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1.0 INTRODUCTION
A swimming pool, a bath, or a wading pool is an artificially created, enclosed
body of water. It may be intended for various kinds of activities ranging from
recreational and competitive to entertainment and health.
Humans have known swimming for long, as archaeological findings tend to
show. Babylonian bas-reliefs and Assyrian wall drawings point to very early
swimming skills. The most ancient and famous of drawings depicting men
swimming are estimated to be about 6,000 years old. Many of the other
worlds ancient civilisations swam, including the Egyptians, the Phoenicians,
Persians, Romans and the Greeks. Plato, the great Greek philosopher once
declared that anyone who could not swim lacked a proper education.
Modern day swimming pools differ greatly from those of the ancient world in
that those of the ancient world were largely baths, which were not meant for
swimming. Their swimming was done in lakes, ponds, rivers etc. Also,
because the baths water was continually drained and refreshed, so it did not
pose health risks unlike modern day pools which use the same body of water
on and on with the attendant risk of continuous contamination from bathers.
1.1 TYPE OF POOLS
Pools can be classified in several ways, based on construction, usage,,
location, source of water etc. Generally, pools are classified as public or
private. All other categories such as material of construction (gunite or
for casual water play ranging from splashing activity to the use of
interactive water features placed in the pool.
1.1.2 Private Pools
These are pools, which are not open for every member of the public usage.
They are found in the homes of rich individuals hence the name private or
residential pools. They can be of the above ground or in-ground type (usually
the later) and are constructed from gunite or poured concrete material.
Private pools are costly elaborate and come of different shapes and sizes.
sweat and urine are in themselves not harmful to human health but contain
substances such as kreatine, kreatinine and amino acids which when react
with disinfectants in the water, such as chlorine produces unwanted reaction
products consisting mainly of chloramines.
1.2.1 Health Effects of Swimming Pool Pollutants
Swimmers are susceptive to pathogenic microorganisms in swimming pool
water. As a result of cooling and water uptake, the resistance of the mucous
membrane of swimmers to weaken, causing them to become more susceptive
to pathogens in swimming pool water and air, and even to pathogens that are
present in their own bodies. Microorganisms that enter the water through
excretion by swimmers cause a large variety of conditions. Most pathogenic
microorganisms cause diarrhoea or skin rashes. Certain microorganisms (e.g.
poliovirus 1, E. coli bacteria) can cause serious symptoms, such as paralysis,
brain inflammation, heart inflammation, jaundice, fevers, vomiting, diarrhoea
and respirational or eye infections.
be progressed depend on the kind of impurities that are found in the water.
This can differ significantly for different kinds of water.
1.3.1 Water Purification Methods
Clean and safe potable water as is distributed in cities is treated extensively.
Specific water purification steps are taken, in order to make the water meet
current water standards.
Purification methods can be divided up into sedimentation, physical/chemical
treatment of colloids and biological treatment.
1. Sedimentation: This is the gravity separation of suspended material from
aqueous solution. Suspensions in which particulate matter is heavier than
water tend to settle to the bottom as a result of gravitation forces. This
process is not used in swimming pool water treatment but reserved for
potable water purification.
2. Physical Water Purification: This is primarily concerned with filtration
techniques. Filtration is a purification instrument to remove solids from
liquids. There are several filtration techniques. A typical filter consists
of a tank, the filter media and a controller to enable backflow.
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multiple layer of sand with a variety in size and specific gravity. When
water flows through the filter, the suspended solids precipitate in the sand
layers as residue and the water, which is reduced in suspended solids,
flow out of the filter. When the filters are loaded with particles the flow
direction is reversed (backwashing), in order to regenerate it.
Sand
Cartridge Filtration:
Disinfection:
Chlorine
water
purification
is
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Historically, water was considered clean if it was clear. Without the analytical
chemistry of todays world, visual clarity and appearance were the only real
indicators of how pure a water source was. People who lived in prehistoric
times built their homes on lakeshores or along rivers so they would have
water to drink and wash in. the water in lakes and rivers was much cleaner
back then because many of the impurities of today did not exist then. There
are no records of how water was cleaned in prehistoric times.
2.2 ADVANCES IN WATER TREATMENT
Before 500 B.C.
The Egyptians were the first people to record methods for treating water.
These records date back more than 1,500 B.C. The records, some of which
are paintings indicate that the most common ways of cleaning water were
boiling it over fire, heating it in the sun, or dipping a heated piece of iron into
it. Filtering boiling water through sand and gravel and then allowing it to cool
was another common treatment method. This early treatment was performed
only to improve taste and appearance of water. The use of alum to remove
suspended particles is also attributed to the Egyptians.
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In the 8th century A.D., Arabian alchemist Geber distilled water to purify it
for the imbibitions of alcohol and clean medicines according to The Quest for
Pure Water. In the 11th century, a Persian physician named Avicenna, after
performing several tests and experiments on water found out that straining
water through a cloth is effective in removing impurities. He therefore
recommended that travellers strain water through a cloth or boil it.
1000-1500A.D.
As in other scientific arenas, little progress was made in the Middle Ages
toward an understanding of water treatment and its importance to public
health. Sir Francis Bacon, the great Elizabethan philosopher, chronicled only
10 scientific experiments in the preceding 1,000 years (prior to 14th century
A.D.), which related to water treatment. There was little progress in water
treatment and its connection to public health.
1600A.D.
In the 17th century, British philosopher and scientist Sir Francis Bacon
applied his scientific method of making empirical observations and drawing
conclusions from them to a vast array of subjects, including water. In 1627 he
published thousands of experiments detailing water purification methods,
including percolation, filtration, boiling, distillation, and coagulation. In
1684, Dutch naturalists, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published sketches of his
wee animalcules, a common form of bacteria viewed with a simple
microscope that he invented himself.
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passage of water through sponges in a perforated plate. By 1750 his filters for
home use could be purchased. Later in the century, filtered water was sold on
a small scale, but no large commercial plants were built. James Peacock, a
British architect, was granted a patent in 1791 on a three-tank, upward-flow
backwash filter.
1800A.D.
In 1804, Paisley, Scotland, became the site of the first filter facility to deliver
water to an entire town. It was built by John Gibb to supply his bleachery and
the town, and within three years, filtered water was even piped directly to
customers in Glasgow, Scotland.
In 1806, a large water treatment plant opened in Paris, using the River Seine
as a source. The water was settled for 12 hours prior to filtration then run
through sponge prefilters that were renewed every hour. The main filters
consisted of coarse river sand, clean sand, pounded charcoal, and clean
Fontainebleau sand. The filters were renewed every six hours. A simple form
of aeration was also part of the process, and pumps were driven by horses
working in three shifts (steam power was too expensive). This plant operated
for 50 years. The year 1832 saw the first slow sand filtration plant in the
United States built in Richmond, Virginia. By 1833, the plant had 295 water
subscribers, showing a growing awareness of the relationship between clean
water and health. The next US plant to open was in Elizabeth, N.J., in 1855.
