) such that <py
and then <pp = X, we must have X = xa + yft where p is
any vector of the form
p
If

<p

<p(x(3

If

may
7.

<p

0,

za

iCjS

1/7.

and no lower degree vanishes, then

+ 2/7) =
0,

there

^a

<*j

is

and

0,

no solution except for

be any vector.
Zero Roots. It

is

evident that

if

<pp

ua.

0,

where p

one root

is

zero,

then the region <p\ where X is any vector will give us the
other roots. For instance let <pp = Vep. Then if /x = Veh,
cpp,

Xe 2

eSe\,

<p fi

and the other two roots are

If two roots are zero, then

e /x,

Te.

<p on any vector will give the

invariant region of the other root. For instance, let

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

<pp

aSfiyp, then aSfiyaSfiyp

2
<p

231

Hence

p.

cpa

= aSapy

gives the other root as Sapy and its invariant line a.

In case a root is not zero, but is g\, if it is of multiplicity
one, then

operating upon any vector will give the

If it is of multiplicity
region of the other root, or roots.
2
two, then we use (<p
g{) on any vector.
<p

gi

We

Transverse.

8.

related to

indicate

<p,

by

<p'',

now a

define

linear vector operator

and sometimes equal to

and call the conjugate of

shall

or transverse of

and define by the equation

<p,

S\<pijl

for all

Sn<p'\

X,

For example, if <pp = Vap(3, then S\<pp

and <p' = VPQa = <p, if <pp = Vep,
<pp

If

aSfip, <p'p

is

an invariant

line of

8p<pa

is

g,

is

that

(pa

<p,

gSaP

Satf -

that

/z.

= SpfiXa,
= Vep; if

S\ap(3

<p'p

(3Sap.

or

<p[

which we

<p,
<p,

g)P

ga, then for every

/S

Sa<p'P,

0,

perpendicular to the region not annulled by

is invariant for <p'
If we consider that
g.

from the definition we have equally

S\(p
it is

tion

2
p,

iJL

Sup'

X,

<p and <p' have the same characteristic equaand the same general equation. They can differ only

distinct, it

to the

If

clear that

in their invariant regions

two
two

S\(p

Sfxcp' X,

of

if

at

all.

If

then the roots are

evident that the invariant line

two invariant

roots,

now

is

lines of

<p'

hence each invariant

of

<p, is

all

normal

corresponding to the other

line of <p is normal to the

corresponding to the other roots, and conversely.

the characteristic equation is the general equation,

<p'

VECTOR CALCULUS

232

so that each function satisfies only the general equation,

let there be two equal roots, g, whose shear region gives

<pa= ga

+ ft

<p@

let

g(3,

<py

giy.

Then

&Vp =

gSap

Sapy<p'p

S/Vp =

Sj3p,

g(V(3ySap +

VyaSfo) +

Sycp'p

gSfip,

0i#yp,

F)M0P

giVa(3Syp.

Therefore corresponding to the root g\, <p' has the invariant line Vafi, and to the root g, the invariant line V(3y.
f

Further

(p

Vya

converts

into

gVya

Hence the invariant line of g\ for

shear region of g, and the shear region
to the invariant line of g\ for

Vfiy.
is

<p'

normal to the
f

of g for

is

<p

normal

but the invariant

<p,

line of

ip' is normal further to the shear direction of g for <p,

and the shear direction of <p' for g is normal to the invariant

g for

line of

(p

for g.

In case there are three equal roots, and no reduced equation,

we have
<pa

ga

+ ft

<p/3

gfi

+ 7,

<>7

PY,

so that

&Vp =

gSap

Sapy<p'p

Sft>,

Wp =

#7<p'p

gSyp,

p^Sa/fy

VfhfSfo

Hence, the invariant line of <p'

Vya, and second shear line Vafi.
In case there
roots,

is

is

gS(3p

S 7 p,

F7CKS7P.

Vfiy, its first shear line

a reduced equation with two distinct

we have
<p(xa

Sa<p'p

-f-

gSap,

Sa&y-<p'p

y&)

5f(ara

S/Vp =
gVfiySap

yfi),

gSfip,

gVyaSfip

<P7

0i7,

Sy<p'p

giSyp,

giVa(3Syp,

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

Hence, the invariant

line of

corresponding to

<p'

to the invariant plane of g for

is

233
gi is

normal

corresponding to g there

<p,

an invariant plane normal to the invariant

line of gi for

<p.

line in the

plane through the origin is invariant.

Every
In case the reduced equation has two equal roots, then
<pa

Sa<p'p

ga

gSap +

+ ft

<pP

Sy<p'p

S(3p,

Sa(3y<p'p

gp

<py

gP,

gSyp,

gy,

S(3<p'p

gSfip,

+ Sfa-iVfa),

Corresponding to g, we have then two invariant lines:

Va.fi, which is perpendicular to the shear plane of <p; V(3y,
which is perpendicular to the non-shear region of g and to
the shear direction of

g;

also the shear direction of

Vfiy, so that the shear region of

and

Vfiy,

The

and

is

<p'

II.

<p'

is

determined by

<p'

is

Vya

therefore perpendicular to y.

three forms of

I.

<p'

<p'

are

+ toVyaSpQ + g Va(3Sy01ISapy;
= faVpySaQ + giVyaSpQ + aVfaSPQ
+ g VaPSyQ]/Safrr,
m g + [aVfiySPQ + bVyaSyQ + cVpySyQ]/SaPy.
[giVfySaO

III.

<p'

We may

summarize these results in the theorem

The invariant regions of ip' corresponding to the distinct
roots are normal to the corresponding regions of the other
roots for

<p.

In case
line

there are repeated roots, if there is

of which through the origin

is

plane every
invariant,
then every line of the corresponding plane will also be invariant, but if there is a plane with an invariant line and

a shear direction in

it,

the first invariant line of the con-

jugate will be perpendicular to the shear direction and to

the second invariant line of <p, and the shear direction of the
conjugate will be perpendicular
16

to the

invariant lines of

ip;

VECTOR CALCULUS

234

while finally, if there is an invariant line, a first shear direcand a second shear direction, then the invariant line

tion,

of the conjugate

and

mil

be perpendicular to the invariant line

the first shear direction of

<p,

the first shear direction

will be perpendicular to the invariant line

shear direction of

and

<p,

the second

the second shear direction will be

perpendicular to the two shear directions of

= V(3y/Sa(3y,
define the various directions a

and

Let a,

<p.
/?

/3,

Vya/Sa/3y,

VaP/Sa(3y, then we have

<p
<p'

=
=

+ gtffS0 + gzySy)
+
giaSa
g @S(3 +. g ySy
gioSoi

or
(

gi

\ gi

aSa
aSa

+ gJISp + afiSa + g ySy)

+ gi + aaS(3 + g ySy\
2

(3S(3

or

ig+(aJl+cy)Sa+byS(3

\g+aaSp+

(b(3

+ ca)Sy

It is evident now that <p

<p' only
there are no shear regions, if we limit ourselves to
real vectors, and further the invariant lines must be per9.

Self Transverse.

when

pendicular or if two are not perpendicular, then every

vector in their plane must be an invariant, and even in this
case the invariants may be taken perpendicular. Hence

every real self-transverse linear vector operator

reduced to the form
<pp

where a
roots g

/3

y form a

may

aSapgi

(3S(3pg 2

ySypg 3

trirectangular system,

may

be

and where the

be equal.

Conversely, when <p <p', the roots are real, provided

that we have only real vectors in the system, for if a root
V 1, then if the invariant
has the form g
ih, where i

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

<p(\

+ in) =
=

be X

line for this root

(g

<p\-\-

where X and p are

ip,,

ih)(k

235

ifi)

g\

real,

we have

hp

+ i(h\ +

hX

gfx,

gp)

iipjJL.

Therefore

<p\

g\

hp,

<pp

and

$/*<pX

gS\p

hp

S\<pp

AX 2

<7$Xju.

Thus we must have

^X 2

It follows that h

hf?

0.

0.

Of course the roots

may

be real without

<p

being

self-

are

self-

transverse.

An

important theorem
For

that

is

and

<p tp'

<p'<p

transverse.

Sp<p(p'(T

Sa<p<p'p,

Sp<p'<p<r

S(T(p (pp.

EXERCISE
Find expressions
10.

for

and

<p'<p

terms of

in

a,

/3,

7, a,

jS,

7.

We

Chi of p.

tions related to

<p<p'

<p

define now two very important funcand always derivable from it. First

X*

= m
i

<P>

so that

Sa(3y-x<pP

pSafi<py

+ pS(3y<pa + pSyapfi

= VVaPV<pyp +
= aSp((3<py y<p(3)

The other function

is

(paSfiyp

cpfiSyap

indicated by

Sapy-i/z^p

<pySa(3p

\j/^

or

by x vv and defined

= m mi(p + <p = ra <px v

<paSp((3(py y<p(3)
= pSonpfiipy +
= aSp<p(3(py -\~ f3Sp<py<pa + ySp<pa<p(3.
2

4r p

236

VECTOR CALCULUS

We

have at once from these formulae the following important forms for FX/x,

= [aSVlniVpvy - Vy<pp)
= [aS(V<p'\n - V\<p'n)V0y
=
+ V\i/>%

XFX/x

*W

Whence we have

X+ = x/j

and

Vp'XfjL,

]/Sapy

\p v ,

#/,

at once

=
^FX/x =
x\V\ii

V<p\

V\<pfi

V(p\<pji.

The two expressions on the right are thus

functions of FX/x.
It

is

-]/SaPy

evident that

we have

also

= miV\ix V\<p'n
= [aSV\V<pp<py H
1^FX/x
= V<p'\<p'lL.
it

.]/SaPy

<pV\p

Since

shown

to be

evident that as multipliers of p

=
m =

+ X = f' + X'i
= *>'x' + ^',
*>X +

<i

<P

^2

lA

^ = ^V-

EXERCISES
1.

If

<p

= aiSPiQ
<p'

+ a SM) + *Sfo(), show that

= faScHQ + Sa +01&I.O,
2

2 ()

= 27/9i7ai(),
* = - 2F/3 8 2 5Fa a 2 (),
ra = ZFaia 2 F(8i/3
ra = Saia
X = UFaiV/SiO,
^ = - HVaiatSVPiPiQ.
X

1/

mi =

2*Sau9i,

2,

azS0ifi 2

3,

'

2.

(x)

Wj(^)

Show

=
=

ii

+m w
2,

2
3

= 2m h
= raira

that the irrotational invariants of x and ^ are mi(x)

2

(x)

= Wim
2

3;

rai(^)

ra 2

(^)

3,

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

For any

3.

mi(<f?)

mi(<p

linear vector function

= Wi 2 2ra
= mi 3wiW

m
+ 3m

2 (<p )

2,

3
2 (<p )

2
<p

3raira 2 ra 3

<p

2raira 3 ,

3,

and its powers

<p,

237

(^)

mi(^

= mi 4mi w + 2w 2 + 4raim
= w 4 4wiw w + 2wi m 2 + 4ra

3
2

4
2 (<p )

ra 32

(<p

= m

3
3

3ra 32
)

ra 3 2 ,

4
3 (^> )

ra 34

+
m
+ c) = 0ts(?) + 2mi(<p)c -f 3c
mi(<p + c)
wi(^) + 3c,
wi
+ c = w s(p) + cw
+ c mi(<p) + c
5. Study functions of the form x\p + ?/x +
6. <p'V<p\<pfi = m V\n; <p'(V\<pn F/x^X) = m F\M V<p\<pn.
Show

4.

3
3

we have

m
4

that for the function

<?

c,

where

c is

a scalar multiplier,

((p

(>

2
,

(<p)

2.

7.

^(a^>)

8.

A(a)

+{

aHiv)',

a2

QxiSi

tifilPi)

^[7a()J
gsjSj

^(<Pi)-^('Pi)'

= - aSaQ, *(- 0Sa) = 0.

= - g g iSi g gijSj -

g 3 kSk)

gig 2 kSk.

= - VptfiSVaiyi - VPtppSVata, - VptfiSVa&n.

10.

For any two operators

mi(<pd)
mi((p6)

(<pd)

(<pd)

rrii(<p

2 (v?

mt(<p

+
+
+

11.

0)

0)
0)

=
=
=
=

(<p)-m 3 {6).

(*>)

(ff*

fo

III.

2g

- mtffto +

+ Wi(0).
+ m (0) + mi(6)'ini(ip) - nii(<pO).
+ m (0) + mi[*V(4) + 0V(*>)].
2

the rotor dyadic of Jaumann.

for the three types are

of

\f/

+ g gi&Sl3 + gig ySy;

+ g gi0S8 + 0i 7#t" - agtfSZ;
- [O03 + (ab - gc)y]Sa - bgySfi.

g 2 g g aSa

II.

gig 2 aSZ

tr(0*).

<p).

I.

o2

+ 9t)*Sa + (g + 0i)0S0 + (oi + g )ySj;

+ o )a5 + fo + fln)/aSg + 2^x7^7 + apSa;
- (a/3 + c 7 )>S - bySfT

The operator x is
12. The forms

III.

x can have the three forms

II.

2 (<p)

2 (v?)

9,

m. 2 (<pd)

mi{<p)

m
m

<p,

= m (6<p),
m (<pd) =
+ ra
+ ra (0) m {6 +
+ m {<p)-m {d) + ra (0)-rai(y?)

= mi(M,
= mi(<p)mi(0)
= m {6)m (<p)

*'(*)].

VECTOR CALCULUS

238

An

13.

operator called the deviator

defined

is

by Schouten,* and

is

for the three forms as follows:

I.

(l9i

9*

- 0* - gi)0S8 + (lg* - g - g%)ySy';

+
+ fiSfi) + (0 - 2^)7^ + apSZ;

gs)aSZ

(Itfi

II.

(-

fci

III.

(o

+ Cy)Sa + bySd.
=

It is V<p

Show

14.

<7*)(S5

<p

that

S<p,

if

where

where

symmetric

is

We

11.

which
>z(<P

=
=
But

(X,

a vector

we

and

and

=
F

\m\.
(m,

(X,
is

X)

then

m)Q.VXm

a quaternion function of

VX/i.

^' the two functions

satisfying this last equation,

is

invariant,

<p')>

- C

M)

<p

easily

For

shown.

if

and

we form

find that

- <p')n(<p - (p')v
2$ (p\<p' v ^LSipkcpyup'vSip'Xv'mp'v
S(p\<piJL<pi>

ra + Wi(^ mi(^')).
S\iAi>(m

S(<p

is

is

in X, n

derive from

That there

S(<p)

M)

(X,

<p')\{<p

)jl<p'

it is

easy to see that this expression vanishes identically,

two terms cancel, and if <p lt <p 2 are any two linear

for the first

vector functions,

+ SjjLvcpiiiSvXip^K + SiiV(pivS\mp2K
+ Sv\<PillSv\(p2lJL + Sp\<PipS\/JL(P2H
+ $XjU<pi J/jSAjU^
S\fJL<Pi\SlJLV<p2V +

Siiv<p\kSiiv<p<Lh

+
+
=

we have

Sl>\<Pi\SlJlV<p2lJL

S^knv

S\lJL<PilJ,ST<P2V

mi(<p2<pi)

Hence we may under mi permute

functions.

Again

after this has

cyclically the vector

been done we

may

take

the conjugate. Hence the expression above vanishes, and

there is a zero root in all cases for <p
Further we
<p'.

may
*

always write

Grundlagen der Vector- und Affinor-Analysis,

p. G4.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

=
=
=

S\fXV<pp
S\jJLl>'<p'p

(pXSfJLPp

239

+
VfivSipKp +
f

VjivS\<p p

Hence we have
S\nv(<p

From

<p') P

= VP V(Vfip)cp\

....

for every

v.

