Leveling

Dr. Amin Akhavan Tabassi, pmp

Contents

Introduction
Theory of Differential Leveling

Curvature and Refraction

Techniques of Leveling
Level Loop Adjustment

Introduction
Leveling is the procedure for determining differences in
elevation between points that are some distance from each
other.
An elevation is the vertical distance above or below a
reference datum.
The traditional vertical reference datum is Mean Sea Level
(MSL) and is assigned a vertical elevation value of 0.000 ft or
0.000 m.

Theory of Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is used to determine

differences in elevation between points that some
distance from each other by using a surveyors
level together with graduated measuring rod. The
surveyors level consist of a crosshair-equipped
telescope and an attached or sprit level tube, all of
which are mounted on a sturdy tripod.

Theory of Differential Leveling

A Vertical Line is a line from the surface of the earth to earths center. It is also
referred to as a plumb line or a line of gravity.
A Level Line is a line in a level surface. A level surface is a curved surface parallel
to the mean surface of the earth. A level surface is best visualized as being the
surface of a large body of water at rest.
A Horizontal Line is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line.

Example
Rod reading at A = 6.27 ft
Rod reading at B = 4.69 ft
Differences in Elevation between A and B?
6.27-4.69=1.58
If the elevation at A is 61.27 ft (above the MSL), then find the
elevation at B?
61.27+1.58= 62.85
Elevation at A + Rod reading at A Rod Reading at B= 61.27+6.274.69=62.85

Curvature and Refraction

Figure below shows a potential problem. Whereas

elevations are referenced to level lines (surfaces),
the line of sight through the telescope of a
surveyors level is theoretically a horizontal line.
All rod readings taken with surveyors level
contain an error c over the distance K
The curvature of the level line shown in
the figure is greatly exaggerated for
illustrative purpose. In fact, the
divergence between a level line and a
horizontal line is quite small. For
example, over a distance of 1,000 ft the
divergence is 0.024ft, for 300 ft its only
0.002 ft (0.0007m in 100 m)

Curvature and Refraction

When considering the divergence between level

and horizontal lines, one must also account for the
fact that all sight lines are refracted downward by
the earths atmosphere. Although the magnitude
of the refraction error depends on atmospheric
conditions, it is generally considered to be about
one-seventh of the curvature error.
r -0.14c

Curvature and Refraction

(R+c) = R + K
R +2Rc + c = R + K
c( 2R + c) = K

r -0.14c

Types of Surveying Levels

Automatic Level
Digital Level
Tilting Level

Automatic Level

The automatic level employs a gravity-referenced prism

or mirror compensator to orient the line of sight (line of
collimation) automatically. The instrument is quickly
leveled when circular sprit level is used.
When the bubble has been centered the compensator takes
over and maintains a horizontal line of sight, even if the
telescope is slightly tilted.

Digital Level

This level features a digital electronic imageprocessor that uses a charge-coupled device
(CCD)* for determining heights and distances,
with the automatic recording of data for later
transfer to a computer.

*The CCD is a major technology for digital imaging.

Tilting Level

The tilting level is roughly leveled by observing the

bubble in the circular spirit level. Just before each rod
reading is to be taken, and while the telescope is pointing
at the rod, the telescope is precisely leveled by
manipulating a tilting screw, which effectively raises or
lowers the eyepiece through the telescope.

Leveling Rods

Leveling rods are manufactured from wood,

metal, or fiberglass and are graduated in feet or
meters.
Circular Rod Level

Definitions for Differential Leveling

A Benchmark (BM) is a permanent point of known

elevation. BM elevations and locations are published by
federal, state or provincial, and municipal agencies and
are available to surveyors for a nominal fee.
It is important that the BM be placed in a structure that
has substantial footings (below minimum frost depth
penetration) that will resist vertical movement due to
settling or upheaval.

Definitions for Differential Leveling

A Temporary Benchmark (TBM) is a semi

permanent point of known elevation.
TBM can be flange bolts of fire hydrants, nails in
the roots of trees, top corner of concrete culvert
headwall, and so on.

Definitions for Differential Leveling

A Turning Point (TP) is a point temporarily used to

transfer an elevation.
A Back-sight (BS) is a rod reading taken on a point of
known elevation to establish the elevation of the
instrument line of sight.
The Height of Instrument (HI) is the elevation of the
line of sight through the level.
i.e. : HI = BM +BS

Definitions for Differential Leveling

A Foresight (FS) is a rod reading taken on a turning

point, target point, temporary benchmark, etc. to
determine its elevation.
i.e. : HI FS = Elevation at TP (or Target point (B) or
TBM, etc.)
An Intermediate Sight (IS) is a rod reading taken at any
other point where the elevation is required.
HI IS = Elevation

Peg Test

The purpose of the peg test is to check that the line of

sight through the level is horizontal (i.e., parallel to the
axis of the bubble tube).
To perform the peg test, place two stakes at a distance
of 200-300ft (60-90 m) apart.
The level is set up midway (paced) between the two
stakes, and rod reading are taken at both locations.
If the line of sight through the level is not horizontal,
the error in rod reading (e1) at both points A and B
will be identical because the level is halfway between
the points.

 Because the errors are identical, the calculated

difference in elevation between points A and B
will be true difference in elevation.
The level is then moved to within 5-6 ft or 2 m
(minimum focusing distance of the level) of
one of the points (A) and set up with a rod
reading (a2) determined. The rod is then held
at B and a rod reading (b2) obtained.

Solution
What is the error in the line of sight for the level
used to take the following readings?

This is an error of -0.00015 m/m (0.009/60). Therefore, the

collimation correction (C factor) = +0.00015 m/m

Peg Test (cont.)

If the BS and FS distances are kept roughly equal,

errors due to a faulty line of sight do not have the
opportunity to develop.
Example: If a BS distance is 85 m and an FS
distance is 65 m, the net error in the rod reading
will be:
85-65=20
20 0.00015 = 0.003

Trigonometric Leveling

The difference in elevation between A and B can

be determined if the vertical angle () and the
slope distance (S) are measured.
V= S sin
Elevation @ A + hi V RR= Elevation at rod

Level Loop Adjustment

Level surveys has to be closed within acceptable

tolerances or the survey would have to be repeated. If a
level survey is performed to establish new benchmarks, it
would be desirable to proportion any acceptable error
suitably throughout the length of the survey.
First of all you should find the allowable error for the
work classification based on the following Table.
Then the error in the survey should be calculated and
compare with the maximum allowable error.
If the error less than the Max. error then:
the acceptable error must be distributed suitably over the
length of the survey.

References

-Kavanagh, B. (2009). Surveying Principles and Applications (8th ed.): Upper

Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.
-Wilson, R. J. P. (1983). Land surveying Macdonald and Evans, Plymouth.