Up until the late 1860s, only 136 waterworks operated in the US. Many of
these delivered what was considered to be pure water that did not require
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needed water to supply their troops. In 1942, the US Public Health Service
adopted a set of drinking water standards that included bacteriological
sampling in the distribution system and maximum permissible concentrations
for lead, fluoride, arsenic, and selenium. Hexavalent chromium was added to
this list in 1946, and the membrane filter process for bacteriological analysis
was approved in 1957. By the early 1960s, more than 19,000 municipal water
systems were in operation throughout the US. Most of these facilities used
chlorine for disinfection. Although ozone was in common use in continental
Europe throughout the 20th century, by 1987 only five US water treatment
facilities were using it, primarily for taste-and-odor control or trihalomethane
precursor removal. With the exception of the coliform standard in interstate
commerce, US drinking water standards were basically non-enforceable
guidelines until the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The SDWA came
about in large part because of concerns about organic contaminants, and the
law laid out the process that the US Environmental Protection Agency would
use to set health-based maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and the
aesthetic-related secondary MCLs.
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springs and spas were discovered, forgotten, and rediscovered, the healing
power of the water was often enhanced and formalized. In 1522, the first
scientific book on the Czech Karlovy Vary treatment for disease was
published in which a regimen of baths and drinking the waters of the springs
was recommended. In the 1890s, Father Sebastian Kneipp developed holistic
herbal and water therapy in the German spa village of Bad Worishofen.
The King's Bath
The Kings Bath was built, using the lower walls of the Roman Spring
building as foundations, in the 12th century. The bath is so called because a
statue of King Bladud overlooks it. The bath provided niches for bathers to sit
in, immersed up to their necks in water. On the south side of the bath is a seat
beneath the waterline, known as the Master of the Baths chair that was
donated in the 17th century. Although modified and encroached upon by the
building of the Grand Pump Room in the 18th century and subsequent 19th
century developments the Kings Bath continued in use for curative bathing
until the middle of the 20th century.
American Sweat Houses
They had also sweathouses and menstrual lodges. The permanent sweathouse
was a shallow subterranean excavation, roofed with poles and earth and
bedded with grass, in which the young and unmarried men slept during the
winter season, and occasionally sweated themselves by means of steam
produced by pouring water upon hot stones placed in the centre. The
temporary sweathouse used by both sexes was a framework of willow rods,
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covered with blankets, and with the heated stones placed inside. The
menstrual lodge, for the seclusion of women during the menstrual period and
for a short period before and after childbirth, was a subterranean structure,
considerably larger than the sweathouse, and entered by means of a ladder
from above. The occupants thus secluded cooked their meals alone and were
not allowed even to touch any articles used by outsiders.
2.3.2 Modern Swimming Pool, Hot Tubs and Spas
The modern hot tubs and swimming pools of today have come a long way.
The transition from the baths and spas of the ancient world to the present day
artificial pools and spas has been greatly assisted as Kings, Emperors, rulers
and the fabulously rich have constantly tried to out do one another thereby
encouraging pool designers to come up with new and improved design.
Modern swimming pool only became popular in the middle of 19th century in
Britain and this was largely due to competitive swimming. Indeed by 1837,
six indoors pools had been built in London, England. As the sport grew in
popularity many more pools were built, and when a new governing body, the
Amateur Swimming Association of Great Britain, was formed in 1880, it
numbered more than 300 member clubs. The Olympic games further
popularized swimming when swimming became a medal-winning event at
games.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 SWIMMING POOL WATER TREATMENT
The prime purposes of applying water treatment equipment to pool water
(other than for sterilization) are three in number:
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To ensure that the bottom of the pool is at all times clearly visible to the
attendant staff, as a safeguard against drowning accidents
To achieve clarity and sparkle which will make the water attractive to
the bather.
a basin
a motorized pump
a water filter
a chemical feeder
drains
returns
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said, occurs predominantly in this area, further, this principle is one which
can not be altered by maladjustment or misuse. The system is simple; it calls
for a minimum of pipe work and valves and of connections through the pool
wall, these are such that the pool is inherently drainable through the outlet
connections.
The Cross-flow System: This a more complex arrangement, has longer
pipelines, more valves and connections and is therefore inherently more
expensive. Since flow is across the pool the throughput of water in the
crowded shallow end is less than with the orthodox system to the extent that
water is delivered direct to the deep end of the pool. The deep end has a very
low rate of turnover since a relatively small water quantity is delivered and
the volume of this area of the pool is large.
With the many distributed inlet and outlet points, a potential facility exists by
manipulation of the valve on each such point, for adjustment of the flow rate
over any portion of the pool at will and thus of regulating the pattern of water
movement to suit the conditions for the time being, or of recovering a
condition of lost breakpoint by local treatment. Such regulation, however
could only be made if rate of flow indicators were provided on each inlet and
outlet branch and even with this facility, alterations to flow patterns would be
difficult to set up, doubtful in effect and disastrous if misused or improperly
understood. A practical disadvantage is that the system does not naturally
provide pool drainage facilities and in consequence, a separate connection
must be made for this purpose.
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The Deck Level System: In some respect the circulation arrangements are
similar to those of the surflo system but important differences arise in that the
peripheral outlet takes the form of a channel, covered by a grating, actually
on the pool surround. When there are no bathers in the pool, the water level
there lies an inch or so below the surround level and return circulation is from
a deep end floor grating to the balance tank. With increasing occupation, the
tank water level rises to due to displacement and a float valve restrict the
outflow from the floor grating to bring the peripheral channel into use. At a
maximum load the entire outflow is via the channel. It is claimed that bathers
can enter and leave this kind of pool with such ease due to the literal identity
of water and surround levels, that steps and ladders are unnecessary.
3.3 CIRCULATION EQUIPMENT
Simplicity of installation, resistance to corrosion and economy of labour and
materials are the dominating factors for all good circulation installations. The
Greek used timber and terra-cotta, the Incas gold, the Romans silver and lead
and the Victorians copper and cast iron for their pool water circulation lines
and fittings. Todays pool plumber uses plastic pipes and sometimes cast iron
or asbestos-cement when large bore plastic fittings is difficult to get. Largebore systems in plastic also provide strength and easy fixing plus excellent
durability.
Pool pipe work is a low pressure, low temperature re-circulation system but
where extremes are involved, below freezing and above 400C- special plastic
grades will be required. Most pool system try to standardize between 25 and
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100mm lines with their relevant fittings, keeping larger diameter bores and
their more costly fittings for main lines only. For facings, panels, grilles,
grids and drains, detailed specification are usually necessary, they must be
tough and durable, and they must not trap fingers or toes nor catch skin. They
should not be adjustable by the swimmers, nor in anyway corrodible; main
drain grilles especially must be designed never to allow excess suction or to
be removable by bathers. Maximum flow through a main drain grille can be
0.3m/s but 0.2 or lower is better.
Inlets and outlets, skimmers and overflows, offer diverse design arrangements
to suit all circumstances and need to be professionally installed since most
leakages occur around them.
3.3.1 The Drains
It is inevitable that the water in a swimming pool needs to circulate through a
filtering system to remove dirt, debris and soil particles. During normal
operation, water flows to the filtering system through two or more main
drains at the bottom of the pool and multiple skimmer drain around the top of
the pool. The main drains are usually located on the lowest point in the pool,
so the entire pool surface slants towards them. Most of the dirt and debris that
sinks exit the pool through these drains. To keep bathers from getting their
hair or limbs caught in the plumbing, the drains are almost always covered
with grates or antivortex covers (a cover that diverts the flow of water to
prevent a dangerous vortex from forming). The skimmers as suggested earlier
on, draw water the same way as the main drains but they suck only from the
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very top of the pool (the top eight of an inch typically). Any debris that
floats- leaves, suntan oil, hair- leaves the pool through these drains.
water from one of the other drains, this eliminates the suction from the
blocked drain.