X, p,

The function
conjugate of

+
V(p\Vpv +

we have 2eS\pv

this

noncoplanar

VeQ

evidently self-transverse, and the

is

<p

is

2<peS\pv

It

VeQ.

easy to show that

is

V\V<pp(pv

The
of

expressions Te, T<pe, and Sepe are scalar invariants

and these three may be called the rotational invariants.

<p,

In terms of them and the other three scalar invariants

scalar invariants of
If

<p

or

<p'

may

there are three distinct roots,

g\,

sponding invariant unit vectors are

these for X, p, v, and thus
2e&7iy 2 Y3

2<peSyiy 2 y 3

g2

= -

g g
2

<p(3

#i/3,

(py

g 2 y,

2eSa(3y

Vy Vy 2y z
x

(g 2

is

73,

corre-

we may

(gi

g2)yzSyiy 2

gig2Vy 3 Vyiy 2

g\Vy Vy z y
2

(pa

set

g xa

(3h

gi)VyVafi

=
<pa

VQVPyh.

ga-\-h(3,

<pfi

gr/5+ ly,

gy
2eSa(3y

It

and the

we have

In case three roots are equal,

<py

In case two roots are equal and

g3

y h y2

= giVjiVy y3 + g Vy Vy yi + gzVy Vy^y

= (92 g3)yiSy y + (g - gi)y2Sy y
2

all

be expressed.

h(3V(3y

evident, therefore, that

if

lyVya.

the roots are distinct and

VECTOR CALCULUS

240

the axes perpendicular two and two, that = 0; if two

roots are equal and the invariant line of the other root is
perpendicular to the plane of the equal roots, then it
direction of e; and if the three roots are equal, and

is

the
the

perpendicular to the two shear directions,

in the plane of the invariant line and the second

invariant line

then

is
if

is

shear.

If

The vanishing

Vanishing Invariants.

12.

invariants of

Wi

0,

leads to

(p

there

is

an

some

of the scalar

interesting theorems.

infinite set of trihedrals

which are

transformed by <p into trihedrals whose edges are in the

faces of the original trihedral. If ^transforms any trihedral
in this

manner, mi

0,

and there

an

is

infinite set of trihe-

drals so transformed.

We

choose X, n, v for the edges of the vertices, and if <p\

coplanar with /z, 7, <pix with v, X, and <pv with X, ju, the
invariant mi = 0. If mi = 0, we choose X, ju, arbitrarily,
is

and determine
S\n<pp

The

from ScpXnv

SXcpuv.

Then

also

0.

invariant

vanishes

if

transforms a trihedral

<p

whose faces pass through the edges of the

The converse holds for any infinity of trihedrals.
into another

first.

EXERCISES
1.

Show

that

if

a,

fi,

mi
and

is

invariant for

all

7 form a trirectangular system

Sa<pa

Study the functions

<p

S/3<pl3

Sy<py

trirectangular systems,

2 (<p<p')

T*<poc

TV(X) = S 2 \<pa
2.

+
-f

TV/?

for the ellipsoid

= a^aSa

+ T*<py,
+ S \<py.

2 Xv/3

and the two hyperboloids

b~ fiSl3 c^ySy.
2

Study the functions

ZmVaVQct,

<P

r-VpVaQ,

VaVQa,

a^VoapQ,

V -vVaQ.fi.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

Show

4.

241

that

= 2e mi,
= 2 (pop,

<pp

\/Sp<pp

VAp =
\7Vp<pp

m
+ Wip

2<pt

2Sep

2,

3<pp,

wherein <p is a constant function. Hence (pop may always be represented as a gradient of a scalar, Sep as a convergence of a vector, and
3<pp (deviation) as a curl. We may consider also that Wi is a
m,\p
convergence and e is a curl, ra 2 a convergence and <pe a curl.
5. An orthogonal function is defined to be one such that
ip<p'

Show

or

/3(0/"

normal to

cos

()
-

the angle

)+

()/?

0,

sin

0-70/3

-(fl 7r)-1
./

which

= (lT
is

cos 9)0800

/?.

Study the operator

7.

Show

that

<p

112 .

0**l*Q0-*l*

a rotation about the axis

or such a rotation followed

6.

1.

that an orthogonal function can be reduced to the form

ip

by

/3

through

reflection in the plane

VECTOR CALCULUS

242
In particular

14.

An

operator

c,

a constant.

T^a =

Show

^>

a similitude when for every unit vector

is

that the necessary and sufficient condition

<p'<p

Any

linear transformation

15. If
^j^'

<p

= aSi

a,

is

2
.

which preserves all angles is a similitude.

then <p' = iSa +jSp + kSy, and

+ 0Sj + ySk,

fiSfi 7$7,
Pa + P/3 + 7*7,

ctSa

mi(*V) =

= PFa/S
= S a0y.

m,(^^')

13. Derivative

There

Dyadic.

7*7/37

+ T^a,

mz(<p<p')

is

a dyadic related to a

variable vector field of great importance which we will

study next. It is called the derivative dyadic, since it is

somewhat

of the nature of a derivative, as well as of the

nature of a dyadic. This linear vector function for the

field of a will be indicated by D a and defined by the equation

D.= ~
It is

evident at once that

if

SQV-<r.

we operate upon

dp,

we

arrive

is, therefore, the operator which enables us to convert the various infinitesimal displacements

at da.

This function

in the field into the corresponding infinitesimal changes

in the field itself.

The

expression

SdpDJp =

Cdf,

where C is a constant and dt a constant differential, represents an infinitesimal quadric surface, the normals at the
ends of the infinitesimal vectors dp being a dp.

Let us consider

now

the

containing the conConsider a small volume

field of a,

gruence of vector lines of <r.

given by 8p at the point whose vector

is p,

and

let

us sup-

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

243

pose it has been moved to a neighboring position given by

the vector lines of the congruence, that is, p becomes
p

+ adt.

Then

8p becomes

p+8p +
that

is

to say, dp has

dt(<r

+ DM,

become
(1

Dadt)8p.

Hence any area V8\p8 2 p becomes, to terms

of the first

order only,

V8 lP 8 2 p

The

+ dt(V8 lP D,8 p + VDJ lP 8 2P

2

rate of change with regard to

V8ip8 2 p

is

).

of the vector area

therefore

X (D )V8 lP 8 2 p.
ff

Likewise, the infinitesimal volume S8ip8 2 p8 s p

is

trans-

formed into the volume

S8ip8 2 p8 3 p

dt{S8ip8 2 pD a 8 z p

S8ipD a 8 2 p8 3 p

+
The

rate of increase of the

In other words
the

medium

if

we

so that

volume

displace

its

is,

SD a 8ip8

p8 3 p).

therefore, miS8ip8 2 p8 3 p.

any portion

of the space of

points travel infinitesimal distances

along the lines of the congruence of

a,

by amounts propor-

tional to the intensity of the field at the various points, then

the change in any infinitesimal line in the portion of space

is given by dtD 8p, the change in any infinitesimal

moved

ff

by x'(D a )dt- Area, and the change in an

volume is midt times the volume.
In case a defines a velocity field the changes mentioned
will actually take place.
We have here evidently a most
area

is

given

infinitesimal

important operator for the study of hydrodynamics. If

is the field of an infinitesimal strain, then D a 8p is the

adt

VECTOR CALCULUS

244

displacement of the point at dp. Evidently the operator

plays an important part in the theory of strain, and consequently of stress. Further, (we shall not stop to prove
the result as we do not develop it) for any vector a a
function of p we have an expansion analogous to Taylor's

theorem, in the series

+ ha)

<r(p

(r(po)

+ hD^ +

h2
-^

(- &*V)Z).a

+ | (SaV) D a +
2

This formula

is

of the congruence.

the basis of the study of the singularities

For if cr(p ) = 0, then the formula will

start with the second term,

and the character

of the con-

In brief the
depend upon the roots of D
gruence
results of the investigation of Poincare referred to above
will

show that

(p. 38)

cases

ff

if

none of the roots

is

zero,

we have

the

1.

Roots

real

and same

2.

Roots

real

but not

3.

One

real root of

sign, the singularity is

all

of the

same

same

a node.

sign, a faux.

sign as real part of other two,

a focus.
4.

One

real root of sign opposite the real part of others,

a faux-focus.

One real root, other two pure imaginaries, a center.

one or more roots vanish, we have special cases to con-

5.

If

sider.

The

invariants of

=
D*e =

mi

SV<r,

Da
=

are easily found,

^Vxja,

iV-VViV2V<ri<T2,

and are

m = %SVViV2V<tkt
m = |SViV2V3<W2

After differentiation, the subscripts are

related functions are

2,

2 0- 3 .

all

removed.

The

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

245

BJ = - v&r(), X = - VVV*Q, %' = ~ V-VQV-*,

y = - i&oviVs-Wi*!.
$ = - jrviV2^K7 (),
2

In a strain a the dilatation

(spin)

and

is e,

in other cases

's

ra b

the density of rotation

we can

interpret

m\ and

in

terms of the convergence and the curl of the field. In

case a is a field of magnetic induction due to extraneous
causes,

and a

is

the unit normal of an infinitesimal circuit

is the negative of the force density

In any case we might call
the
circuit.
on
unit
current
per
unit circuit. Since x'
force
8
the
per
density
x'V8i P 2p
is not usually self-transverse, the force on circuit a has a

of electricity, then %'

component

in the direction

in the direction

different

jS

of the force

on

from the component

circuit

ft.

Recurring to Stokes' and Green's theorems we see that

fdpa =

ff - WVd

lP d 2P

'(T

= 2ffS8 lP 8

2 pe

-Sfx'V8 lP 8 2P

It is clear that the circulation in the field of

zero unless for

The torque

of

normal which
if

we have

is

always

some points inside the circuit e is not zero.

the field on the circuit vanishes for any

is

a zero axis of

From these it is clear that,

x'

a linear function <pd P , in order that it be

an exact

da we must have the necessary and

sufficient

differential

conditions

VVvO m
For

if

tf<pd P

the condition.

then

0,

0.

<pVUvV =

The converse

is

for all Uv,

whence

easy.

which a =
A theorem
will be sometimes positive, sometimes negative.
find
what the
given originally by Kronecker enables us to
excess of the number of roots at which ra 3 is positive over

The

the
*

invariant

number

in the case of the points at

of roots at

which

Picard, Traite d'Analyse, Vol.

ra 3 is
I,

negative

p. 139.

is.*

We

set

VECTOR CALCULUS

246
t

and

fa/To*

= - J- ffSdvr]
47T

then the integral will vanish for any space containing no

roots, and will be the excess in question for any other space.

We

could sometimes use this theorem to determine the

number

of singularities in a region of space

about their character.

It is

The operator (D c ) = \(D

tion of the field,

and something

evident that <SVr

+ DJ)

is

0.

called the deforma-

and the operator Ve() the

rotation of the

field.

a unit vector everywhere, then DJa = 0,

and since the transverse has a zero root, a itself must have

In case a

is

There

a zero root.

is

one direction then for which

ff

0.

Vadp =

The

are the isogons of the

vector lines given by
In case there are two zero roots the isogons are any
field.
lines on certain isogon surfaces.

EXERCISES
Study the fields given

1.

p,

Show

2.

that

= Up/p 2
if

+ da

is

by
a

Vap,

a function of

= V o[Spo<r
= VVoihVvpo -

aSfip,

Vap/p

3
.

p,

%Spo<ppo]

Wpo<PPo]

\V Po^V
- lSV<r,

<*

where Vo operates only on p and <p = <rSS7 0- The first form

da as a gradient and a term dependent on the curl of a,
expresses a
the second as a curl and a term dependent on the convergence of a.
,

po is
3.

an

infinitesimal vector.

If

14.

= FVr, D a = ZV.

Dyadic Field.

pendent upon

p,

If

<p

is

we say that

a linear vector operator deFor

<p defines a dyadic field.

every point in space there will be a value of <p. Since there

is always one root at least for <p which is real, with an invariant

line,

there will be for every point in space a direction

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

247

and a numerical value of the root which gives the real

invariant direction and root. These will define a congruence of lines and a numerical value along the lines.
In case the other axes are also real, and the roots are distinct
or practically distinct, there will be two other related con-

The study

gruences.

from
it is

of the structure of a dyadic field

view

this point of

not be entered into here, but

will

evidently of considerable importance.

EXERCISES
1.

of

If

<p

= uQ,

the field

is

then the gradient of the

VV

VVuQ.

<p()

Vw.

field is

The gradient

in

The

vorticity

any case

is

v'V,

a vector.
2.

If

<p

= VaQ,

the gradient

is

V\7<r, the vorticity is

QSS7*+D V m 3.

If

<p

WvStQ +
-

the

<tSt(),

gradient

is

x {D,r).

aSVr D T

The gradient of the

VX/tSvQ + VtD<j{).

V<rDy ().

DaT, the vorticity

4. If ip = VadQ, the gradient

is

<r,

the

vorticity

transverse field

70(V)<r

+ VadV,

is

is

tS\7<t

the

vor-

ticity is

+S*V'-0'Q -*S$[(V i)Q +<r0().

S\7<T-d()

For the transverse

field

we have

the gradient

is

0'FV'o

0VV<r,

7v Wr() + W'dVa'Q.
= D,r the gradient of the field is VV, the concentration of
5. If
The gradient of the transverse field is
and the vorticity is D vva
the vorticity

<p

<r,

V^Vo", while the

6.

If

and the

<p

= VV0(),

vorticity

=
=

is

vorticity

is FV0V, where both V's act on

- V&V0().
7^, the vorticity is Dvve<rgradient is

0()

De(a), the
to, the gradient

7.

If

<p

8.

If

f>

9.

For any

zero.

is

the gradient

is

2e(07V0).

<p

Vm
Vm
Vw

=
=
=

<

2
2

V +2e (FWO
{<pW<p' + FW'

),

[V (Vi

-t

W Vx].

*'

I,

0,

VECTOR CALCULUS

248

The

15.

We

Differentiator.

define the operator

as the differentiator, and indicate

it

by D.

It

may

SQ V
be used

upon quaternions, vectors, scalars, or dyadics.

As examples we have, D being the transverse

B v = VaD () - VtD Q,
D Sar - SQD.r + S()D a,
=
= mriDJ,
D mi
D Vaa
VaD.Q,
D eM = e(DJ,
D v = -S()V *>().
r

16.

Change

Let

of Variable.

be a function of

p a function of three parameters u,

A=

ad/du

v,

w.

p,

and

Let

+ f3d/dv + yd/dw,

where a, /3, y form a right-handed system of unit vectors.

Then we have the following formulae to pass from expressions in terms of p to differential expressions in terms of the

parameters.

AF = -

AiS Pl VF

FA' A" = |FAi'A 2 "Fpip 2 Fv'V",

SA'A"A'" - - i<SAi'A 2 "A8 "iSpiP2PsSV' V'V".
,

As instances

- SVv= A'VV'V,
VA<r= VV"T(r"A'.
Notations
Dyadic products
Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

4>(a), <f>'(a), <f)Va( ), Va(f>( ),

<l>'a f a-4>,

<j)

a,

aX

<j>,

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

Reciprocal dyadic
l

4>~

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson, Burali-Forti,

Marcolongo, Shaw.
l

q~

Timerding.