3.3.2 Balance Tanks
A balance tank is required to take up displacement caused by bathers and
wave surge and to provide a source of backwash water so that water in the
pool remain at a constant level. This facility can be accommodated within a
level deck design, though it is usual to provide a separate tank, either
freestanding or as part of the main pool construction.
The balance tank is usually provided with high and low level switches to
control the make up supply; a make up solenoid valve opening to provide a
water supply to the tank on the low level switch and closing on the high level
switch. Sufficient available volume remains at the low level mark to provide
for a filter backwash likewise, there should be sufficient volume at any point
between low and high level marks to provide for maximum bather
displacement and wave surge. A facility in the suction line from the balance
tank is required to regulate the flow quantity.
3.3.3 Water Make-up Supply
The water treatment process produces pollutants that can only be controlled
by dilution of the pool water with fresh make-up water, this make-up water
may be derived directly from sources other than the water company mains
supply as in the case with borehole, spring or sea water fed pools. To some
extent, the dilution is achieved by water replacement to offset water lost to
evaporation, to bathers and during backwashing but further dilution is usually
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frictional losses to the minimum, rather than having to upgrade the pump to
overcome them.
3.3.6 Pump Types
As regards the swimming pool, pumps could be classified into two; the
centrifugal pump and the positive displacement pump, there being many
different types within each category. However, the main characteristics
referred to below can be regarded as generally applicable.
Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugal pump in its simplest form consists of an impeller and a volute
casing. It usually includes an integral strainer basket before the impeller and
volute. The volute casing has to be filled completely with liquid when the
pump is in operation, the impeller throwing the liquid to the outside of the
volute thus imparting kinetic energy. In this way a centrifugal pump is
capable of generating a certain head, which varies according to the pump
speed and the accepted method of expressing the relationship between
capacity and head by means of a characteristic curve often referred to as the
Q/H curve, where Q is the quantity (flow rate) and H is the head. The main
characteristics of centrifugal pumps can be summarized as follows:
- Capacity varies with head
- Capacity proportional to pump speed
- Head proportional to the square of the pump speed non self-priming.
- Suitable for low viscosity liquids.
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Self-priming
Suitable for viscous liquids (reduced speed usually necessary for high
viscosities)
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pump is normally the simplest and most economical type available, also
where large volumes of water have to be moved at relatively low heads, the
centrifugal pump is the natural choice, and this is the case with a swimming
pool.
3.4 FILTRATION
Filtration is of some value for its capacity to remove bacteria and disease
producing organisms. However, its primary function is to remove dirt, debris
and soil particles which if not removed would increase the need for chemical
treatment and reduce the germ killing and oxidizing power of disinfection
chemicals. The filter deals with particulate matter, it strains out suspended
solids down to sub-micron size in order to retain water clarity. It does not
remove dissolved salts, nor does it filter microorganisms. Filtration combined
with disinfection produces effective water purification that keeps water clear
and non-toxic, odourless and tasteless, free of bacteria and algae, and
balanced to prevent corrosion or scale formation. The working capacity, in
general, can be determined by the amount of dirt it is capable of holding
without blocking or missing more than say, 10 micron sized particles in a
given time.
3.4.1 Filters
In order to maintain the pool water in the required condition, it is necessary to
provide a system of filtration to remove contaminant matter (and heating,
which is optional) to maintain the required temperature. Filters deal with the
removal of suspended colloidal materials and/or particulate matter, which
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Cartridge filters
Of these, the pressure sand filter is by far the most commonly used, having
been applied in substantially the same form for very many years, while the
pre-coat filter, well established in the field of industrial water treatment has
more recently been applied to certain swimming pools. The cartridge filters
are for lightly loaded pools. Regardless of the type of filters selected, it must
be constructed of materials that are compatible with the chemical water
treatment employed. For instance, mild steel filter shells are suitably treated
internally to withstand the corrosive nature of the water.
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water through all parts of the bed during both the filtration and the backwash
processes and there are various arrangement of pipe work and nozzle systems
for this purpose.
A manhole is normally provided on the top of the shell to gain access for the
sand removal and replacement. This is a considerable task and the operation
may be considerably facilitated by the provision of an additional manhole
level with the bottom of the bed, hence obviating the arduous lifting,
bucketful by bucketful through the top manhole.
Conventional pressure sand filters with media bed depth of between 0.75m
and 1.5m are capable of filtration rates between 10 to 50m3 of water per m2 of
bed surface area per hour [m3/(m2.h-1)]. Generally, filters rated in the range of
10 to 30m3/m2.h-1 are termed medium rate filters and filters rated above
30m3/m2.h-1 are termed high rate filters.
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For pools which does the public use or have regular periods of high bathing
loads, filtration rates above 30m3/m2.h-1 are not recommended. Filter rates
between 25 and 50m3/m2.h-1 are generally only satisfactory for highly loaded
or residential pools.
Backwashing of Pressure Sand Filters
Backwashing is achieved by reverting the flow of water from its normal path
so that flow through the filter bed is from bottom to top and then to waste.
This reversal of flow is achieved by the manipulation of valves. The
backwash water is withdrawn from the pool and its loss may be made good
by topping up as and when convenient; however the effluent is disposed off at
the rate of flow through a single filter and a comparable capacity in the
drainage system of the building is therefore a necessary requirement.
The need for backwashing is determined by the increase of pressure drop
across the filter bed and a differential pressure gauge is provided for this
purpose. The performance of medium rate pressure sand filters can be
enhanced by the use of a flocculant that forms a gel on top of the media bed,
causing smaller particles to group together and become trapped. This
flocculant is lost during the backwash cleansing and a suitable feed facility is
required in order to introduce the flocculant during the filtration during the
filtration cycle.
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disposed off and renewed each time the filter is cleaned. The normal but
expendable medium used for this purpose is powdered diatomaceous earth,
which is made up into slurry, and for pressure pre-coat filters, is pumped into
the filter shell where it is deposited onto plates or cones (candles). The water
to be filtered is then passed through the plates or cones and the dirt collects
on the medium until a rising pressure indicates that cleansing is necessary.
The water flow is then reversed, flushing the medium and dirt from the plates
into the base of the shell to drain.
The main advantage of the pre-coat filter is that they can provide a much
greater filter surface area than a comparably sized sand filter and
consequently need less plant space. In addition, they filter out bacteria and
organic substances of sized down to 1 to 5 microns, which can result in fine
water clarity and polish. The ability to remove bacteria and the oocysts/cysts
of organisms such as cryptosporidium parium and giardia lambia, means that
pre-coat filter are ideal in areas where the quality of the source water is poor
or where these aspects are particularly problematic.
Pressure pre-coat filter should have a filtration rate of approximately
6m3/m2.h-1 and vacuum pre-coat filter approximately 4m3/m2.h-1. Backwash
rates for pressure pre-coat filters should be the same as the filtration rates.
The principle of operation of the pre-coat filter may be summarized as
follows:
Coating: a quantity of slurry is made up in a separate mixing tank of water
and the filter medium, and this is then pumped into the bottom (dirty) section
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of the shell from where it passes through the cores, depositing on the external
faces there of, up into the top (clean) section and from there back to the
mixing tank. Re-circulation in this manner continues until deposition is
shown to be complete by the water in circulation becoming clear.
Filtering: water to be filtered is pumped into the bottom of the shell, through
the filter medium and up through the cores into the top of the shell and then
through the outlet connection. Dirt collects on the filter medium until a rising
pressure differential between clean and dirty sides indicates that cleaning is
necessary.
Cleaning: this is effected by the reversal of the water flow through the shell
to flush both the dirt and the filter medium from the cores into the lower
section of the shell from where the flushing water with dirt and filter medium
in suspension is dumped to drain until such times as the effluent is observed
to be clean.
Performance of Pre-coat Filters
The filter is susceptible to blockages by quite minor quantities of greasy
material such as may derive from body oils, hair creams or cosmetics which,
collecting on the surface of the filter medium, form an impervious barrier that
may obstruct water flow. This difficulty may be overcome by continuous
slurry feeding through out the time during which the filter is in use. The
effect here is to deposit new filter medium concurrently with any greasy
material so that the latter is prevented from forming a homogenous layer and
the filter bed remains pervious.
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The degree of filtration achieved by this type of filter is very high indeed,
perhaps beyond that which is absolutely necessary for a swimming pool.
However, it is essential that coating of the cores is complete and that it
remains so, otherwise a complete bypass of the filter bed will exist and, in a
swimming bath application, there is no immediate means of establishing that
such faulty conditions exist. Flow of water through the filter contributes to
the retention of the filter medium on the cores and in order to ensure that the
medium remains in place during periods of disuse (e.g. overnight), the
continuous re-circulation of a minor quantity of water by means of a small
secondary pump is sometimes advocated.
Comparison between Sand and Pre-coat Filters
The principal advantage of the pre-coat filter for the treatment of pool water
is its small size although this is largely nullified by the storage area required
for the consumable coating medium which is of low density and thus bulky.
In comparison to the sand filter, (a rugged piece of equipment that will
withstand a great deal of abuse), the alternative is a delicate piece of
apparatus remarkably efficient when operated correctly. As in most such
comparisons, the deciding factor is the cost in use.
Cartridge filters:
Cartridge or pad filters offer low capital cost filtration. They are normally of
the induced or vacuum flow type and are designed primarily for small, lightly
loaded pools. Some cartridges or pads are dispensable and expensive while
others can be removed, hosed down and reused. There are a number of
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different types and filtration rates vary between 1 and 25m3/m2.h-1 depending
on the membrane material. They also vary widely in efficiency, filtering
particles sized between 1 and 25 microns. Spa pools operate with cartridge
filters employing polyester material and not paper.
3.5 DISINFECTION AND SANITATION
Disinfection is 100% destruction of all disease- causing bacteria (pathogens)
on the object being disinfected. As with sterilization one cannot obtain
complete destruction in the pool environment. Although improper, the term
disinfection has persisted for long and is now commonly used while
Sanitation, the destruction of microorganisms to levels (usually by 99% or
more) deemed safe by public health standards. This is the proper term to be
used with pool or spa water.
A pools filter system does the heavy lifting in keeping the water clean, but it
takes chemistry to do the fine-tuning. The disinfection function is a
complicated process involving rather intricate chemistry. It is important to
carefully manipulate the chemical balance in pools for several reasons:
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Water with the wrong chemical balance can damage the various parts of
the pool.
Improperly balanced water can irritate the skin and the eyes
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super chlorination (i.e. the addition of more chlorine beyond that required to
combine with all the ammonia present in the water), acts rather like the white
corpuscles that destroy bacteria within the blood stream. Ions of low
molecular weight with absence of electrical charge make it relatively easy for
the hypochlorous acid to degenerate cell walls of bacteria to burn them out.
Invading bacteria is overwhelmed and absorbed, but in the process, some of
the residual defence material also gets used up.
Fast and free chlorine (as hypochlorous acid) is easily dissipated by UV light
and requires the support of a slow acting, more stable form of chlorine for
back up. Because chlorine is typically prepared in liquid, powder or tablets
form (though some professionals use gaseous chlorine), it can be added to the
water any where in the cycle. Pool experts generally recommend adding it
just after the filtering process, using a chemical feeder. If it is added directly
into the pool, using tablets in the skimmer boxes for example, the chlorine
tends to be too concentrated in those areas.
A major problem with hypochlorous acid as mentioned earlier is that it is not
particularly stable. It can degrade when exposed to UV light from the sun,
and it may combine with other elements to form new compounds. Pool
chlorinators often include a stabilizing agent, such as cyanuric acid that reacts
with chlorine to form a more stable compound that does not degrade as easily
when exposed to UV light. Even with a stabilizing agent, hypochlorous acid
may combine with other chemicals, forming compounds that are not very
effective sanitizers. For example, hypochlorous acid may combine with
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or there is insufficient free chlorine available in the pool water to burn out all
by-product compounds and all contaminants. An active swimmer or bather
can perspire one litre per hour; and when the average contribution of urine
per bather is in the region of 25 to 50 ml, or almost 2litres for every class full
of children, the purifying method chosen for the water for the swimming pool
must work well.
3.6 OTHER DISINFECTION TECHNIQUES
3.6.1 Electro-disinfection Techniques
The processes stem from the principle of electrolytic corrosion, where
dissimilar metals in pool water conduct an electrical current between them.
The pool is really a vast battery where dissimilar metals can actually be
transferred back and forth in electrolysis. This is highly dependent upon the
amount of dirt in the water; the pH, the dissolved metals accelerating
corrosion or staining electro-plating elsewhere.
When a pool is charged with 4000ppm common salt solution, electrolytic
equipment can disassociate constituent elements. Nascent and fast acting
chlorine is one of them. These electro-chemical systems work best with
bathing loads not subject to sudden change and with balanced water but can
donate by product such as hydrogen, sodium etc that must be dealt with.
Molecular chlorine is produced at the positive anode while hydroxyl ion plus
water at the negative cathode.
By inserting other metallic plates to carry current, different water treatment
action can also be provided. Copper and aluminium plates will flocculate fine
50
materials for the water to trap. Platinum and silver will purify and oxidise
microbes (silver is highly bactericidal at level ten times lower than marginal
chlorination). Ion exchange systems can be very successful. They suit small
pools admirably but regrettably a little neglect goes along way in limiting
their very convenient advantages.
3.6.2 Ozonators
Ozonators are used on swimming pools and spas to reduce traditional
chlorine or bromine levels. Ozone water purification systems can be installed
in new pool or spa or retrofitted for existing systems. The ozone system
attaches to the water circulation system quickly and easily. It generates ozone
and injects it into the return, where it instantly oxidized and purifies the
water. In the process, ozone destroys bacteria, virus and algae and oxidizes
metals, which bond together for easy removal by the filter. It holds distinct
advantages in that rapid and total oxidizing of organic matter with purer
agents cuts down the side effect problems, which in turn allows a far more
comfortable swimming environment, plus the increased chance of operating
very successful total heat recovery and re-circulation system.