I6I"

1
,

filie.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

249

The adjunct dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

WO2, Gibbs, Wilson, Macfarlane.

\j/

m(f)'~

R{a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

x((f>, (f>),

D4>~

Shaw.

Jaumann, Jung.

The transverse or conjugate dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

0, Taber, Shaw.
<f>',

<f>

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung, Macfarlane.

c,

Marcolongo.

K(ct), Burali-Forti,

\b /

Wi

4>J

Elie.

(f>

<f> c ,

</>/,

r
,

The planar dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

Gibbs, Wilson.

Jaumann, Jung.

CK(a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

x(0), Shaw.
Self-transverse or symmetric part of dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Shaw.

<f>o t

$, Joly.
f

<f>

Gibbs, Wilson.

Jaumann, Jung.

[</>],

D(a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

\ b /, Elie.
\ b /

\{4>
</>",

II,

Elie.

In this case expressed in terms of the axes.

Skew part

</>')

V-e(

),

of dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

Gibbs, Wilson.

Jaumann, Jung.

Va A

17

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.
i

VECTOR CALCULUS

250
\ b /

Sin

lie.

Macfarlane.

<f>,

Mixed functions
X>,

0),

of dyadic

Shaw.

Gibbs, Wilson.

\<f>l 0,

R{(f>, 0),

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Vector of dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

e,

< x

Gibbs, Wilson.

8
(f> r

<}>/,

Jaumann, Jung.

Va, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

E, Carvallo.

R=

Te, filie.

c(<),

Shaw.
Negative vector of adjunct dyadic

<f>e,

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

0-0 x Gibbs, Wilson.

,

8
<t>-<f> r

Jaumann, Jung.

olVol, Burali-Forti,
x(</>>

<f>)>

Marcolongo.

Shaw.
Square of pure strain factor of dyadic

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

Gibbs, Wilson.

4><f>',
</></> c ,

2
{(f)}

Jaumann, Jung.

aKa,
[6],

</></>',

e,

<f>

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

filie.

Shaw.
Dyadic function of negative
Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

2
<f>

-4> x

Wilson, Gibbs.

vector of adjunct

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

2

-0/, Jaumann, Jung.

a Va,

251

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Elie.

2,

Scalar invariants

of dyadic.

Coefficients

of

characteristic

equation

m"

ra',

',

m, Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Carvallo.

h, h, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo,
F, G, H, Timerding.
1%,

(</>2) s ,

S,

Elie.

Gibbs, Wilson,

03,

mi, ra 2 ra 3 Shaw.
,

fc,
]

>

4> 8 *,

w,

03,

Jaumann, Jung.

cos </> 03, Macfarlane.

(Mer
2

>i(<f>o ),

mi(00'), 2(rai

scalar invariants

2 ),

rai(00')>

wi[x(0,
2

8 2

[0

{0j s

>

[01/,
:

.,

'*

-j

0,

*)>

0L Shaw.

Jaumann, Jung.

0*

ft

Gibbs, Wilson.

Elie uses ifi for $e0e.

Notations for Derivatives of Dyadic

In these

operates on

unless the subscript n indicates

otherwise.

Gradient of dyadic

V0,

Tait, Joly,

0V,

Tait, Joly,

Shaw.

Dyadic of gradient.
Shaw,

Specific force of field

grad a, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

-3
dr

Fischer.

VECTOR CALCULUS

252

Transverse dyadic of gradient

0'V,

Tait, Joly.

grad Ka, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

r^-y Fischer.

-<t>,

Jaumann, Jung.
Divergence of dyadic

SV<f>(

),

Shaw.

Tait, Joly,

grad Ka, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Vortex of dyadic

VV4>(
Rot a,

VX

Tait, Joly,

),

Shaw.

Burali-Forti.

0,

Jaumann, Jung.
Directional derivatives of dyadic

S(

S(a,

P
da

)
(

V
)),

0.

Sa' 1 V

<l>a.

ScT 1 V

-<t>Va(), Tait, Joly,

Burali-Forti.

IX*,
da

(<>)<

F sch er
i

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Gradient of bilinear function

ju(Vn, ), Tait, Joly, Shaw.
<(/z)a, Burali-Forti.
Bilinear gradient function
ju(Vn,
\//(n,

u n ),

Tait, Joly,

Shaw.

u), Burali-Forti.

Planar
<f> n

VVn(

),

Tait, Joly,

X-^> Fischer,

derivative of dyadic

Shaw.

Shaw.

CHAPTER X
DEFORMABLE BODIES
Strain

When

1.

body has

vector to a point

its

is p,

points displaced so that if the

express the vector to the

we must

new position of P, say P', by some function of p, cpp,

then we say that the body has been strained. We do not
at first need to consider the path of transition of P to P'.
If

cp is

a linear vector function, then

a linear homogeneous strain.

upon the generality of

is

we say that the

We

strain

have to put a few

since not every linear

vector function can represent a strain. In the first place
we notice that solid angles must not be turned into their
restrictions

<p,

symmetric angles, so that SipKcpyupvlSKp.v must be positive,

Hence (p must have either one or
is, ra 3 is positive.

that

three positive real roots. The corresponding invariant lines

are, therefore, not reversed in direction.

When

2.

and three
The strain

self-conjugate there are three real roots

is

<p

directions

which form a trirectangular system.

in this case is called a pure strain.

vector function can be written in the form
I

#rr V.{**9."f 0

-1

Any

linear

V(<pV)()-p,

where
q-i()q

The

function

real roots
7r

G3

= V

self-conjugate and, therefore, has three

invariant lines perpendicular. If we set
then 7r 2 = ipip'. Let the cubic in <p<p' be
its

MG +MG- M
2

given in

(wT'V

<p<p' is

and

((p<p')

Chapter IX,

p.

0.

237,
253

Then

from

the

values

for the coefficients of

<p

VECTOR CALCULUS

254
in

terms of those of

in

w being p u p 2 p 3 )

we have

<p

Mi =

2p 2f
whence we have
4

P!

(the coefficients of the cubic

pi*

2(Mi

if

pi,

a, b, c

pz

p 2 and p 3
,

we may

aaSa'Q

Hence

tp'ip

tfa'Sa'Q

terms of

bpSP'Q
<p<p'

<p

in the

form

cySy'Q,

= w

and a!

= aa'SaQ

<p'

0.

are the trirectangular

<p<p'

collect the

are the roots of

to be determined.

But

2pm,

the invariant lines of

<P

unit vectors a, 0, 7,

where

p2

+ 8M )pi - \m MzVl + MS - 4M M =

Thence we have

Now

VP'Sp'Q

fi',

7' are

and
+
+ WO

also

^' = _
since a,

/?,

otefo

are axes of

<p(p',

fc0S0

and a 2

2
,

c
c

7#7,

Now

are roots.

we have
<p'a

act',

<p'/3

<p'y

b(3',

cy',

hence
r

<p(p

a =

a 2a

Thus we have

=
2

a:'

a2otSa'ct'

1,

Set'(3'

ab(3Sa'(3'

acySot'y'.

Sa'y',

and

similar

equations, so that a', (3', y' are unit vectors forming a trirectangular system, and indeed are the invariant lines of
<p'<p.

We may now write at once

= aaSct b/3S(3 cySy,
= - aSa' - fiSfi* - ySy'.
q~\) q
7r

This operator obviously rotates the system

a',

(3',

y' into

DEFORM ABLE BODIES

255

That the function

(3, y, as a rigid body.
if we multiply
since
a
at
obvious
glance,
orthogonal
the
for
have
we
its
product
conjugate
by

the system a,
is

Reducing

aSa

PSP

to the standard

it

ySy =

is

it

1().

form of example

five,

Chapter

+ 77') and
UV(aa' +
IX, p. 236,
the sine of the angle of rotation \TV{aa! + $8' + 77')
we find that the

axis

is

(3(3'

EXAMPLES
(1).

<p'

Let

<p

= -

The axes

are

VeQ-

VeQ,
e

perpendicular to

Then
<P<P'

= ~ VeVeQ =

2
.

and any two vectors a, j8

and these must be taken so that a(3 = Ue,

for the root 0,

e,

We may therefore write

- Te(3Sa = V-eQ,

the roots that are equal being

<p

eSe()

TeaS(3

which was obvious anyhow.

T 2 e.

Hence we have

for q~

Qq the

operator

aSp-0Sa=
and

this

is

V(VaP)Q,

a rotation of 90 about Va(3

Ve

of 90.

The

effect of
7T

= Te(- aSa -

(3S(3)

to give the projection of the rotated vector on the plane

perpendicular to e, times Te. That is, finally, VeQ rotates
is

p about as an axis through 90 and annuls the component

of the new vector which is parallel to e.

Consider the operator g aS(3Q where a, jS are any

It is to be noticed that we must select of all the
vectors.
(2).

square roots of (p<p that one which has

It is obvious that j) = q.

its

roots

all

positive.

VECTOR CALCULUS

256
3.

soid

This

The
-1

7V

r,

WW

or

= -

soid Sp<p'<pp

This

the ellip-

r\

tions of the perpendicular system of

2

r into

Its axes are in the direc-

called the strain ellipsoid.

is

Tp=

strain converts the sphere

(p<p'

tt

2
.

The

ellip-

converted into the sphere Tp

is

r.

the reciprocal strain ellipsoid. Its axes are in the

directions of the principal axes of the strain.
The extenis

sions of lines

drawn

in these directions in the state before

the strain are stationary, and one of them

mum, one the minimum extension.
4.

shear

is

is

thus the maxi-

represented by
<PP

fiSap,

where Sa/3 = 0. The displacement is parallel to the vector

= 0.
/3 and proportional to its distance from the plane Sap

no change in volume since ms = 1.

there is a uniform dilatation and a shear the function

There
If

is

<pp

The change

in

volume

= gpis

now

is

fiSap.
3

The equation

is

easily

seen to be
(<P

9?

0.

is the necessary and sufficient condition of a dilatation

and a shear, but this equation alone will not give the axes
and the shear plane, of course.
l
1 ~
5. The function <pp = gqpcT
qfiq~ Sap is a form into
be
which the most general strain can
put which is due to

This

shifting in a fixed direction, U(5, planes parallel to the fixed

plane Sap =
by an amount proportional to the perpendicular distance from the fixed plane, then altering all
lines in the ratio g

and superposing a rotation.

This

is

DEFORMABLE BODIES
any

We

strain.

simply have to put

<p'<p

257
into the

<p'<p

form

+ Xju + ftSk,

where
S\fx

i(a

2b 2 ),

= K 2

T\n

),

and then we take

g

The
6.

a -

=b,

rotation

is

bp

X,

same

ratio,

say

g,

TcpUp = g or SUp(<p <p

2SX UpSfx Up = b 2 - g 2
f

c)

2
-

v are

body that are lengthened

= 0, or in terms of X,
sin u-smv= (b - g )/(a 2

)Up

the angles the line

planes of the cone Scpp<pp

7.

IXrK*

are parallel to the edges of the cone

where u and

n-

determined as before.

All the lines in the original

in the

The displacement
5

makes with the

= T p.

/z,

2
)

cyclic

of the extremity of p

is

l)p,

which can be resolved along p and perpendicular to p into

the parts

p(/Sp~Vp

The

1)

coefficient of p in the first

+ pVp~
term

is

It is numerically the reciprocal of the

<pp.

called the elongation.

square of the radius

of the elongation quadric:

Sp(<p

l)p

1,

the radius being parallel to p.

l
The other component may be written Vep
Vcpopp~
where e is the invariant vector of <p, the spin-vector.

8.

If

now

the strain

is

p,

not homogeneous, we must conIn this case we have

sider it in its infinitesimal character.

SdpV -tr = cpdp, where a is now

again the formula da =
da that of
the displacement of P, whose vector is p, and a

VECTOR CALCULUS

258
p

we can

dp, provided that

-f-

If these

order.

da

neglect terms of the second

have to be considered,

= - SdpV a + i(SdpV) VV
= (pdp %SdpV (pdp.
-

We may

analyze the strain in the case of

<P

now

Since

and there

\V\7<r,

is

is

rotation, about
<p

it

follows that a

VP

VSVP().
not zero,
amount Te. In any

pure strain.

as an

axis, of

If e is

being

six coefficients of

any two

are

0,

determines the changes of length of all

e of the short line in the

The

VeQ.

body, the extension

Up

direction

in this case a

case the function

lines in the

order into

a displacement potential and

is

strain

there

if

p '
The

(fo

first

<p

SUppoUp.
,

of

form

Sa<po(3,

where a,

ft

of the three trirectangular vectors a, ft 7,

are called the components of strain.

Three are extensions
and three are shears, an unsymmetrical division.
9.

In the case of small strains the volume increase

and

S\7<7,

this

is

called

the cubic dilatation.

If

is
it

vanishes, the strain takes place with no change of volume,

that is, with no change of density.
strain of this char-

There is a vector
from
a
which
can
be
derived
potential
by the formula
acter

is

called

a transversal strain.

= VVt,

SVt =

0.

no scalar potential since we do not generally have

also VVo- = 0.
Indeed we have
There

is

2e

VV<r

WVVr = V r 2

VSVr = V r.
2

DEFORMABLE BODIES

259

This would give us the integral

\t

The

is

integration

This strain

\irfffejr-dv.

over the entire body.

called transverse because in case

is

a function of a single projection of

so that

= afv x + /3f
= /i = 0,

SVoand

all

points are

rigid

body.

zero,

and /i

moved

-x

p,

on a given

+ yf

fi

we have a
say a,

line,

-x,

constant,

in this direction like those of a

We may therefore
= 0, so that
Saa

take the constant equal to

0.

Hence every displacement is perpendicular to the line a.

10. When V\/a = 0, we call the strain longitudinal; for,
giving <j the same expression as in 9, we see that we have

Wa =0 =

7/2'

Vaa =
Hence we have
11.
is

all

and

fifs',

=/

3,

0.

the strain parallel to a.

In case the cubical dilatation iSVo"

purely of a shearing character,

the strain

/2

and

if

0,

the curl

the strain

VVv =

0,

purely of a dilatational character. Since any

vector a can be separated into a solenoidaJ and a lamellar
is

part in an infinity of ways, it is always possible to separate

the strain into two parts, one of dilatation only, the other
of shear only.

in

we

VP +

V\/t, then we can find

one way from the integrals

If

write a

and r

P = lir.ffSS<T'VTp-W,
r

= - \TT'fffVa'VTp-

-dv

f
,

p'

Pc

VECTOR CALCULUS

260

The integrations extend throughout the body displaced.

This method of resolution is not always successful, and
other formulae must be used.
(Duhem, Jour, des Math.,
1900.)
12. The components are not functionally independent,
but are subject to a set of relations due to Saint Venant.
These relations are obvious in the quaternion form, equiva-

The equation

lent to six scalar equations.

V-V<PoVV() =

<p=SQV-<r,

if

0,

is

The equation is, furtherwhere both V's operate on <p

the
and
sufficient
condition that any linear
more,
necessary
.

can represent a strain. The problem of

finding the vector a when <p is a given linear and vector
vector function

<p

function of p consists in inverting the equation

<p

It

is

S()

(Kirchkoff, Mechanik, Vorlesung 27.)

-cr.

evident that

if

we

operate upon dp,

<pdp

we have

do.

Hence the problem reduces to the integration

of a set of

differential equations of the ordinary type.

(1). If

(p

EXAMPLES
we
or = Vep.
have
VeQ,

Prove Saint Venant's

equations.
(2).

If

l
<p~ p- V{)p-\ then a

Up.

Prove Saint Ven-

ant's equations.
13.