Below is a simplified drawing showing the basic configuration.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 METHODOLOGY OF DESIGN
Design Consideration
Swimming and bathing pools vary considerably in size, shape and in the
intensity and pattern-of-use. The design and operational management brief is
usually considered by relevant professionals (civil, mechanical, electrical and
chemical) with no aspect determined in isolation. The choice of water
treatment system is dependent on a variety of factors, including:
(a) nature of incoming water supply
(b) the size and shape of the pool and variety of features to be incorporated in
the scheme.
(c) The anticipated bathing loads and pattern of use
(d) The finances available.
Also, basic assumptions are made at the initial design stage and these will be
the limiting factors for operation duration, and schedules and maximum
numbers of bathers.
4.1 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM OBJECTIVE
The objective of a pool water treatment system is to provide a hygienic, safe,
comfortable and aesthetically pleasing environment for bathing. These are to
be achieved irrespective of the loading within the predetermined parameters.
The water treatment system should be capable of:
(a) Providing clear, colourless and bright water by removing suspended and
colloidal matter.
52
(b) Removing organic matter, which may provide a source of food for
bacterial and cause a cloudy, dull appearance.
(c) Destroying and removing bacteria and ensuring that the water is
bactericidal.
(d) Maintaining the pH of the water at an optimum for disinfection and bather
comfort.
(e) Maintaining the water at a comfortable temperature for bathers.
The primary functions of the system are to filter, circulate, disinfect and heat
the recirculating pool water so as to achieve the above.
4.2 METHODOLOGY OF FILTRATION
Filtration of pools is carried out with the use of filters. These filters strain out
suspended solids down to sub-micron size in order to retain clarity.
The heterogeneous particulate suspension commonly found in water is often
characterised by size distribution function known as the power law. The law
states that the number of particulates N per size category is an inverse
power function of the size, , of the particulate material.
dN
= Al
dl
4.1
The slope of the power law function is a useful parameter to characterise the
type of suspension being treated. Depending on the value of the power law
coefficient P, the major portion of the surface area or volume fraction of a
suspension will be found in certain size range.
This is summarised in the table below:
53
1.
2.
3.
4.
% of Surface area in
Fraction > 2cm
99.95
98.3
73.3
25
% of Volume in
Fraction > 2cm
99.995
99.95
98.3
73.3
discussed previously.
The methodology for process selection is based on physical characteristics of
the particulates. Expected regions are defined in which various processes are
54
average size greater than 100mm and suspended solids greater than 50mg/L,
gravity sedimentation is the most cost effective solid liquid separation
process. This is usually the case with the land of particulates found in
swimming pools.
4.2.2 Quantitative Predictions of Particulate Removal
Particulate removal in filter media occurs by straining or by attachment to the
media itself.
detached due to sharing forces that increase as the filter clogs. The relative
importance of different mechanisms will depend on physiochemical
variables.
4.2.3 Collection Efficiency of Filter Media
Straining: Straining becomes an important removal mechanisms when the
ratio of the particle size to the media size in porous media is greater than
0.2(Herzig, 1970; Boller, 1980).
55
56
area
dm2
4
dm
N (1 0 )L
=
dm
x i
4.2
where,
n
=
x
media depth
shape factor (defined as the ratio of area and volume shape
factors for granular media, = 6 for spherical media).
(1 0 )
N
L
= exp
N0
dm
4.3
57
Fig. 4.3: Effect of media depth (L), media size (dm), and individual collector
efficiency () on particulate capture on granular media.
58
distribution of the granular media, manner of packing, and type of fluid flow,
that is, whether it is laminar, transitional, or turbulent.
4.3.1 Laminar Flow
Laminar or viscous flow is characterised by viscous forces dominating inertia
forces. For the Reynolds number in porous media defined as
Re =
d mV0 L
(1 0 )
4.4
p
L
k
p
L
Vo
k
4.5
=
=
=
pressure drop
depth of porous media
hydraulic permeability (determined by experiment)
03 d m2
=
(1 0 ) 2 180
4.6
H 180(1 0 ) 2 V0
=
L
03 d m2 L g
4.7
gravitational constant
59
The table below gives the sphericity, shape and porosity factors for granular
material.
Table 4.2: Typical sphericity, shape and porosity factors of Granular material
Description
Sphericity,
Shape
Typical
Factor, S
Porosity, o
Spherical
1.00
6.0
0.38
Rounded
0.98
6.1
0.38
Worn
0.94
6.4
0.39
Sharp
0.81
7.4
0.40
Angular
0.78
7.7
0.43
Crushed
0.70
8.5
0.48
p 1.75 LV02 (1 0 )
=
L
d m 03
4.8
Combining Eqns.4.7 and 4.8, a general expression is obtained, valid over the
complete range of Reynolds number expected in granular media filtration,
assuming spherical media.
H 180 V0 (1 0 ) 2 1.75V0 (1 0 )
=
+
L
L gd m2 03
d m g 03
4.9
The effect of velocity on head loss per unit depth of media for various media
sizes at 20oC is shown below:
60
Fig. 4.4: Effect of velocity on head loss, T=200C, o=0.4, spherical media,
single size
4.3.3 Non Uniform Beds
In practice, the media used in filtration are not uniform or spherical and
consist of a range of particle sizes. Prediction of head loss through such clean
poly-dispersed media can be obtained by segmenting the depth of media into
a series of layers and summing the head loss through each layer. Ultimately,
an equivalent diameter is used in the head loss correlations where this
equivalent size of media gives the same head loss as would be obtained by
empirical observation. This is the basis for the effective size of the media,
which is equivalent to the 10% fraction by weight the so-called d10 media
size.
4.3.4 Clogging Media
As particulate material is captured in granular media filters, interstitial pore
space reduces. In addition, the media size changes due to accumulation of
particulate matter on the media surfaces. The effect of this is increase in head
61
loss due to accumulation of solids in the pore space. This increase in head
loss in approximated by an infinite series as
H
Ho
1 + 1 + 2 2 + .
4.10
With low specific deposits, higher terms of the above equation are neglected
H
Ho
1 + 1
4.11
62
L S
=
( S 1)(1 )
D
L
where, *
4.12
volume-specific deposit
density of water
porosity of deposit
63
Approximate
Density
(kg/m3)
3.9
1.02
2.2
1.01
Media
Size
(mm)
0.27
0.54
0.94
0.94
1.52
1.8
2.2
1.9
Superficial
Velocity
(m/hr)
5
5
5
10
10
11
10
10
Compaction
Coefficient
(L/g)
0.26
0.11
0.05
0.36
0.10
0.04-0.28
0.5
0.7
64
across the filter, (c) a good filtered water quality, and (d) simple operation
and maintenance.
For large plants (> 0.5m3/s [10 mgd]), the gravity, downflow, sand, and coal
dual-media filter is the preferred choice.
4.4.2 Filtration Rate and Terminal head Loss
The effect of filtration rate on effluent quality varies widely depending on the
specific application. In filtering flow resulting from alum and polymer
coagulation or biological floc at reasonably low influent solids concentration,
the effect of filtration rate on effluent quality is generally not significant for
rates up to 6.94 mm/sec and reasonable filter run lengths is achieved. With
weak chemical floc such as alum floc or with high concentrations of poorly
flocculated biological flocs, filter effluent quality tends to degrade at
filteration rates above 3.47 mm/sec. High rates increase solids penetration
and head loss buildup per unit volume filtered may actually decrease at
higher rates due to lower solids removal rates.
For gravity filters, available head loss is generally less than 3m. If terminal
head loss is much above 3m, pressure filters have to be utilized. Head loss
development in filter beds is determined by the amount and location of
retained solids in the bed. The average solids capture (mass per unit plan
areas of filter media) during a filter run ranges from 555-5550g/m2/m of head
loss depending on many factors involved.
65
There are many possible combinations of filter media size, d, and depth L.
This relationship between L and effective size de (10% finer by sieve
analysis) of many high-rate filters is shown below:
66
for the scatter in Fig. 4.7 are: (1) porosity of each filter is not the same; (2)
variation in the objectives of purification and raw water characteristics and
(3) pretreatment methods are not the same for each filter. This relationship
can be expressed as
L
= const.
de
The surface area of filter media per unit of filter plan area, a (m2), is
expressed by the following equation.
a =
6(1 f ) L
.d
4.13
porosity of bed
CL
= exp L / d
C0
4.14
Co
CL
67
This equation indicates that as the media used becomes coarser, the required
depth is increased, and conversely, as the media become finer, the depth
required is reduced.
The specific deposit, defined as the volume of material deposited per unit of
filter depth during the filter run, is expressed by the equation.
q (C0 C L )t
L
where =
4.15
specific deposit
filtration rate
Experimental data have shown that for a given filter and water quality,
turbidity breakthrough usually occurs at the same level of specific deposit.
This level of deposit is usually referred to as the effective deposit, e, and is
defined as follows:
e =
q (C0 C L )t b
L
4.16
68
69
Balance tanks
The Pump
70
Pipe Flow and Sizing: The flow regime in pool water circulation is governed
by laminar flow.
4.17
f = friction factor
The equation is applicable to both turbulent and laminar flow. For laminar
flow, f = 16/Re; so it is dependent on the velocity of flow since
Re
VD
Q/A
4Q/d2
hf
4fl 16Q2
d 2g2d2
Now,
Q
Therefore,
71
4.18
4.18a
flQ 2
3d 5
4.19
There are difficulties and inconveniencies inherent in the use of this equation.
Instead, the charts similar to the one on the next page are used, depending on
the material of the pipe. It is derivable from the equation with an error of
approximately 1%.
There are two other pipe flow formulas, which do not give the same accuracy
as the Colebrook-White equation over a wide range of flows. They are often
used in hydraulics because of their comparative simplicity. They are:
The Manning formula
1
H
V = R2/3
n
L
1/ 2
4.20
V = 0.849CR
0.63
H
L
0.54
4.21
72
where,
n = Manning roughness coefficient
C = Hazen Williams roughness coefficient
R = hydraulics radius (R =D/4 for full pipe flow)
H/L = hydraulic gradient (m/m)
Table 4.4: Friction loss for pipes, valves and fittings.
Equivalent length of straight pipe (mm), for friction losses
Pipesize Radius Gate Round Globe Normal Swing Tee Foot
(mm)
elbow valve elbow valve bend
check
valve
20
0.3
0.3
0.6
6.7
0.5
1.5
1.5 1.5
25
0.3
0.3
0.8
8.2
0.5
2.0
1.8 2.3
32
0.3
0.6
0.9
11.3 0.8
2.6
2.4 2.7
40
0.4
0.6
1.1
13.4 0.9
3.1
2.7 3.4
50
0.5
0.8
1.4
17.4 1.1
4.0
3.4 4.6
65
0.6
0.9
1.7
20.1 1.4
5.2
4.3 5.5
80
0.8
1.1
2.1
26.0 1.5
6.1
5.2 6.7
100
1.1
1.5
2.7
34.0 2.1
8.2
6.7 8.8
125
1.2
1.8
3.7
43.0 2.7
10.0
8.2 11.0
150
1.5
2.1
4.3
49.0 3.4
12.2
10.0 14.0
200
2.1
3.1
5.5
67.0 4.3
16.5
13.4 18.0
250
2.4
3.7
7.3
85.4 5.5
20.0
16.5 22.0
300
3.1
4.3
8.5
98.0 6.7
24.4
20.0 27.4
Return
bend
1.5
2.0
2.6
3.1
4.0
4.6
5.5
7.3
9.5
11.0
15.0
19.0
23.0
Additional head losses arise from the inclusion of fittings and valves. These
losses are expressed in terms of the equivalent to the length of and size of a
straight pipe, which would produce an equivalent loss if the straight pipe
were added instead of fittings.
73
74
75
4.5.5 Drains
Water for recirculation is removed from the pool through two main drainage
systems; the surface over flow system and the main drains. The methodology
of surface overflow system has been discussed above.
The main drains are located at the deepest part in the pool basin and are to
remove at least 50% of water for recirculation. The design must provide for
at least two of these drains (so that at least one will be functional if the other
is blocked) which are connected by a T piping. The design of the main
drain pipe is such that blocking any one drain will not result in flow through
the remaining drains or pipes exceeding a limiting velocity of approximately
1.5m/s while handling 50% of the design flow rate. To prevent settled pool
pollutants to block the drains, they are provided with gratings, which ideally
should be four times the area of the discharge pipe. The grating is designed
to prevent dangerous vortex building up while the pool water is being
drained.
4.5.6 Balance Tanks
A balance tank is required to take up displacement caused by bathers and
wave surge and provides a source of backwash water so that water in the pool
remains at a constant level. The facility is either accommodated within a
level deck, provided as a separate tank, free standing or as a part of the main
pool construction.
The tank is provided with a high and lower level switches to control the
make-up supply. The low-level mark volume provides for a filter backwash
76
and volume at any point between low and high level marks provides for
maximum bather displacement.
The displacement allowance for the average bather is 0.07m3. The maximum
number of bathers that the pool can accommodate is used to determine the
total displacement. The table below gives minimum pool water surface area
per person for comfort and safety.
Table 4.5: Recommended pool water surface area per bather
Depth range / m
<1.0
2.2
1.0-1.5
2.7
1.5-2.0
4.0
Diving pool
4.5
Spa pools
0.37
Therefore for a pool area of say 50m3, number of bathers is 50/2.7 = 18.5.
This is approximated to 19 bathers. Therefore displacement allowance is
0.075m3 x 19 = 1.425m3
4.5.7 Pump Selection
The two main pump classifications are centrifugal and positive displacement
with many different types within each category. Circulating pumps for pools
are of the centrifugal type, usually split casing. The characteristic of the
pump should be such that the quantity of water circulated will not drop
significantly as the filters become dirty and create more resistance to flow.
The steps to pump selection are:
77
Estimation of The Pump Flow - Normal flow is taken as the largest process
flow required for operation at the rated plant output. In this case, this will be
the maximum circulation flow rate, Q.
Estimation of pump head To calculate the head accurately, the total head on
the suction and discharge sides of the pump must be determined.
System head = total discharge head total suction head.