In general

must modify

when we do not have

small strains,

we

theory somewhat. The displacement will change the differential element dp into
the. preceding

dpi

The

strain

two

differential

is

dp

characterized

SdpV-<r.

when we know the

elements and this we

may

find

ratio of the

by squaring

DEFORMABLE BODIES

261

so as to arrive at the tensor

(dpi)*

The function
which we
<p

Sdp[l

- 2vSa +

in the brackets

= SQV'<r then
* = (1 + <p)(l

Of course

also called

may

is

the general strain function,

It is easily clear that if

<p')

(1

2<po) for

cubical dilatation

is

Its

2
A) =

angle of two elements

is

*>)(1

<p)'.

components Sa&fi are

If

<p is

we

infinitesimal,

<.

now found by

SdipidhpidtPi/Sdipdtpdtp
(1

(1

of strain.

components

Evidently

is
<.

self-conjugate.

substitute

The

by

will represent

V'S(r'(T"SV"]dp-

= m
($).

(l

subtracting
<p)

The

alteration

from

A.
in

the

found from

suq.

<p)\u(i<p)y.

If angles are not altered between the infinitesimal elements,

the transformation is conformal, or isogonal. In such case

= s \ys\$\s\'$y.
2

Eti&k'

For example,

if <p

= VaQ,

sua +
when Sa\ =

<p)\Q.

<p)v

sxx',

Sa\'.

This part of the subject leads us into the theory of

infinitesimal transformations, and is too extensive to be
14.

treated here.

On
15. If the function
it

may happen

continuous.

that

The

Discontinuities
<j

its

continuous throughout a body,

convergence or its curl may be disis

consideration of such discontinuities

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

262

usually given at length in a discussion of the potential

Here we need only the elements of the theory.

functions.

We make use of the following general theorem from analysis.

Lemma.
all

If a function is continuous on one side of a surpoints not actually on the surface in question, and

face for
if, as we approach the surface by each and every path leading

up

to

a point P, the gradient of the function, or its directional

approach one and the same limit for all the paths;

derivatives

then the differential of this function along a path lying on the

surface is also given by the usual formula,

SdpV -q =

dp being on the surface.

dq,

[Hadamard, Lecons sur la propagation des ondes, etc.,

Ann. Ecole Normale, 1887, Part 1, ch. 2,

p. 84, Painleve,

no.

2.]

In the case of a vector a which has the same value on

each side of a surface, which is the value on the surface,

and is the limiting value as the surface is approached, at
all points of the surface, we have on one side of the surface

da

On

If

Sdp\7

&

<pidp.

Sdp\7

-<r

<p2dp.

the opposite side

da

in

now
<p,

these two do not agree, but there is a discontinuity

<p 2
tp\ is finite as the two paths are made

so that

to approach the surface, then designating the fluctuation or

saltus of a function by the notation [], we have in the limit
[da]

But
is

(<p 2

<Pi)dp

[<p]dp.

since a does not vary abruptly, [da] along the surface

zero,

hence for dp on the surface

[<p]dp

0,

DEFORMABLE BODIES

263

and therefore

M=
where
say,

v is

the unit normal,

we have

vSv>

That

a given vector.

\x

is

to

for the transition of the surface

[S()V-a]

Sv.

Whence

=
[W<t] =

[SVcr]

Spix,

Vvix.

These are conditions of compatibility of the surface of discontinuities and the discontinuity; or identical conditions,
under which the discontinuities can actually have the surface for their distribution.
16. If *S/x^
is

0,

then [S Vo"]

0,

and the cubic dilatation

continuous.
Since

Svvjjl

Sv[V\7<t]

[SpV<t], the normal

com-

continuous, and the discontinuity

confined to the tangential component. Likewise

ponent
is

of the curl of

is

Sfivn

and the component along

ijl

[S/xVo-],

is

continuous.

Hence V\7(r

v.
can be discontinuous only normal to the plane of
17. In case a itself is discontinuous, the normal com/jl,

passes the surface of discontinuity cannot

be discontinuous without tearing the surface in two. Hence

ponent of a as

it

the discontinuity is purely tangential.

to the curl of a as follows.
.

Consider a

an

line

It

can be related

on the surface, of infinitesimal length, and

normal to the surface, and let

infinitesimal rectangle

the value of a at the two upper points differ only infinitesimally, as likewise at the two lower points, but the differ-

ence at the two right hand points or at the two

left

hand

VECTOR CALCULUS

264

points be finite, so that a has a

through the surface equal to [a].

fSbpa =

discontinuity

in

going

Then

ffSK(AWa)

around the rectangle, when k is normal to the rectangle.

But the four parts on the left for the four sides give simply
Sid*},

where 8p is a horizontal side and equal to V-wTSp.

we have for every k tangential to the surface

Hence

SkV v[a] - Sk Urn (AW<r)IT8p.

Dropping

all infinitesimals,

Vv[(t]

we have

= Lim

AVVcr/Tdp.

Tangential discontinuities may therefore be considered

by a limiting value of the curl multi-

to be representable
plied

by an

infinitesimal area, as

if

the surface of discon-

tinuity were the locus of the axial lines of an infinity of small

rotations which enable one space to roll upon the other.

The expression \[<j] is the strength of this sheet.

strain

is

not irrotational unless such surfaces of dis-

continuity are absent.

But we have shown above that a

continuous strain

imply certain surfaces of discon-

tinuity

in

its

may

derivatives of

everywhere, then Vv[u]

exists is parallel to

0,

some order. If V\7cr =

and such discontinuity

0,

as

v.

The

derivation above applies to any case, and we may

say that if a field is irrotational, any discontinuity it possesses must be normal to the surface of discontinuity.

Integrating in the same

box,

way over

the surface of a small

we would have
ffSv[<r]ds

SV<T'V,

DEFORMABLE BODIES
where

v is

the infinitesimal volume.

Sv[a]

But

265
this gives

= vSV (r/surface.

If then $Vo" =
everywhere, the discontinuity of a is
normal to the normal, that is, it is purely tangential. These
theorems will be useful in the study of electro-dynamics.

Kinematics of Displacements
In the case of a continuous displacement which takes
in
time we have as the vector a the velocity of a
place
moving particle, and if p is the vector from a fixed point
18.

to the particle, then dp/dt

a.
It is necessary to distinguish between the velocity of the particle and the local
velocity of the stream of particles as they pass a given fixed
point in the absolute space which is supposed to be sta-

The latter is designated by d/dt. Thus dcr/dt is

the local rate of change of the velocity at a certain point.
While da/dt is the rate of change of the velocity as we follow
tionary.

the particle. It is easy to see that for any quaternion q

the actual time rate of change is
dq/dt

We

dq/dt

SaV -q.

have thus the acceleration

da/dt

If

da/dt

SaV-cr

the infinitesimal vector dp

is

(d/dt

<p)a.

considered to be displaced,

we have
bdp/dt

= -

Since the rotation

is

of the particle to

which dp

the vortex velocity.

tion

is

The
18

\V\7a

dt,
is

S5pV'(r.
the angular velocity of turn
attached is |FVo". This is

Likewise the velocity of cubic dilata-

S\/a.

rate of change of

an infinitesimal volume dv as

it

VECTOR CALCULUS

266

moves along

is

The equation

SV<T'dv.

of continuity

is

d(cdv)

0,

where

c is

the

density, or

dc/dt

That

is,

we have

medium

for a

c{- SV<r)

0.

of constant

mass

= cSVv-

dc/dt

That

is, the density at a moving point has a rate of change

second
equal to the density times the convergence of
per
the velocity.

It

may

also be written easily

dc/dt

SVW.

This means that at a fixed point the velocity of increase in

density is equal to the convergence of the
cubic centimeter.

When FVo" =
tational, and we may
19.

which

ity-potential,

When SVcr =
we may

the motion

may

= VP,

20. If

and the
is

irrotational, or dila-

where now

P is

a veloc-

is

solenoidal or circuital,

&Vr = 0. r is the
The lines e = \V\7<r become

= VVr

where

potential of velocity.
case the concentration of Jr.
lines of r,

is

per

be monodromic or polydromic.

the motion

0,

write a

0,

put a

momentum

The

lines of

and

vector
in this

a are the vortex

lines of e are the vortex lines of a.

continuous, and the equation of a surface of

= 0,
discontinuity of the gradient dyadic of a and of a' is /
where now a is a displacement and a' is da/dt the velocity,
we have

certain

conditions of kinematic compatibility.

in 1877-8 and are found as

These were given by Christoffel

We have
follows.

M=

o,

[_0ovW<-jtfi>

DEFORMABLE BODIES
which the time

in the case in

moving surface
we would have

in

which /

is

267

not involved; and for a

is

a function of

as well as of p,

[-SOV-<r]=-SUvfO,
= " mS
i Uvf=

V<T

S
Tt

["

f /*V/=M=-Gm.

This gives us the discontinuity in the time rate of change of

the displacement of a point as it passes from one side to the
other of the moving surface. The equation of the surface
as it moves being /(/>, t), we have in the normal direction

- SdpV-f+dtf =
that

is,

where /

since dp

is

now Uvfdn,

0,

dn/dt

f'/T\/f =

G,

'

the derivative of / as to t alone. In words,

at any point on the instantaneous position of the moving
surface the rate of outward motion of the point of the
surface

is

coinciding

G = f'jTS/f.
called a

with

wave and G the

We

the given point.

above

the

The moving

fixed point in space

surface of discontinuity

is

is

wave at
may now read the condition of comrate of propagation of the

abrupt change in the

displacement velocity is given by a definite vector p. at
each point multiplied by the negative rate of propagation
of the wave of displacement, that is, if G is the rate of
patibility

in these words: the

propagation,
[o-'j

= -

tion a

[SVff]

= - SpVvf = -

The preceding theorem becomes

21.

tinuities of

(n

and

Gp,

and

l)th,

any order
all

its

in the following

general for disconLet the func-

way.

derivatives be continuous

down

then we can write

[SQiV'SQzV

S/iv.

S0*-iV-*]0,

to the

VECTOR CALCULUS

268

whence, differentiating along the surface of discontinuity

as before, we find in precisely the same manner

[S()iV

SO. V *) = nSOiUvfSihUvf

since at a given point on the fixed surface

And

we

if

insert

dp/dt

in

shall have, since the surface is

parentheses

W) = mG
which

V/

SQnUvf,
is

constant.

(m <

ri),

we

moving,

= - GSQiUvf
m 2 = n, we have

In particular for

S0n-mUvf(-l)

m
.

2
,

the discontinuity in the acceleration of the dis-

is

placement.
If

m=

1,

2,

[SOW]
From

we

this

derive easily

[SVff'l

[W<r']
22.

The

[S()iV
If

= - nGSQUVf.

= - GSUvf= = - GVfxUvf= ~

nth. derivatives of

Saa

GSfxp.

GVfip.

are

SQnV-Saa] = SQiUvf

SQ n UVfSap.

then we hold the surface fixed and consider a certain

point, the discontinuity in the nth derivative of the ratio

two values

volume which has two

perpendicular directions on the surface and the third along
the normal will be given by the formula
of

of the infinitesimal

SQiUvf
In case

we have a

SOnllVfSnUvf.

material substance that has mass and

DEFORMABLE BODIES

269

we have

density and of which the mass remains fixed,

log c

c/cq

log Co

V log c = V log v/v

= volo/voi,
= log v log V,
= Vo/v-V(clvo).

Therefore from the formula above

we have

since v /v

in the limit

[SOiV

S()nV

log

c]

= SQiUVf

SQnUvfSfjiUvf.

In particular for the case of discontinuities of order two-

we have

[Vlogc]= UvfSfiUvf.
These theorems may be extended to the case in which
is in motion as well as the wave of discontinuity.

23.

the

medium

Stress
24. In

any body the

stress at a given point

is

given as a

tension or a pressure which is exerted from some source

The
across an infinitesimal area situated at the point.

two opposing actions, being taken

a tension, negative if a pressure. It is assumed that the stress taken all over the surface of an
stress real

as positive

consists of

if

infinitesimal closed solid in the

body

will

be a system of
This is

forces in equilibrium, to terms of the first order.

equivalent to assuming that the stress on any infinitesimal

portion of the surface is a linear function of the normal,

that

is

6 = ZVv.
25.

We

have therefore

space inside the

for

any

infinitesimal portion of

body

ffQdA = ffZdv =
But by Green's theorem

this

is

0.

equal to the integral through

VECTOR CALCULUS

270

J JVHV

the infinitesimal space

In this equation S is a function of

p,

Hence

0.

and

SV =

0.

differentiates S.

26. In

case the portion of space integrated over or

is
not infinitesimal, this equation (in which S is
through
no longer a constant function) remains true if there is
equilibrium; and

if

there are external forces that produce

equilibrium, say per unit volume, then the density being

c,

we have

SV +

for every point.

In case there

a small motion,

is

EV +

we have
co".

Returning to the infinitesimal space considered, we

see that the moment as to the origin of the stress on a
27.

portion of the boundary will be VpSJJv and the total

moment which must vanish, considering S as constant, is

ffVpZdv = fffVpttdv,
hence

FpHv =

We

see therefore that

is

(S).

self-conjugate.

EXAMPLES
In this case
(1). Purely normal stress, hydrostatic stress.
for tension, for
S is of the form pS = gp, where g is
pressure, and is a function of p (scalar, of course).

(2).

Simple tension or pressure.

H=
(3).

Shearing

paSa.

stress.

H = - p(aSp
|S

not parallel to a.

+ PSa),

DEFORMABLE BODIES

271

Plane stress.

(4).

8-

Maxwell's electrostatic

(5).

H=
P

where

is

giaSa

g 2 (3S(3.

stress.

l/87r-FvP()VP,

the potential.

The quadric Spap =

C is called the stress quadric.

the
direction of the principal stresses.
Its principal axes give
Since Sp is the direction of the normal we may arrive at a
28.

graphical understanding of the stress by passing planes

through the center, and to each construct the conjugate
diameter. This will give the direction of the stress, and

Tap

since

is

inversely proportional to the perpendicular

p, if we lay off on
distances inversely as the pershall have the vector representation of the

from the origin on the tangent plane at

the conjugate diameter
pendiculars,
stress.

we

When the

diameter

is

normal to

its

conjugate plane,

there will be no component of the corresponding vector

that is parallel to the plane, that is, no tangential stress.

Such planes
It

is

will

be the principal planes of the

evident that a stress

is

completely
self-conjugate linear vector function H

depends therefore upon

six

then, of the stress H, since

tion

is

parameters.

stress.

known when
is

the

known, which

We

shall speak,

This proposirepresents
sometimes stated as follows: stress is not a vector

but a dyadic (tensor).

components

it.

From

of the stress are

this point of

view the

six

taken as the coordinates of a

vector in six-dimensional space. These components in the

quaternion notation are, for a, (3, y, a trirectangular system,

SaXa,

SpEy

S/3E0,

= -

SyZp,

SyZy,

Saafi

- SyZa = -

= -

S(3Za,

Sa3y.

VECTOR CALCULUS

272

That

is,

Xx
It

is

Zt

Yy

Xy = YX

now

easy to see

component

YyZz

Yy~\~ %zt

Xt Y yZ

z -\-

Zy,

Zix

~ X

2.

that certain combinations of these

stresses are invariant.

m m

the three invariants mi,

X x ~r*

Yt

2,

Xx Y y

XX Y

ZXyY Z ZX

at once

which are

3,

ZgXx ~r

-f-

Thus we have

Y z Zx
Z zX y
Y y Zx

Xy

For any three perpendicular planes these are invariant.