H = Hd Hs
(m)
4.22
now,
Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd
(m)
where,
hsd = discharge static head (due to fluid)
hpd = discharge surface pressure head (from filters)
hfd =discharge friction head (due to pipes)
and
Hs = hss + hps + hfs
4.23
where
hs = total suction head
hss = suction static head
hps = suction surface pressure head (from pool)
hfs = suction friction head
It should be noted that,
hps = 0 (gauge) since the suction tank (the pool) is open, so suction surface
pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
78
4.24
(m)
4.25
Effect of viscosity
Q=
Q0
1/ 2
v
1/ 4
H0
4.26
79
0.026
Q = Q0 1 + 5 / 6 1 / 4
Q0 .H 0
4.27
0.017
H = H 0 1 + 5 / 6 1 / 4
Q0 .H 0
4.28
= HS
Pv
PV
g
(m)
4.29
N max
100( NPSH 1) 3 / 4
=
Q1 / 2
4.30
80
Choice of Pump Type and Speed - Using the corrected valves of flow and
head from (v), the charts given below are entered. If the speed thus chosen is
greater than the limit in (vi) above, then the charts are entered at the speed
Nmax to obtain equivalent flow and head duty.
Alternatively, they are obtained as
N
Q* = Q
N max
N
H* = H
N max
4.31
4.32
81
Cl 2 + H 2 O HOCl + H + + Cl
or, NaOCl + H 2 O Na (OH ) + HOCl
The hypochlorous acid further undergoes additional reaction, which includes
disinfection (by oxidation) and reaction with various organics and inorganic
compounds, or dissociation to hydrogen and hypochlorite ions (OCl-), as
below:
HOCl H + + OCl
Hypochlorous acid is weakly acidic. Thus the pH of water affects the relative
amounts of HOCl AND OCl-. Fig.4.10 is a distribution diagram for the
various
Chlorine species (Cl2, HOCl, and OCl-) over a broad pH range. Between pH 6
and pH 9, the relative fraction of HOCl decreases, while the corresponding
fraction of OCl- increases.
82
pK a =
3000.00
10.0686 + 0.0253T
T
4.33
where T = temperature in 0K
Generally, the disinfection capabilities of hypochkorous acid are greater than
that of hypochlorite, especiallyat short contact time. However, as shown in
the figure above, the disinfection model suggests the equivalency of bacterial
inactivation by these free chlorine products at long contact times.
Ozone
Ozone is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents that has practical
application for water treatment. Ozone (O3), is a highly reactive gas formed
by electrical discharges in the presence of oxygen as follows:
83
84
85
86
It is also used as a shock treatment to rid the pool of algae or to burn off
unpleasant chlorine by products (chloramines).
Stabilized Chlorine
In order to stop chlorine being broken down by sunlight it is combined with a
stabiliser - cyanuric acid. It is supplied as stabilised chlorine granules or
tablets.
The problem with all stabilized chlorine products is that as well as stopping
the sunlight breaking down the chlorine they also make the chlorine less
effective. Therefore it is important not to get too much cyanuric acid in the
water.
There are two forms of stabilized chlorine:
-
87
over several days. A 200 gram tablet will add approximately 4 parts per
million of chlorine to each 45m3 (10,000 gallons) of pool water.
The table below summarises the pool water condition for a residential pool.
Table 4.6: Pool water condition
Residential
Free Chlorine
1 - 3mg/l
pH
7.2 - 7.8
Total Alkalinity
120 - 150mg/l
Calcium Hardness 100 - 150mg/l
88
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, a residential pool of particular specification is presented for
water treatment design and analysis.
5.2 POOL SPECIFICATION
The diagram below shows a plan view of a residential pool with the following
specifications:
Rectangular
Perimeter
Width
6m
Length
10.6m
89
Min. depth
1.07m
Max. depth
3.00m
Slope 1
0.1
Slope 2
0.33
Pipe materials =
Copper
= 0.45/L1
= 0.45/ tan
= 0.45/0.1
= 4.5m
tan
1.48/L2
L2
1.48/ tan
1.48/0.33
4.48m
1.62m
90
area x length
= (a + b) x h
= (1.07 + 1.52) x 4.5
= 5.8275m2
Area of B
= (a + b) x h
= (1.52 + 3) x 4.48
= 10.1248m2
Area of C
=1x6
= 3 x 1.62
= 4.86m2
Total Area
=A+B+C
= 5.8275 + 10.1248 + 4.86
= 20.8123m2
= (20.8123m2 x 6) m3
= 124.87m3
125m3
= 125 000 litres
or 33025 gallons (U.S)
5.3.3 Turnover
Pools become polluted at different rates. Turnover is the number of hours it
takes the filter to pass one pools worth volume of water. That is, the time it
takes to filter the volume of water in a pool.
91
Turnover
time/h
<0.33
0.5
0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-2.5
The recommended turnover time for Residential (domestic) pool from the
table is 6.0 7.0 hours
The lower value of 6.0 hours is chosen for it provides for a faster return of
treated pool water to the pool basin.
5.4 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS
5.4.1 Design Flow Rate, Q
This is the flow rate (discharge) at which the pool water is circulated
throughout the pool system.
Q=
Pool volume
Turnover time
125m3
6.0 hour
20.83m3/h
91.74gpm
(0.35m3/s)
92
Bed
diam.
area /
15.0
17.5
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
50.0
(mm)
750
0.44
6.6
7.7
8.8
11.0
13.2
15.4
17.6
22.0
900
0.63
9.3
11.0
12.6
15.8
18.9
22.0
25.2
31.6
1200
1.13
17.0
19.8
22.6
28.3
33.9
39.6
45.2
56.6
1500
1.76
26.4
30.8
35.2
44.0
52.8
61.6
70.4
88.0
1800
2.54
38.1
44.5
50.8
63.5
76.2
88.9
101.6
127.0
2100
3.46
51.9
60.6
69.2
86.5
103.8
121.1
138.4
173.0
2400
4.52
67.8
79.1
90.4
113.0
135.6
158.2
180.8
226.0
2700
5.72
85.8
100.1
114.4
143.0
171.6
200.2
228.8
286.0
3000
7.07
106.5
123.7
141.4
176.8
212.1
247.5
282.8
353.6
A=
d 2
4
With Q
(0.9) 2
4
=
= 0.64m 2
20.83m3/h
(550gpm)
Filtration rate =
Q bed area
Filter rate
20.83
0.64
32.55m3/m2/h
When selecting the right filter, provision has to be made for a time when the
filter medium becomes more and more clogged with dirt, at which point, it
requires a greater flow rate to clean an equal volume of water. This is
93
overcome by oversizing the filter. Therefore the filter rate obtained above is
increased to 40m3/m2/h.
It is always safer and prudent to have more than one filter, therefore, if one
designs for two filters.
Bed area for each
= 0.64
2
= 0.32m2
=
=
4A
4 0.32
3.142
0.64m
64m2
95
For safety, provision is made for 2, as one will continue to function in the
event that the other becomes blocked.
5.4.7 Pipe Size Selection
(a) Skimmer Line Size
The rule is that for the skimmer to be able to take flow between 20 and
30gpm.
For safety, we design for the maximum value.
Max Q for each skimmer is 30gpm.
Q = 30gpm = 6.813m3/h
= 1.9 x 10-3m3/s
The rule states that, skimmer pipe velocity must not exceed 1.52m/s for
suction line piping and 2.5m/s for discharge line (see attached rule in the
appendix).
Skimmers are along suction line, therefore
Q
velocity of flow
1.9 x 10-3
1.52
1.25 x 10-3 m2
d2
4
4A
4 x 1.25 x 10-3
96
0.040m
= 40mm
Skimmer specification
Pipe size
40mm
Flow in pipe
Velocity
1.52m/s
Branch 1
Main return
Branch 2
Qm
Qm
20.83m3/h
Qb1 + Qb2
Maximum allowable velocity for branch 1 and 2 = 2.5m/s (for discharge line)
Q
U1.A + U2.A
A(U1 + U2)
but U1 = U2
Qm
2AU
5.79
2 x 2.5 x A
5.79 x 10-3
5.0
1.158 x 10-3 m2
d2
4
1.158 x 10-3 m2
97
4 x 1.158 x 10-3
0.0384m
38.4m
40mm
Main return
Q
U.A
d=
4 2.32 10 -3
d = 0.054m = 54mm
60mm
(c) Main Drain Size
The rule is that returning pipe be sized such that blocking any one drain will
not result in flow through the remaining drains or pipes exceeding a velocity
of 1.52m/s while handling 50% of the design flow rate.
The provision is for 2 drains
A
C
The design calls for each one being able to handle 50% of the design flow
rate at a maximum velocity of 1.52m/s.
Q
20.83m3/h
98
1.52m/s
U.A
Q/U
2.90 x 10-3
1.52
1.91 x 10-3 m2
=
=
4 x 1.91 x 10-3
0.0493m
49.3mm
dA
dB =
50mm pipe
50mm
Q
U
dC
5.79 x 210-3
1.52
3.81 x 10-3 m2
4 x 3.81 x 10-3
dC
0.0696m
dC
70mm
i.e. A
4 x 1963.5
7854mm
using, d =
4 A
68.952m
41.4m
10.5m
4.0m
124.852m
Friction Loss
Branch 1 and 2 both have the same flow rates, and diameters therefore the
friction loss would be the same
The flow rate =
100
2.90 l/s
5.79l/s
= 14.73m
46.050
25.3
10.5
4.0
85.85m
101
H = Hd - H s
where,
Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd
Hs = hss + hpd + hfs
where,
hsd = discharge static head (due to fluid)
hpd = discharge surface pressure head (from filters)
hfd =discharge friction head (due to pipes)
and
hs = total suction head
hss = suction static head
hps = suction surface pressure head (from pool)
hfs = suction friction head
It should be noted that,
hps = 0 (gauge) since the suction tank (the pool) is open, so suction surface
pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Suction Side Of Pump
hss = 1m (height of pool surface above pump centre line)
hps = 0,as explained above.
102
P = gh , gives
hpd = 12.74m
hfs = 50.65m (as obtained above).
Hd = 1.8 + 12.74 + 50.65
= 65.19m
H = 15.73 + 65.19
= 80.92m, as the system head.
Next to obtain the speed of the pump; Graph A3 in the appendix is used.
From the chart, checking flow rates against differential head, a zone code is
obtained which is read from Table 5.3.
Q = 20.83m3/h
= 5.79l/s
H = 65.19m
103
From the chart, these two values give a corresponding zone code A, which
from the table gives the pump specification as
Flow rate = 5.79 l/s
Total dynamic head = 65.19m
Number of stages = 1
Impeller speed, N = 48 r/sec
Impeller type = single entry radial.
Table 5.3: Guide to pump type and speed liquid viscosity of 1cSt
Zone Code
Number of
stages
Impeller
speed, N
(r/sec)
48
C
H
1
1
48
16
G
J
K
L
1
1
1
1
24
24
16
N
P
Q
X
1
1
1
Impeller
type
Remarks
single
entry radial
peripheral
single
entry
radial flow
axial
propeller
Horizontal
taken <500/Q1/2
As Zone Q or T, alternatively a single entry
mixed flow (cone flow) impeller at the same
speed.
N
single
Vertical take
entry
N<370/Q1/2
49
horizontal
double
16.3
entry radial
24.5
flow
2nd impeller
24.5
double
entry radial may be single
flow
entry
N
double
Take N <
entry
500/Q1/2
104
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 CONCLUSION
The contamination of swimming pool water is to some extent inevitable.
Therefore water treatment techniques must be established to make the water
safe bathers. A water treatment facility design is very rigorous and involves
the assemblage of several experts (structural, mechanical, biochemist, etc),
working in concert to achieve the goal of water treatment.
The design of the treatment plant is such that a balance is reached between
proprietary equipment and custom (build it yourself) equipment. This is
essential in order to reduce cost and wastage, and ensure that equipment work
to specification.
Lastly, no design is considered standard because of variation in intended use,
plant capacity, raw water quality and climate. Each project is analysed on its
own merit and peculiarities. Therefore, variations are allowed to the water
treatment design principles, as long as the objectives of the design are
realised and the design meet local water treatment standards.
6.2 RECOMMENDATION
The importance of designing a proper and functional water treatment scheme
for a swimming pool cannot be overemphasised. Although, water treatment
principles are to some extent general, this project has only considered the
design of a private swimming pool. It is hoped that future will done on public
105
swimming pool, which involves areas not touched upon by this project, such
as pool hall ventilation and heating and ancillaries.
Also, because this project is largely based on United States and British codes
(due to non existence of codes from the local water authority), it is
recommended that future work on the same subject make use of FEPA
(Federal Environmental Protection Agency) and LASEPA, the Lagos state
chapter, Effluent Water Treatment Codes in trying to give local content to the
design.
106
REFERENCES
Carman, P.C., Fluid Flow Through Granular Beds, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng.,
15,150 (1937).
Chang, S. L., Modern Concept of Disinfection. J. Div. Eng., Proc. Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng., 97 (SA5), 689-707 (October 1971).
Doe, L. N., Gura, J. H., Martin, P. L., Building Services For Swimming
Pools, Oscar Faber and Partners (December 1967).
Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M., and Swaffield, J. A., Fluid Mechanics Long
Man Group Ltd., England. (1979 and 1985).
Hoigne J., and Bader, H., Identification and Kinetic Properties of the
Oxidizing Decomposition Product of Ozone in Water and its Impact on Water
Purification, Presented at the Second International Ozone Symposium,
International Ozone Institute, Montreal, Canada (May 1975b).
Hoigne, J., and Bader, H., Ozonation of Water: Role of Hydroxyl Radicals
as Oxidizing Intermediates, Science, 190, 782 (1975a)
Ives, K. J., Deep Filters Filtration and Separation, 4(3/4), 125 (1967)
Kavanaugh, M. C., Use of Particle Size Distribution Measurement for
Selection and Control of Solid/Liquid Separation Process, in Particulates in
Water, American Chemical Society Advances in Chemistry, No 189 (1980),
p. 305.
Maroudas, A., and Eisenklam, P., Clarification of Suspension: A study of
Particle Deposition in Granular Media; Part II: A Theory of Clarification,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 20, 875-888 (1965b).
107
108
APPENDIX A
Schematic diagram of a swimming pool water treatment plant
109
APPENDIX B
Graph A2: Pipe sizing and friction losses
110
APPENDIX C
Graph A3: Guide to pump type and speed
111