EXERCISE
What

are the principal stresses

and

principal planes of the five ex-

amples given above?

29.

Returning to the equation of a small displacement,

we may

write

it

er"

Hence the time rate

+ <T EV.
l

of storage or dissipation of energy

is

W'=- fffSa'Zvdv.
The other terms

of the kinetic

energy are not due to storage

of energy.

Now we have an experimental

its full

statement

is

law due to Hooke which

to the effect that the stress dyadic

The

linear function of the strain dyadic.

latter

is

in

was shown

to be

<Po=

-^S()V-<7+ V&rOJ.

Hooke then amounts

to saying that S is a linear

operates upon a, and owing
to the self-conjugate character of <p, we must be able to
and a, that is,
interchange

The law

of

function of a and

where

S=

6[(),

V,

a}.

DEFORMABLE BODIES

273

First, it follows that if the strain <p is multiplied by a

variable parameter x, that the stress will be multiplied by

We have then for a parametric change

the same parameter.

of this kind
a'

ax'

which we

Hence

may

suppose to take place in a alone

we would

for a gradually increasing a,

have

W = - xx'fffSaSVdv,
= - iyyy&rEv &%

w
x runs from

to 1.
This gives an expression for the
in
stored
this
If the work is
energy
special manner.
a function of the strain alone and not dependent upon the
if

if it is

way

in

which

function.
strain.

two

is brought about,
is called an energythus seen to be a quadratic function of the
In case there is an energy function, we have for

it

It is

strain functions

Si

due to the displacements

H =

e[(), en, Vi],

G[(),

o- 2 ,

cr lf

a2

2 ]-

The stored energy for the two displacements must be the

same either way we arrange the displacements, hence we
have
So- 2

[V3,

where the subscripts

This
is

*i

3,

Vi]

(Scr 1

e4[V*i

<r 2 ,

2 ],

4 merely indicate upon what

V acts.

equivalent to saying that so far as vector function

concerned, in the form
is

SaG[(3, 7,

we can interchange
is

self-conjugate,

Since S is self-conjugate,
(3 and y, 5.
and we can interchange a and (3. From

a,

the nature of the strain function

Of course,

in the

5]

we can interchange

y,

8.

forms above we cannot interchange the

effect of the differentiations.

VECTOR CALCULUS

274

We have

in this

<P\l

way

arrived at six linear vector functions

<f22

<P32

<fn

<f23

<Pl2>

wherein we can interchange the subscripts, and where

<Pn

/3

7 being a

0[Q,a,a]

^23=

6[(),ft7]

v\,

trirectangular system of unit vectors.

have further a system

where

We

Cmu c n i2,

of thirty-six constituents

Cim =

Sa<pn<x,

C1112

each of the six functions having

are the 36 elastic constants.

If

Sa<pn<x,

These
an energy function,

six constituents.

there

is

they reduce in number to only 21, for we must be able to

interchange the first pair of numbers with the last pair.

There are thus

3 forms

emu

left

6 of em%, 3 of Cim, 3 of

C1212,

3 of

C2311,

3 of 02m.

In theories of elasticity based upon a molecular theory

six other relations are added to

and action at a distance

these reducing the number of elastic constants to 15. These

relations are equivalent to an interchange of the second

and third subscript in each form, thus Cim = Ci2is- These

are usually called Cauchy's relations, but are not commonly
used.

(See Love, Elasticity, Chap. III.)

strain function <p

Remembering the

we can
we have
,

these coefficients with no difficulty, for

SaipoCXj fty,

the stress dyadic due to the strain component

where a;, a ; are any two of the three a, (3, y.
of the stress across a plane

component
direction

a due
t

interpret

to the strain

normal to

component

Sa&oaj,

cijki is
otj

Sak<Poai-

the

in the

DEFORMABLE BODIES

275

EXAMPLES

If Sij

(1).

Soti<pocxj,

show that we have

for the

energy

function

W=

+ 2cii22SnS + i^c s
+ 201223^12^23 + SCni2*ll*l2 +
2

^CnnSn
When

(2).

12 i 2

22

there

tion normal to 7,

12

2Cii 2S S n S 23

a plane of symmetry, say in the direcconstants that involve 7 an odd number

is

all

of times vanish, for the solid

unchanged by reflection in
Only thirteen remain. If there are two perpendicular planes of symmetry, normal to (3, y, the only
is

this plane.

constants

left

are of the types

ClUli

C1122,

Ci212j

the plane normal to a is thus a plane of symmetry also.

There are nine constants. This last case is that of tesseral
crystals.

If

(3).

a,

(3

the constants are not altered by a change of a into

as by rotation about 7 through a straight
(3,

into

angle, then the plane normal to 7 is a plane of symmetry.

(4). Discuss the effect of rotation about 7 through other
angles.

When

(5).

0(X,
30.

fi,

v)

the energy function exists

90*, X,

v)

= -

we have
where

VvQV\\x,

6'

6.

A body is said to be isotropic as to elasticity when the

elastic constants are

not dependent upon directions in the

body. In such case the energy function is invariant under

orthogonal transformation. It must, therefore, be a function
of the three invariants of

<po,

ii,

ra 2 ,

W=

The

3.

degree, while the energy function

and therefore can be only of the form

third

- Pmi + Am? + Bm

is

2.

last

is

of

a quadratic

VECTOR CALCULUS

276

zero except for gases and is then positive.

stant A refers to resistance to compression, and

The con-

is

is

positive.

a constant belonging to solids.

The form given the quadratic terms by Helmholtz
is

Am + Bm = iHm +
2

The

[]

the

is

sum

latent roots of

- 6m

is

2 ].

of the squares of the differences of the

The constant

<po.

volume without change

whole energy, for

C[2mi

there

if

refers to

changes of
such change it is the
no change of form, the roots

and

of form,
is

in

equal and the other term is zero. C refers to changes

of form without change of volume, since it vanishes if the
roots are equal and is the whole energy if there is no cubical
= 0.
expansion m\. For perfect fluids C
The form given by Kirchoff is
are

all

Km^tpo

Kdrm2

From which we have

B-C =
We may

3C

2KB,

H=

2K,

write for solids, liquids,

W=
Later notation

Rdm? +
=
gives 2K6

W
The constants

=
X,

|Xmi
\x

2K(d

K=

- Pm

/x,

iirriiicpo )

are the

C = \K.

and gases

Kmifao*)
X,

+ |),

that

x.

is,

Pm\.

two independent constants

of

isotropic bodies.

We now have for the stress function in terms of the strain

function

S=

Xrai

-f-

2/i^o.

EXAMPLES
(1).

In the case of a simple dilatation we

know S = p

DEFORMABLE BODIES
and we have

for

<Po=

<po

ASapQ) =

JOSOV-ap

()p

X(3o)

cubical dilatation

is

thus

3a

where
(2).

A:

called the

is

= =
S

modulus

a/z[<Sj8()

the tangential stress

(3). If
its

both

p/,

of cubical compression.

+ g&xOL

is

0>

+ 0&*()].

T,

then T

a/j,.

is

the shear

rigidity.

a prism of any form

plane ends, and no

is

T uniform
we have

subject to tension

lateral traction,

S = - afSaQ From

+ |m)

p/(X

a/2-[aSPQ

modulus or simple
over

2 M o().

For a simple shear

<p,

If

a().

we have

Substituting in the equation above,

The

277

Xm +

2n<p

this equation, taking the first scalar invariant of

sides,

T = 3mA

2muh

so that

rrn= T/(3\+2fi).
Substituting,

we have
v

2ju(3X +2ju)

2/i

We

write

now

E=

/x(3X

2/x)/(X

/x)>

the quotient of a

simple longitudinal tension by the stretch produced, and

Also we set
called Young's modulus.
s

X/(2X

2/x),

Poisson's ratio,

VECTOR CALCULUS

278

the ratio of the lateral contraction to the longitudinal

stretch.
It is clear that

the other

may

if

any two

+ *)(1 -

E/[(l

In terms of

and
po

(4).

If

pressure.
(5).

If

of the three

We

be found.

moduli are known,

have
M

2*),

IE/(1

\Ej(X

*),

2s).

we have

-m*

ti(S)'

k < 0, and the material would expand under

< 1, W would not be positive.
For
Cauchy's relations hold, s = \ and X =

<

s,

If s

/x.

numerical values of the moduli see texts such as Love,

Elasticity.
31. Bodies that are not isotropic are called aelotropic.

For discussion of the cases and definitions of the moduli,

see texts on elasticity.
32.

There

is still

the problem of finding a from

the latter has been found from S.

cp

after

This problem we can

solve as follows:
<t

<tq-\-

fp^da

=
=
=

(To

J<rS Vdp, where

acts

on a

+ fgW&P ~ hVdpVVv]
~ WiPi ~ p)VVd<r
*o + fgWdp
-d-V( Pl - p)VV<r]
= <to- Wifii ~ Po)VVao+ f Modp
o-o

<ro- \Vifii

-iVQ>i-p)VvM

+ f S [<Podp
l

Po)VV<ro

V( Pl

We are thus able to express a at any point

p)W<Po'dp].

pi in

terms of the

DEFORMABLE BODIES
values at p

of

integration of

VVc, and

cr,

<p

279

the values along the path of

and FV^oO-

EXAMPLES
(1). Let us consider a cylinder or prism which is vertical
with horizontal ends, the upper being cemented to a hori-

Then we have

zontal plane.

the value of

% = gcySypSyQ,
where the origin

vertical unit,

at the center of the lower base.

is

The

conditions of equilibrium are

SV
That
gel

=0,

or

the condition

is,

under

where

is

own

its

weight.
the length.

is

Solving for the strain,

Let a

gcs/E, b

FWoO
The
"o

integral
hV(fti

+
=

is

pi,

gey,

= -

gy.

by a cylinder hanging
tension at the top surface is

realizable

The

we have

aVy()

s)IE,

and note that

- bVyySyQ = -

aVy().

p )e

fp'oiaSyp-dp

bySypSydp

aV( Pl

p)Vydp]

aySpdp]

haypX,

po)e

+ bySypSydp
VpiVydp adpSyp
+ HbyS 2yp
+ aVPl Vyp

Jl?[aSyp-8p

W{pi

+
p )e

the differential being exact.

a at

* -

thus

(To \V(p\

gc(l

= -

+
=

c{

This gives us as the value of

VECTOR CALCULUS

280

f+

*l

V(pi

p )(ieo

-f

Substituting a and

we

If

easily verify.

\byS yp>

f>

constants.

and constructing

6,

= -

<Po

+ iaFprypi

aVypo)

J[S()V-r+ V&r()],

the cylinder does not rotate, we may

if the upper base does not move

omit the second term and

laterally,

then the vector f reduces to

^gcP/E-y, and

we have
'

= -

hgcP/E-y

gcs/2E-Vpyp

gc(l

s)/2E-yS py.

plane cross-section of the cylinder is distorted into a

paraboloid of revolution about the axis and the sections
shrink laterally by distances proportional to their distances
from the free end.
(2). If a cylinder of length 21 is immersed in a fluid of
density c', its own density being c, the upper end fixed, p
the pressure of the fluid at the center of gravity, then we

have the

stress given

H= -

(p

whence calculating
<p

1/E-l- (p

(1

by

gc'Syp)
<p

g(c

c')(l

Syp)ySy,

we have

gc'Syp)(-

Syp)]

ySy[g(c

2*)

c')(l

gs(c

c')

Syp)l

+ s)]/E.

And
a

+
-

+ 2*)p - ^/(c - cO.

s(c + c')]/E
Spyg[ce
+ 7lh(c ~ c')(l + s)(l - Syp)
+ hgp W-s(c+c')]/E.
Vdp

p[(-

'

(3).

What

also directly.

does the preceding reduce to

if

a'?

Solve

DEFORMABLE BODIES
If a circular

(4).

is,

and the

is

moment

of

axis parallel to y,

its

a traction at each end, equivalent to couples

\ira*pt, about the axis of y, a being the radius,

only stress
that

bar has

281

a round bar held twisted

by opposing

couples,

we

have

S = - lidfySnO

<Po=
HiySpyO
a = tVpySyp.

Any

tSyp.

it is

turned in its own plane through the angle

the angular twist per centimeter.
next example is of considerable importance, as

section

(5).

+ VpySyQ),
+ VpySyQ],

is

is

The

The equations

that of a bar bent by couples.

are

g = - E/R-Sap-ySyQ,
Po

- -

(1

+ s)/R-Sap-ySyQ ~ s/R-Sap-Q,
+ sS ap - sS yap]
+ sR~ yaS(3pSap R~ ySapSyp.

= iR-i-al&yp

If

the body

axis

is

a cylinder or prism of any shape with the

is no body force nor traction on the

horizontal, there

The

perimeter.

resultant traction across

ffwhich

will

equal zero

of the sections in the

Thus the bar

is

if

any section

is

EjR-SapdA,

the origin

normal

stressed only

sections, the traction across

is

on the

state, that

is,

line of centroids

the neutral axis.

by the tractions. at its terminal

any section being equivalent

to a couple.

The couple becomes one with

EI/R, where 7

is

the

moment

through the centroid parallel to

is displaced according to the law

19

Saa =

axis

(3

= ya

of inertia
(3.

The

iR-'S'-yp,

and value

about an axis

line of centroids

VECTOR CALCULUS

2N2
so that

it is

approximately the arc of a

circle of radius

R.

2
2
strain-energy function is \ER~ -S ap, and the potential
2
energy per unit length %EI/R

The

For further discussion see Love, p. 127 et seq.

= - E-Syp-OQ, where dy = 0, and
(6). When E

and a may not be a unit

<Po

= ~
= (1

(1

8)Syp-6Q

8)tiSp6p

vector,

0',

show that

+ sSyp-mi(0),
+ mi[-

OpSpy]

\yp

pSpy].

See Love, pp. 129-130.

We

33.

recur

now

to the equation of equilibrium

EV + cf we

In this

0.

substitute the value of

H = Xmi

2/^o

= -

whence

+m

XV*SVcr

XSVo-

W+

(o-/S()

n\/SS7<r

V+
cf

0,

V&r()),

0,

or
(X

+M

VSVo-

+ MV c 2

c?

or equally since

VV
(X

This

is

+ 2M

= VSVa

VSVcr

+ VVVa,
+ fiVVVcr - c =

the equation of equilibrium

when

and the force are given. In the case

insert on the right side instead of 0,

across a plane of normal v is

where
tion

(X

v is constant.

by *SV(), we

+ iJ,)vSVcr

0.

the displacement

of small

ca".

motion we

The

traction

pV\Jvv,

Operating on the equilibrium equa-

see that

(X+2/z)V

SV<r-oSv=

0.

DEFORMABLE BODIES

283

then there are no body forces or

If

derivable from a force-function

the body,

we

if

the forces are

P and V P =
2

throughout

see that

SVa
is

a harmonic function.

mi(H)

is

Since rai(E)

we

Skmi,

see that

also harmonic.

Again we have
(X

+ m)V#Vo- = -

M VV,

whence we can construct the operators

(X

/xj

Vv()V<r -

- mV V&j - - M vvsv().
2

and adding the two,

2(X

+ M)VSvSV(r() - - mV

Now we

(^V()

V&r())

have

g = - \SVct - m(^V()
and since S\7<r

VH= 2

/xV

2(X

is

+M

V-ScrO),

harmonic

(^V()

3&

V&r())

V#VV<7() =

(1

2(X

/*)

ViS ViSVcrO

+ s^VSvSVtrQ.

or

V
This relation

is

H=

^- ViSvifiO.

due to Beltrami, R. A. L. R.,

(5) 1 (1892).

EXAMPLE
Maxwell's stress system cannot occur in a solid body
which is isotropic, free from the action of body forces, and
slightly strained

from a state of no

-Wil(E)

stress, since
2

1/8tt-(vP)

we have

VECTOR CALCULUS

284

which

is

not harmonic.

(Minchin Statics, 3d ed. (1886),

vol. 12, ch. 18.)

We

34.

consider

under no body

now

the problem of vibrations of a solid

forces, the body being either isotropic or

aeolotropic.

The equation
c<r"

is

of vibrations

6( V, V,

S=

where

<r),

a function of both

is

and

If

p.

V,

6[(),

<r]

as before,

the vector

co

and

represents

the direction and the magnitude of the wave-front, the

equation of a plane-wave will be

Sp/co,

since this represents a variable plane

own normal with

the displacement from the

the same at every point.

and

t,

By

velocity w.

mean

position

That

is,

is

is

at

any instant

a function of u

/V-<r

where n

is

uT^a/du,

as/(V)

VSp/ooda/du

and any homogeneous function

of
l

f{oT )d

gives

(rldu

the degree of /.

The equation above

cv"
If

its

hence
Vo"

if

moving along

definition of a wave-front

the wave

is

for

wave-motion then

e[oj-\

is

or 1 d 2a/du 2 ].
,

permanent, a involves t only through u and

is harmonic of frequency p,

the vibration

<r"

du2a/d 2

= -

fa.

Therefore

e[Uu, Uw,

Hence

for a plane

a]

ctrT*u.

wave propagated

in the direction Uoj

DEFORMABLE BODIES
the vibration

parallel to

is

285

one of the invariant

lines of

the

function
e[U<a, Uco,

The

()].

the square root of the quotient of the latent

root corresponding, by the density. There may be three
velocity

is

same direction
The wave- velocity surface is

plane-polarized waves propagated in the

with different

velocities.

determined by the equation

S[e(w-\
that

co"

1
,

a)

co"

ca][e(u-\

1
,

(3

cjSHeC&T

1
,

co"

by the cubic of Q[Uu, Uu, ()].

is an energy function, Q[Uu,
Uu,

is,

If there

1
,

y]

is

()]

0,

self-

may easily be seen. In such case the invariant

are perpendicular, that is, the three directions of

conjugate as
lines

U 62

vibration,

03,

for

direction of propagation are

any

Since

mutually trirectangular.

is

essentially positive,

the roots are positive, and there are thus three real velocities
in

any

direction.

a repeated root, there is an invariant plane of

indeterminate lines and the condition for such is
If g is

V[e(T\

a and

/3

to"

arbitrary.

1
,

a)

ca][e(^-\

There

is

this vector equation, giving

internal

conical

co"

1
,

0)

5[0(p, p, a)
a,

jS,

0,

and these give Hamilton's

The

vectors

double points of the wave-velocity surface.

The index-surface of MacCullagh, that
is

a finite number of solutions to

co,

refraction.

wave-slowness surface,

cfi]

terminate

is,

at

Hamilton's

given by

ca][G(p, p,

(3)

cj8][0(p, p,

7)

ey]

0,

which is the inverse of the wave-velocity

the current vector of the surface, just as co

arbitrary,

surface,

is

for the other surface, the equation being

formed by setting

VECTOR CALCULUS

286
p

=
the

is
/x

-1

a>

= w_1

of the

The

wave-surface, or surface of ray- velocity,

of Sp/o) = 1, or Spp =
where
1,

envelope
.

The

two other

condition

is

that given by the equations

index

It is the reciprocal of the

surfaces.

surface with respect to the unit sphere p 2

1, or the
in
the
wave-fronts
unit
time
after
of
passing
envelope
plane
the origin, or the wave of the vibration propagated from the
origin in unit time.

The

vectors p that satisfy

its

equation

magnitude and direction the ray- velocities. When

there is an energy function, this ray-velocity is found
are in

easily, as follows:

The wave-surface

is

the result of eliminating between

0(/x, p, a)

Q(dp, p, a)

= -

1-Spdfi=

/x,

da)

cdcr,

0.

the second equation

2SdfxG(<T, a, n)

or

ca,

+ 0(ju, dp, a) + 0(ju,

Sup

From

SdaOiii,

a)

fi,

cSadX,

by the equations
Sdp.e(<r, a,

Hence as

dfi is

perpendicular to
G(<r,

<r,

p)

/x)

0.

p,

we have

xp.

Operate by Sp and substitute the value of

Q(U<t, Ua, p)

x,

cp.

This equation with 6(p,p, a) = ca gives all the relations

between the three vectors. See Joly, p. 247 et seq.

CHAPTER XI
HYDRODYNAMICS
1.

may be considered under the comBy definition, a perfect fluid as dis-

Liquids and gases

mon name

of fluids.

tinguished from a viscous fluid has the property that its

motion or when stationary can be con-

state of stress in

sidered to be an operator which has three equal roots

all lines

and

invariant, thus

E = -p(),
where p

is

density

is

a pressure, or S = p.
If the
have, when there are external forces and

positive, that
c,

we

is,

motion, the fundamental equation of hydrodynamics

<r"

c~ l Vp.

In the case of viscous fluids we have to return to the

general equation
c (*"

When

2.

{)

- Vp -

there

is

(X

+ m) VSV -mW.

equilibrium

Vp =
If

the external forces

P, we have
or dp

cdP

o-

may

Vp = cVP,

c.

be derived from a force function,

hence SdpVp = ScdpVP,

for all directions.

That

is,

any

infinitesimal

variation of the pressure is equal to the density into the

In order that
infinitesimal variation of the force function.

there

may

be equilibrium under the forces that reduce to

we must have subject to a condition, for from Vp = c,

we have V 2 p = Vc + cV, whence V = 0, and
VV% = FVlogc.

287

VECTOR CALCULUS

288
If

= VP,

from the

last

the condition

equation we

is,

of

course,

see that

is

satisfied,

and

Vc, that

parallel to

is to say, is normal to the isopycnic surface at the point,

or the levels of the force function are the isopycnic surfaces.
= c states that is also a normal of the
The equation

Vp

In other words, in equilibrium the isoand the isosteric sur-

isobaric surfaces.

baric surfaces, the isopycnic surfaces,

faces are geometrically the same.

noted that

if

However,

drawn

a set of levels be

for

it

is

any one

to be
of the

three so that the values of the function represented differ

for the levels

by a

unit, that

is, if

then the levels in the one case

unit sheets are constructed,

may

not agree with the levels

two cases in distribution.

The fundamental equation above may be read

in the other

in words:

the pressure gradient is the force per unit volume.

Specific

volume times pressure gradient is the force per unit mass.

We can also translate the differential statement into

words thus:
sheet is the

the

mean

number

specific

volume in an isobaric unit

of equipotential unit sheets that are in-

cluded in the isobaric unit sheet.

equipotential unit sheet is the

The average density in an

number

of isobaric unit sheets

enclosed.

Since dp and

Under

dP

are exact differentials,

we have

statical conditions the line integral of the force of

pressure per unit mass as well as the line integral of the force
from the force function per unit volume are independent of the

path of integration and thus depend only on the end points.

3. There is for every fluid a characteristic equation which
states a relation

between the pressure, the density, and a

may be the tempera-

third variable which in the case of a gas

ture, or in the case of a liquid like the sea, the salinity.

Thus the law

p

of

const

Gay-Lussac-Mariotte for a gas

-c

(1+ t^t

is

T) f r constant volume.

HYDRODYNAMICS

The
pa

289

characteristic equation usually appears in the

= RT,

where

in this case a

equation reading

From

dP =

form

the specific volume, the

is

adp.

we have

this

dP = RTdp/p.
T

connected with p by any law such as that given

substitute its value and integrate at once.
Or if T is connected with the force function P by an equation, we can integrate at once.
If

is

we can

above,

Example.
In the case of gravity and the atmosphere, suppose
that the temperature decreases uniformly with the equi-

we must

Since

potentials.

in

this

case take

so that

VP will be negative, we have

dP =

T = T

RTdp/p,

bP,

whence

dP = -dT/b,

dT/T = Rbdp/p,

T = T

bR

(p/p

Or again

dP/(T

We

-bP)= - R dp/p,

thus have the

bP/To

R
(p/po)

solution of the problem, the initial

sea-level, and in terms of a or

full

conditions being for

c as follows

mean

T=

a=

bR

(p/p

p = b-iT [i-

T=

(l

bTo-'P),

c=

a (p/po)
(p/p

c (l

bR

-\

To-'bP)

*p = Pod- To-'bP)*1

" 1 "1 - 1
,

1
.

Absolute zero would then be reached at a height where the

VECTOR CALCULUS

200

gravity potential would be

and substituting

P = To/b,
we find c = 0, p =

If b is

0.

negative,

the fictive limit of the atmosphere is below sea-level. For

values of bR from oo to 1, for the latter value b = 0.00348
(that is, a temperature drop of 3.48 C. per 100 dynamic
meters of height), we have unstable equilibrium, since
from the equations above for c we have increasing density

The

case

bR =

extreme; however, it is
mathematically interesting from the simplicity that results.
Pressure and temperature would decrease uniformly

upwards.

is

and we should have a homogeneous atmosphere. This

condition is unstable and the slightest displacement would
continue indefinitely. Values of bR less than 1 lead still
to unstable equilibrium, the state of indifferent equilibrium
occurring when the adiabatic cooling of an upward moving

mass of air brings its temperature to that of the new levels.

For dry air this occurs for bR = 0.2884 = (1.4053

1) /1.4053,

or a

fall of

1.0048 C. per

dynamic hectom-

eter.

See Bjerknes, Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography.

4. The equation when there is not equilibrium gives us

aVp
Let

= VP,

V*V

and operate by

WaVp =
we multiply by SUv and
mal to Up, we have
If

SfSUvWaVp
The right-hand
or force per unit

side

is

= -

*
-

a".
(),

then

VV<r".

integrate over

ffSUvW"

any surface nor-

= - fSdpa".

the circulation of the acceleration

mass around any

loop, the left-hand side

HYDRODYNAMICS

291

WaVp

the surface integral of

over the area enclosed.
If then we suppose that in a drawing we represent the isobars as lines, and the isosterics also as lines that cut these,
is

drawing a

line for

the level that bounds a unit sheet in each

case (and noticing that in equilibrium the lines do not intersect),

we

shall

have a

set of curvilinear parallelograms

The

circulation of the force per unit

representing tubes.

mass around any boundary

parallelograms enclosed.

It

will
is

then be the number of

to be noticed that the areas

must be counted positively and negatively, that is, the

number of tubes must be taken positive or negative, according to whether Vfl, Vp, the two gradients, make a
positive or a negative angle with each other in the order as
written.
This circulation of the force per unit mass may be

taken as a measure of the departure from equilibrium.

In the same way we find that if we draw the equipotentials

and the isopycnics, we

shall

have the number (algebraically

considered) of unit tubes in any area equal to the circulavolume around the bounding

tion of the force per unit

curve.
If

we choose

as boundary, for example, a vertical line, an

downward vertical, and an isobaric curve,

isobaric curve, a

the number of isobaric-isosteric tubes enclosed gives the differ-

ence between the excess up one vertical of the cubic meters

per ton at the upper isobar over that at the lower isobar and
the corresponding excess for the other vertical.
If the lines
are two verticals and two equipotentials, the number of
isopotential-isopycnic tubes is the difference of the two
excesses of pressure at the lower levels over pressure at the
upper levels. These are the circulations around the boundaries of the forces per unit

may
5.

mass or unit volume

as the case

be.
If

we

integrate the pressure over a closed space inside

VECTOR CALCULUS

292
the fluid,

we have

ffyUvdA = fffVpdv = fffc&v.

But

this latter integral is the total force

on the volume

Archimedes' principle, usually related

to a body immersed in water, in which case the statement
is that the resultant of all the pressure of the water upon

This

enclosed.

is

the immersed body

If

placed.

equal to the weight of the water diswe were to consider the resultant moment of
is

the normal pressures and the external forces, we would

The field of force, howarrive at an analogous statement.
ever, need not be that

due to gravity.
EXERCISE.

Consider the case of a

force

which there

field in

is

the vertical

due to gravity and a horizontal force due to

centrif-

ugal force of rotation.

6.

We

now

turn our attention

to

moving

fluids.

small space containing fluid with one of its points at po

may be followed as it moves with the fluid, always con-

same particles. It will usually be deformed in

shape. The position p of the particle initially at p will
be a function of p and of t, say

taining the

The

(p

particle initially at p

t).

dp

will at

the same time

arrive at the position

dip

6 (p

hence dip becomes at time

dp,

t)

SdipVo-p,

SdipVo'P

It follows that the area

Vdipd2 p

<pdipo.

V(pdip (pd2 po, and the

HYDRODYNAMICS

293

volume

Sdipdtpdzp

cdv

The

Sdip Q d2Pod d p

the fluid has a constant mass, then

If

This

S(pdipo(pd2po<pd s po

or

Codvo,

cra 3

'

s ((p)

we must have

is the equation of continuity in the Lagrangian form.

reference of the motion to the time and the initial con-

figuration

is

usually called reference to the Lagrangian

variables.
7.

Since

= SdpVp =

dp

S<pdp

Vp

= Sdpo<p'Vp =
VoP = <p'Vp = - VoSpV-p.

But the equations

of

motion are already given

aVp =

<p'(p

in the

form

p",

hence in terms of the variables po and

aVop =

SdpoVoP,

we have

p")-

This equation, the characteristic equation of the fluid

F(p,

c,

T)

0,

and the equation of continuity, give us five scalar equations

expressing six numbers in terms of p and t. In order to
make any problem definite then, we must introduce a
further hypothesis. The two that are the most common
are
(1)

The temperature

or the salinity
variables come
eses:

is

in,

is

constant,

constant,
if

is

if

is

salinity.

temperature,
In case both

we must have two corresponding hypoth-

VECTOR CALCULUS

21)4

The

(2)

The

fluid is

a gas subject to adiabatic change.

relation of pressure to density in this case

is

usually

written

kcy

the ratio of specific heat under constant pressure to

that under constant volume, as for example, for compressed

is

7 -

air,

1-408.

In the integrations we are obliged to pay attention

to two kinds of conditions, those due to the initial values of
8.

the space occupied by the fluid at t = 0, the pressure p

and density c or specific volume a at each point of the
,

and the

'

the particles p
at p
fluid,
The other conditions are the boundary conditions during
the movement. As for example, consider a fluid enclosed
initial velocities of

The velocity in the

must be tangent to the walls. If we have the
general case of a moving boundary for the fluid, then its
equation would be
in a

tank or in a pipe or conduit.

latter case

/(P,
If

then

p' is

the velocity,

SdP Vf+

(df/dt)dt

t)

o.

we must have

0,

or

- p'V/+

df/dt

0.

a free surface, then the pressure here must be

constant, as the pressure of the air. In order to have
various combinations of these conditions coexistent, it is
If

there

is

necessary sometimes to introduce discontinuities.

9. If we were in a balloon in perfect equilibrium moving
along with one and the same mass of air, the barograph

would

register the varying pressures

on

this mass, the ther-

mograph the varying temperatures, and if there were a

velocitymeter, it would register the varying velocity of the
mass.

From

these records one could determine graphically

all these quantities as

or numerically the rates of change of

HYDRODYNAMICS
they inhere in the same mass.

That

295
is,

we would have the

values of
dT/dt,

dp/dt,

These

dp/dt.

be called the individual time-derivatives of the

may

As the balloon passed any

quantities.

fixed station the

readings of all the instruments would be the same as instruments at the fixed stations. But the rates of change would
differ.

The

station

would be

same
and could

rates of change of these quantities at the

for a fixed p

and a variable

t,

be called the local time-derivatives, or partial derivatives.

They can be calculated from the registered readings. The
relation

between the two

d/dt

is

given by the equation

d/dt

Sp'V.

Thus we have between the individual and the

local values

the relations

The
in

last equation gives us the individual acceleration

terms of the local acceleration and the velocity. From

the fundamental equation

ovp =

dp' let

we have

\p'

d p'l dt

*<j>%

where the function

0=-S()V-p',

0'=-VV(),

0o

K-sovy-wo),
2e

FVp'.

This statement of the motion in terms of the coordinates of

VECTOR CALCULUS

296

any point and the time

the statement in terms of Eulers

is

variables.

near

Since

function

<p=

po,

po

we have

po'dt,

the

former

at this point in the form

<p

S()Vo-p

+ <ft(-

S()V-p')

+ d^atpo.

Whence

3 (<p)

+ dtmi(6)

dt{- SVp').

is any point, this equation holds for

any point and we have the equation of continuity in the

Since the initial point

form
c

or,

cdtSVp'

dt-dc/dt(l

dtSVp'),

dropping terms of second order,

dc/dt

This
If

we

is

cSVp'

the* equation of continuity in the Euler form.

use local values,

dc/dt- SV(cp')
That

0.

is,

0.

the local rate of change of the density is the conmomentum. It is obvious that if the

vergence of specific

fluid is incompressible,

then the velocity

is

that

is,

solenoidal.

local station is constant,

if

If

the density is constant,

the specific volume at a

then the

medium

specific

momentum

is

solenoidal.
incompressible and homogeneous, then both velocity and specific momentum are
It is clear also that in any case the
solenoidal vectors.
normal component of velocity must be continuous through
If

the

is

any surface, but specific momentum need not be.

boundary is stationary, then both velocity and

momentum

are tangential to

it.

If

any

specific

HYDRODYNAMICS

297

In the atmosphere, which is compressible, specific mois solenoidal, but in the

incompressible hydro-

mentum

and specific momentum are solenoidal.

Of course the specific volume of the air changes at a
sphere, both velocity

station,

but only slowly, so that the approximate statement

made

close enough for meteorological purposes.

any given instant we draw at every point a vector

is

If at

determine

in the direction of the velocity, these vectors will

the vector lines of the velocity which are called lines of

These lines are not made up of the same particles
flow.
and if we were to mark a given set of particles at any time,

say by coloring them blue, then the configuration of the

blue particles would change from instant to instant as they
The trajectory of a blue particle is a stream
along.

moved

If

line.

red, then

the particles that pass a given point are all colored

we would have a red line as a line of flow, only when

the condition of the motion

is that called stationary.

In
the
red
would
be
the
through
particles
streamline through the point.
If the motion is not sta-

this case the line

tionary, then after a time the red particles

would form a

red filament that would be tangled up with several stream

lines.

In the case of meteorological observations the diwind is taken at several stations simultane-

10.

rection of the

ously and by the anemometer its intensity is given. These

data give us the means of drawing on a chart suitably pre-

pared the

lines of flow at the given time of day and the

curves showing the points of equal-intensity of the wind
Of course, the velocity is usually only the horivelocity.

zontal velocity and the vertical velocity must be inferred.

One of the items needed in meteorological and other
studies
cific

is

the

amount

momentum

20

of material transported.

in a horizontal direction

If
r

is

cp

the spe-

and

lines

VECTOR CALCULUS

298

drawn, then for a vertical height dz and a width

between lines of flow equal to dn, we will have the trans-

of flow be

port equal to Tp'dndz. Since, however, we have for prac=

dp, we can write this in the form
purposes dz

tical

transport

Tp'dn(

In order to do this graphically

we

dp).

first

draw the

lines of

An arbitrary outer boundflow and the intensity curves.

divided
into
curve
is
then
intervals
of arc such that
ary
the projection of an interval perpendicular to the nearest
lines of flow multiplied by the value of Tp' is a constant.

Through these points a new

set of lines of flow

is

constructed.

transport between these lines is then known horizontally for a constant pressure drop, by drawing the intensity
curves that represent Tp'dn, and if these are at unit values

The

they will divide th lines of flow into quadsuch that the amount of air transported horizon-

of the transport,
rilaterals

tally decreases or increases

by

units,

and thus the

vertical

transport must respectively increase or decrease by units,

through a sheet whose upper and lower surfaces have pies-

1.
Towards a center of
sure difference equal to dp =
convergence the lines of flow approach indefinitely close.
dn decreases and it is clear that the vertical transport up-

ward

increases.

There

may

be small areas of descending

motion, however, even near such centers. In this manner

we may arrive at a conception of the actual movement of
the

air.

Since the specific momentum is solenoidal, we can ascertain its rate of change vertically from horizontal data.

For

SVcp'

dZ/dz + horizontal convergence,

or

dZ/dz

horizontal convergence of specific

momentum.

HYDRODYNAMICS
Substituting the value of

dz,

= horizontal
= dTP 'lds+

dZ/ ( dp)

dZ/dp

where ds runs along the

two

gence per unit ds of

299

we have

convergence of velocity,
Tp'b.

lines of flow,

lines of

and

the diver-

5 is

width apart equal to

1.

These considerations enable us to arrive at the complete

kinematic diagnosis of the condition of the
based the prognostications.

When

11.

and the

= f(p),

and

this

is

the density c is a function of the pressure p,

and the velocities can be expressed as gradi-

forces

then'we have a very simple general case.

ents,

On

air.

set

Q = u

V(p, 0i

p'

fa&p, then

Vv(p,

Thus

let

t),

VQ =

aVp,

the equations of motion are

dp'/dt

0(p')

= VQ,

or since p'

V[dv/dt + iT Vv2

Hence the expression in brackets

t and we have

Q]

is

Vv,

0.

independent of p and

depends only on

dv/dt+iFWWe

could, however, have used for v

from

only by

a function of

tion of the right into v

We

Q =

and

thus

t,

h(t).

any function

we may absorb

differing

the func-

set the right side equal to zero.

thus have the equations of motion

dv/dt

+ JPVfl -

Q =

dc/dt

0,

From

these

we have

v, c,

SV(cVv) =

0,

/(p).

in

terms of p and

/.

In the case of a permanent motion, the tubes of flow

are permanent.
If we can set = Vw(p), then we place
12.

VECTOR CALCULUS

300

Q = u fadp, and
on

and Q do not depend

noticing that p'

we have

t,

= - VQ.
If
we operate by Sdp = S(dsUp'), we have
(kSUp'Tp'VTp' on the left, since Sp'V-Up' = 0. Hence
Sp'V-p'

from

this equation

we have

at once

- SdpGTV Hence along a tube

Q)

0.

of flow of infinitesimal cross-section

tiy-4-a
This

is

called Bernoulli's theorem.

is

a function of the

two parameters that determine the infinitesimal

flow.
Hence along the same tube of flow

J(IV - TW) = Q ~
In the case of a liquid a

is

Qo

line

of

adp.

constant and we can integrate

at once, giving

}ZV- u+ap=
From

this

we can

C.

when the

find the velocity

pressure is
Since
given.

given or the pressure when the velocity is

the pressure must be positive, it is evident that the velocity
This
C), or else the liquid will separate.
2{u
square

fact

is

made

use of in certain air pumps.

force but gravity

we have u

In the case of no

gz,

iTV-g*+ap=

C.

is the fundamental equation of hydraulics.

We cannot enter upon the further consideration of it here.

This

Vortices.
13.

When

In the case of

p'

= Vv

it is

this vector, or the vector

evident that
e

VVp =
f

0.

(9) does not vanish,

HYDRODYNAMICS
there

is

301

not a velocity potential and vortices are said to

It is obvious that if a particle of the

exist in the fluid.

be considered to change

fluid

its

shape as

moves, then

it

the instantaneous velocity of rotation. At any instant

all the vortices will form a vector field whose lines have the
is

differential

equation

VdpWp' =
that

= SdpV'

VSp'dp;

is,

Q'dp

or

dp',

0'p'

dp'jdt,

from which

p'

These vector

*/><%'.

lines are called

the vortex lines of the

fluid.

Occasionally the vortex lines may be closed, but as a rule

the solutions of such a differential equation as the above

do not form closed

on the walls
about

lines, in

which case they

of the containing vessel, or

The

of

terminate

may

they

may wind

this

equation will
usually contain t, and the vortices then vary with the time,
but in a stationary motion they will depend only upon the
indefinitely.

integral

point under consideration.

14.

The equations

motion

of

may

be expressed in terms

of the vortex as follows, since

= Sp'V-p'-iVp'

'

Vp'VVp'

2
,.

we have
Sp'V-p'

=2Vp'e

iVp'\

and thus

aVp =
15.

giving

dp' Idt

= \/u{p,
VP = aVp,

When now

P = fadp,

VP = Vu -

dp' Idt

JVp

/2

2Vp'e.

and c =
t),
and thence

JVp -

f(p),

/2

2Vep'.

we

set

VECTOR CALCULUS

302
Or,

if

we

set II

u-\- Jp'
dp'/dt

Operate

2de/dt,

on
and

Sp'V-e

with

this

P,

2Ve P

'

we have

VII.

and

V-V(),

WVep' = SeV -p' SVp' by

de/dt,

equal to c~ dc/dt

d(ae)/dt

This equation
6

is

VV dp'/dt

Sp'V-e, de/dt

the continuity equation

is

a~ l da/dt, we have

= -

S(ae)V-p'

6(ae).

due to Helmholtz.

If

we remember

is

a function of the

the Lagrangian variables, it is clear that

initial vector p and of t, hence the

integral of this equation will take the

ae

since

eSVp'

= e fm 'a,e Q =

~
e' s ^^' dt a

But the operator is proved below

when = Vu,

form

^(t)a

to be equal to

<p

itself,

so that

ae

or finally

we have,

which was implied

=
if

a Se

we

Vo-p

ao<p

follow the stream line of a particle,

in the integration above,

of the integral
(a/a )e

*Se

Cauchy's form

Vo'jP,

a function of p and t. It is evident now if

any particle e is ever zero, that is, e = 0, that always
= 0. This is equivalent to Lagrange's theorem that if

where p

is

for
e

for

any group

of particles of the fluid

we have

a velocity

potential, then that group will always possess a velocity

(It is to be noted that velocity potential and
potential.

vortex are

stream
of

phenomena that belong

lines,

flow.)

It

and the
and the lines

to the particles

and not to the points

must be remembered

of space
too,

that this result

was on the supposition that the density was a function

of

HYDRODYNAMICS

303

the pressure alone, and that the external forces were

conservative.

We may deduce

16.

the equation above as follows, which

form the essential features of Cauchy's
(Appell, Traite de Mec. Ill, p. 332.)

reproduces in vector
demonstration.

Let dp/dt
that

and

is

a,

= u fadp,

and Q

a function of p and

and p

t,

then, remembering
a function of p

is

/,

da/dt

Also VoQ(po,

t)

VQ(p,

t).

= - VoSpVQ =

VoSpda/dt, where

Vo

operates on p only; or we can write

VoQ =
Hence, operating with
d/dt(VVo<p'a).
value, that

Vo =

is,

we have

V\7o(p da/dt

parenthesis

its

FVo(

Thus the

<p' da/dt.

),

equals

since the initial value of cp'a

is

initial

and

since

<p'V,

VVo<p'<r

2e

Thus we have

V<p'Vv'<r

=m

me=

at once

(pe

{<p)<p~

This

VS7a
is

= 2m

(p~

e.

the same as the

This equation shows the

a/a Q
kinematical character of e, and that no forces can set up e

other form,
or destroy
17.

The

since

ra 3

it.

circulation at a given instant of the velocity

along any loop

is

The time

derivative

= of

fSdpp'.

this

tf^SdpS/Sp'p'
But this is an inteSdpp")
tip'
Q] ).
Hence if the
gral of an exact differential and vanishes.

= (- SdpW

forces are conservative

is

dl/dt

and the density depends on the

any path does not change

pressure, the circulation around

as the particles of the path describe their stream lines.

The

VECTOR CALCULUS

304
circulation

If

Lagrange.

we

an

is

integral invariant.

we express the

This theorem

due to

is

form

circulation in the

- - ffSdvVp' = - 2ffSdpe,
'

see that the circulation

is

twice the flux of the vortex

through the loop. Hence as the circulation is constant,

the flux of the vortex through the surface does not vary
in time,

if

the surface

flux of the vortex

is

bounded by the stream

loop.

The

through any loop at a given instant

is

the vortex strength of the surface enclosed by the loop.

If a closed surface is drawn in the fluid, the flux through it
is

zero, since the vortex

is

a solenoidal vector.

we take as our closed surface a space bounded by a

vortex tube and two sections of the tube, since the surface
18. If

integral over the walls of the tube

is

zero,

it

follows that

the flux of the vortex through one section inwards equals

that over the other section outwards. Combining these

theorems, it is evident that the vortex strength, or wrThus the collection of

ticity, of a vortex tube is constant.
particles that

make up

the vortex tube

is

invariant in time.

In a perfect fluid a vortex tube is indestructible, and one

could not be generated.
19. It is evident from what precedes that a vortex tube

cannot terminate in the

fluid

but must end either at a wall

or a surface of discontinuity, or be a closed tube with or

without knots, or it may wind around infinitely in the fluid.
If
it is

a vortex tube

20.

We

velocity
find

is

taken with infinitesimal cross-section,

called a vortex filament.

fluid, in

consider next the problem of determining the

is known.
That is, given e, to

when the vortex

p'.

We consider first the case of an incompressible

is solenoidal, that is, SVcr = 0.

which the velocity

This with the equations at

the boundaries gives

us

the

HYDRODYNAMICS

305

to find a when 2e = FVo", SVer = 0,

following problem
=
at the boundaries, or if infinite a a = 0. This
SUva
:

problem has a unique solution, if the containing vessel

simply connected. We cannot enter extensively into

is
it,

it involves the theory of potential functions, and may

be reduced to integral equations. However, since SVv = 0,
we may set a = VVr, where *$Vr = 0, whence

for

Vr=
2

and we may suppose r

T
If

As we

in the

known,

= h7ffSfe/T(p-

we operate upon
a

is

2e,

this

by

FV(

we

),

= H,2ir-fffVe(p -

form
Po )dv.

find a formula for a,

p )/T\p

Po )dv.

formula is capable of being stated thus:

connected with its vortex in the same way

see, this

the velocity

is

as a magnetic field

is

connected with the

electric current

density that produces it, the vortex filament taking the

place of the cm rent, the strength of current being Tej2ir,

and the elements of length of the tube acting like the elements of current. This solution holds throughout the
entire fluid,
in

even at points outside the space that

is

actually

motion with a vortex.

Since the equation of the surface of the tube can be

written in the form

F( P
this surface will

ment

is

defined

On

move
like

t)

in time.

that

of

0,

Its velocity of displace-

any

discontinuity,

as

irrotational, on
UvFdF/dt.
the other it is vortical. On the irrotational side we have
the velocity of the form a V?, and we must have on

one side the velocity

is

VECTOR CALCULUS

306

that side the same velocity of displacement in the form

UpSUpVP.
The energy involved
in the particles

K* -

on account

in a vortex

of the velocity

is

\cfffp'

dv

= " hcfffSp'Vrdv
= fff [SV(p'r) - 2Sre]dv
= hcffSdvp'r - cfffSredv
= cj J'fSredv over all space
= c/2T.SffSSSSee'lT(p - p

This

)dvdv'.

the same formula as that of the energy of two curIn the expression every filament must be considered

is

rents.

with regard to every other filament and itself.

Examples. (1). Let there be first a straight voitex

fila-

ment terminating

at the top and bottom of the fluid.

the motion be parallel to the horizontal bottom.

all

Sya

We

= VyVw,

say,

w=

For a

Vye

0,

de/dt

0,

0.

have then
a

Let

Then

2e

= yV w =
2

7r

2zy,

ffz log rdA.

single vortex filament of cross-section

dA and

strength

zdA, we have

iv

k/w log

a= Vy(pwhere p

The
versely

motion

measured

is

velocity
as
is

the

is

kjir

log

po)IT>(p- p

parallel to the

tangent to the

distance

(#

2
2/ )

).k/T,

bottom.

circles of

motion and

from the vortex filament.

irrotational save at the filament itself.

in-

The

HYDRODYNAMICS
For the

effect of vortices

307

upon each
Dynamics,

other,

and

their

518 et seq.
case
of
a
vortex
or
a
number
For
the
of vortex
(2).
ring
see
with
the
same
vol.
axis,
Ill, p. 431
Appell, Traite,
rings
relative motions, see Webster,

p.

et seq.

more general case in which the fluid is compressible we must resort to the theorem that any vector
can be decomposed into a solenoidal part and a lamellar
part and these may then be found. The extra term in the
electromagnetic analogy would then be due to a permanent distribution of magnetism as well as that arising fiom
21. In the

the current.

EXERCISES
If

1.

Sea

0,

then

M being a function of

it is

p.

Discuss the case Vae

2.

= M\/P,

necessary and sufficient that a

Beltrami, Rend. R.

0.

1st.

Lomb.

(2)

22, fasc. 2.

Discuss Clebsch's transformation in which

3.
o-

= Vm + lVV.

Show

we decompose

<r

thus,

that the vortex lines are the intersections of

I and v, and that the lines of flow form with the vortex lines
an orthogonal system only when the surfaces I, u, v are triply orthog-

the surfaces
onal.

Discuss the problem of sources and sinks.

Consider the problem of multiply-connected surfaces, containing

4.
5.

fluids.

22. It will

was
tial

this

be remembered that Helmholtz's theorem

which the impressed forces had a potenand the density was a function of the pressure. In
case we will have the equation
for the case in

da/dt

Operate by

|FV(

de/dt

2Vea

- aVp +

JVtf

2
.

and notice that

- eSVa - SaV-e =

d(ae)/dt,

whence we have the generalized form

a-

d(ae)ldt

SeV -<r = iVV - fFVaVp.

VECTOR CALCULUS

308
If

now

at the instant

the particle does not rotate and

if

a function of p alone, then at this instant de/dt = JFV,

and the paiticle will acquire an instantaneous increase of
its zero vortex equal to the vortex of the impressed force.

is

is, must be peimanently equal to zero if there is to

be no rotation at any time.
If FV =
but a is not a function of p alone, then we

That

have

aThe

right side

d(ae)/dt
is

SeV -<r = -

WaVp.

a vector in the direction of the intersection

and the

of the isobaric

an

Now

isosteric surfaces.

infinitesimal length along the vortex tube,

section being A, the vorticity

cAl

constant

= mlUejM,
- SeV-<r =

md(lUe)dtaM

ATe =

is

= M. Then we

I,

we take

if

the cross-

m, the mass

have, since ae

is

= AlejM

~ fUeV* - ^^-l
e

a-

d(ae)/dt+

dmldt-lUe/aM'+ md{We)la Mdt

SeV

at

-a

md(lUe)/dtaM

=
=
=

= Ve-dTe/dt
| number of tubes.

dm/dt-lUe/aM

Hence the moment

of the vortex will usually

with the time unless the surfaces coincide.

change

Thus a

rotat-

If then the
ing particle may gain or lose in vorticity.
isobaric and isosteric surfaces under the influence of heat

conditions intersect, vortices will be created along the lines

of intersections of the surfaces

and these

the surfaces intersect again,

save

will persist until

as

viscosity

consider the conditions that

must be

so

far

interfeies.

23. Finally

put upon
order in

we

surfaces of discontinuity, in this case of the first

<r,

that

is,

a wave of acceleration.

HYDRODYNAMICS
Let

a\/p

be a function of

dp/dc \7log

c,

p"

309

Then

only.

and the equation

dp/dc

of

log

motion becomes

c.

Let the equation of the surface of discontinuity be f(p t)

= 0, the normal v. Let , a, p, and c be continuous as
,

be discontinuous at the suiface.

well as dp/dc, but

p"

Then on the two

sides of the surface

by

p. 263,
\p"\

a'

= -

dp/dc[V log

we have

the jump,

c],

or

G2ix=

dp/dc -UVfSfiUVf.

It follows, therefore, that

G = V (dp/dc),
In the

first

or else

we must have V/iUVf

we have

G =

case the discontinuity

second transversal.

This

is

is

and

and

SnUVf =

0.

longitudinal, in the

In

Hugoniot's theorem.

full

it is:

In a compressible but non- viscous fluid there are possible

only two waves of discontinuity of the second order; a

wave propagated with a

V (dp/dc), and a transversal wave which

longitudinal

at

velocity equal to
is

not propagated

all.

The formula
Laplace.

Also

GSfxUVf,

is due to
waves [&Vo"]

for the velocity in the first case

we have

for the longitudinal

for transversal

waves equal to

zero.

On

for

the other hand, for longitudinal waves, [FVo\|

transversal,

= GVUVf^.

0,

VECTOR CALCULUS

310

REFERENCES.
1.

Mathematische Schriften (Ed. Gerhart).

Abt.

2.

On

1, p.

Berlin,

1850.

Bd.

II,

20.

a new species of imaginary quantities connected with a theory

of quaternions.
Proc. Royal Irish Academy, 2 (1843), pp. 424-434.
3. Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre.
Leipzig, 1844.
4. Gow: History of Greek Mathematics, p. 78.
5.

Ars Magna, Nuremberg, 1545, Chap. 37; Opera

4,

Lyon, 1663,

p.

286.
6.
7.

Algebra. Bologna, 1572, pp. 293-4.

Directiones analytiske Betejning.

Om

Read

1797.

Nye Samm-

lung af det kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, (2)

5 (1799), pp. 469-518. Trans. 1897. Essai sur la representation de
la direction,
8.

9.

10.
11.

Copenhagen.

Essai sur une maniere de repr6senter les quantites

dans les constructions g6ometriques. Paris, 1806.

imaginaires

Theoria residuorum biquadraticum, commentation secunde. 1831.

Annales Math, pures et appliqu6es. 4 (1814-4), p. 231.
Theory of algebraic couples, etc. Trans. Royal Irish Acad., 17
(1837), p. 293.

12.

Ueber Functionen von Vectorgrossen welche selbst wieder VectorMath. Annalen, 43 (1893), pp. 197-215.
Grundlagen der Vektor-und Affinor-Analysis. Leipzig, 1914.
Lectures on Quaternions. Preface. Dublin, 1853.
Note on William R. Hamilton's place in the history of abstract

grossen sind.
13.
\\.
15.

group theory.
16.

Bibliotheca Mathematica, (3) 11 (1911), pp. 314-5.

Leipzig, 1827.

17. Leipzig.
18.

Elements of Vector Analysis

Scientific Papers.

(1881-4),

New

Haven.

Vol.

2,

INDEX.
Acceleration

Action

14,

15,
Activity
Activity-density
Algebraic couple
Algebraic multiplication
Alternating current

Ampere
Anticyclone

Area
Areal axis

Argand
Ausdehnungslehre
Average velocity
Axial vector

27
28

129, 142
15, 131
4, 65
9
71
30
47
142
198
4
3, 9
57
30

8
60
3, 126
94
29
48, 57, 59, 290

Barycentric calculus

Bigelow
Biquaternions
Biradials

Bivector
Bjerknes
Cailler

Cardan
Center (singularity)
Center of isogons
of basis
Characteristic equation
Characteristic equation of

Change

50,

2
3
44
48
54
125

dyadic
Chi of dyadic

221
235

Christoffel's conditions

266
167

Circuital derivative
Circular multiplication

Circulation
Clifford

Combebiac
Complex numbers
Congruences
Conjugate
Conjugate function
Continuous group
Continuous plane media
Convergence

Coulomb
Couple

9
78, 129
3,

90
3

63
51, 138

66
5

195
87
177
13

139

109
258
184
76,82,
77
148, 152
148
30, 37
47

Crystals

Cubic dilatation
Curl
Curl of field
Curvature
Curves
Cycle
Cyclone
Derivative dyad
Developables

Dickson
'

Differential of p
Differential of q
Differential of vector
Differentiator
.

Directional derivative

Discharge
Discontinuities

Dissipation (plane)
Dissipation, dispersion

Divergence
Divergence of

Dyadic
Dyadic

field

field

Dyname
Dyne
Electric
Electric
Electric
Electric

242
150
105
145
155, 159
55
248
166
130
261
84
180
76, 82
77
2, 11, 218
246
.

30
30
32

current
density current
induction
intensity

31, 139

14

Energy
Energy current
Energy-density
Energy-density current

Energy flux
Equation of continuity
Equipollences
Equipotential

Erg
Euler

Exact

differential

Exterior multiplication

Extremals

Eye
311

29

of cyclone

30
15,

131

30
142
87
71
15
14
107

190
9

160
47

VECTOR CALCULUS

:;il>

Farad

32,
37,

Faux
Faux-focus
Feuille
Feuillets

13
142
29, 130, 142

Field

Flow
Flux
Flux density
Focus
Force
Force density
Force function

29

Isogons
Isohydric
Isopycnic

15
15,

Isosteric

29

Isothermal

90
8, 25
148
238
88
121

Gas defined
unit).

.32,

Gaussian operator
General equation of dyadic
Geometric curl
Geometric divergence
Geometric loci
Geometric vector

87
4/
130
108
220
76
76
133
1

of lines

Gibbs

2, 11, 215
32, 130, 143
26

Gilbert
Glissant

Gradient

16,

Gram
Grassmann
Green's Theorem
Groups

2,

Hamilton
Harmonics

163
15
3, 9

205
8
138

Guiot
2, 3,

Heaviside

Henry

219
88
15,288
34

Irrotational
Isobaric

41

18

Frenet-vSerret formulae
Functions of dyadic
Function of flow
Functions of quaternions. ...

Geometry

191
198
10

Integrating factor
Integration by parts
Interior multiplication
Invariant line

15,

288
288
15

28, 141

Franklin
Free vector

Gauss
Gauss (magnetic

73
38
44
30
2

(electric unit)

4,65,95
84, 169

31
32, 73

Hertzian vectors
Hitchcock

Hodograph
Hypernumber
Imaginary

Impedance
Inductance.
Inductivity
Integral of vector

3,

33
49
27
94
65
73
73
32
56

138, 147

Joly
Joule
Joule-second

14
14

Kinematic compatibility .... 266

Kirchoff's laws
73
Koenig
198, 205
.'

Laisant

Lamellae
Lamellar

field

Laplace's equation

Latent equation
Laws of quaternions

71
15
84, 181

214
220

103
Leibniz
3
Level
15
Line (electric unit)
32, 130
Lineal multiplication
9
Linear associative algebra ...
3
218
Linear vector function
46
Line of centers
Line of convergence
47
47
Line of divergence
46
Line of fauces
46
Line of foci
45
Line of nodes
80
Lines as levels
87
Liquid defined

MacMahon
Magnetic
Magnetic
Magnetic
Magnetic

current
density current
induction
intensity

75
31
31

32
32, 139

Mass

15

Matrix unity
Maxwell

65

McAulay
Mobius
Modulus

Moment
Moment

of

momentum

13
3

8
66
138
139

INDEX

Momentum
Momentum
Momentum

28
28

density

141
14

of field

Monodromic

89
140
140

Monogenic

Moving electric field

Moving magnetic field

Multenions
Multiple

6
108

Mutation

Nabla as complex number.

Nabla in plane
Nabla in space

Neutral point

Node
Node

82
80
162
47

37,38
of isogons

Non-degenerate equations

Norm

48
225
66

Notations
One vector

12

Scalar
Two vectors

Derivative of vectors
Divergence, vortex, deriva-

179
248

tive

dyads
Dyadics

Ohm

127
136
165

(electric unit)

Orthogonal dyadic
Orthogonal transformation

73
241
55
3
85
73
32

Peirce, Benjamin
Peirce, B.

Permittance
Permittivity
Phase angle

71

84
36, 46
30

Plane fields..
Poincare
Polar vector
Polydromic
Potential

14
17
10

,. ..

15,
Progressive multiplication ...

Power
Poynting vector
Pressure

Product of quaternions
Product of several quaternions

Product of vectors

76
141
142
98

2, 3, 6, 7,

26
26
62
73
65
108
112
10

Radial

Radius vector
Ratio of vectors
Reactance
Real
Reflections

Refraction
Regressive multiplication.
Relative derivative
Right versor
Rotations
Rotatory deviation
.

Saint Venant's equations.

...

18

96
108
175
.

260
35, 49

Sandstrom

2
13

Saussure
Scalar
Scalar invariants
Scalar of q

220, 239

96
7
2
Science of extension
234
Self transverse
4
Servois
256
Shear
242
Similitude
244
Singularities of vector lines
45
Singular lines
Solenoidal field
84, 181
117
Solid angles
123
Solution of equations
Solution of differential equa195
tions
229
Solution of linear equation.
28
Specific momentum
110
Spherical astronomy
90
Squirt
Steinmetz
68, 71

Schouten

200
Stoke's theorem
253
Strain
90
Strength of source or sink ...
Stress
143,269
2
Study
.

Sum

96

of quaternions

151

Surfaces

Symmetric

multiplication ...

Tensor
Tensor of q

Torque
113
101

Quantum
Quaternions

313

Tortuosity
Trajectories

14

Transport
Transverse dyadic

95

Triplex

65
96
140
149
150
130,298
231
25

VECTOR CALCULUS

314
Triquaternions
Trirectangular biradials

3
100

Unit tube

18

Velocity
Velocity potential
Versor
Versor of q
Virial

Vacuity
Vanishing invariants

220
240

Volt
Vortex

Variable trihedral

172

Vorticity

Vector
Vector
Vector
Vector
Vector
Vector
Vector
Vector

27
18

65
96
129
31, 130, 143
92, 187, 187

247,304

calculus
field

lines
of q

potential
surfaces

tubes

25
23, 26
33
96
1,

33, 93, 181

34
34

Waterspouts

50

Watt
Weber

15
14

Wessel
Whirl

4
90

Zero roots of linear equations. 230

foist

Ot C/

p^V

A^y

14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

LOAN
This book

due on the

DEPT.

date stamped below, or

which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
is

on the date

JSJ

last

to

^o.

JM181S8 - 1MIH

r-

l^MM o^ p
DEC

1968

52

"HI

ttulb'68-3PM

LOAN

DEPT.

&*

&
^
^

^
REC'DLD

LD

JUN 2

172-9PMK8
General Library
University of California
Berkeley

21A-60m-2,'67

(H241slO)476B

jMCWI

LD

21A-50to-11 '62

(D3279sl0)476B

General Library
University of California
Berkelev