Electrical Circuits III PDF

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis
Single Phase Power Systems
Depicted above is a very simple AC circuit. If the

load resistors power dissipation were substantial,
it is called a power circuit or power system
instead of regarding it as just a regular circuit. The
distinction between a power circuit and a
regular circuit may seem arbitrary, but the
practical concerns are definitely not.
One such concern is the size and cost of wiring
necessary to deliver power from the AC source to
the load. Normally, it is not given much thought
for this type of concern if it is merely analyzing a
circuit for the sake of learning about the laws of
electricity. However, in the real world it can be a
major concern. If the source in the above circuit is
given a voltage value and power dissipation
values are also given to the two load resistors, the
wiring needs for this particular circuit can be
attained:
83.33 A for each load resistor in the figure adds

up to 166.66 A total circuit current. This is no
small amount of current, and would necessitate
copper wire conductors of at least 1/0 gage. Such
wire is well over 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter,
weighing over 300 pounds per thousand feet.
Bear in mind that copper is not cheap either! It
would be for the best interest to find ways to
minimize such costs for designing a power
system with long conductor lengths. One way to
do this would be to increase the voltage of the
power source and use loads built to dissipate 10
kW each at this higher voltage. The loads, of
course, would have to have greater resistance
values to dissipate the same power as before (10
kW each) at a greater voltage than before. The
advantage would be less current required,
permitting the use of smaller, lighter, and cheaper

wire:
Now the total circuit current is 83.33 A, half of

what it was before. A number 4 gage wire, which
weighs less than half of what 1/0 gage wire does
per unit length, can be used. This is a
considerable reduction in system cost with no
degradation in performance. This is why power
distribution system designers elect to transmit
electric power using very high voltages (many
thousands of volts) to capitalize on the savings
realized by the use of smaller, lighter, cheaper
wire. However, this solution is not without
disadvantages. Another practical concern with
power circuits is the danger of electric shock
from high voltages. Again, this is not usually the
sort of thing pointed out while learning about the
laws of electricity, but it is a very valid concern
in the real world, especially when large amounts
of power are being dealt with. The gain in
efficiency realized by stepping up the circuit
voltage presents us with increased danger of
electric shock. Power distribution companies
tackle this problem by stringing their power lines
along high poles or towers, and insulating the
lines from the supporting structures with large,
porcelain insulators.
At the point of use (the electric power customer),
there is still the issue of what voltage to use for
powering loads. High voltage gives greater
system efficiency by means of reduced
conductor current, but it might not always be
practical to keep power wiring out of reach at the
point of use the way it can be elevated out of
reach in distribution systems. This tradeoff
between efficiency and danger is one that
European power system designers have
decided to risk, all their households and
appliances operating at a nominal voltage of
240 V instead of 120 V as it is in North America.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

That is why tourists from America visiting
Europe must carry small step down
transformers for their portable appliances, to
step the 240 VAC (volts AC) power down to a
more suitable 120 VAC.
Is there any way to realize the advantages of
both increased efficiency and reduced safety
hazard at the same time? One solution would be
to install step down transformers at the
endpoint of power use, just as the American
tourist must do while in Europe. However, this
would be expensive and inconvenient for
anything but very small loads (where the
transformers can be built cheaply) or very large
loads (where the expense of thick copper wires
would exceed the expense of a transformer).
An alternative solution would be to use a higher
voltage supply to provide power to two lower
voltage loads in series. This approach combines
the efficiency of a high voltage system with the
safety of a low voltage system:
The current through each load is the same as it

was in the simple 120 V circuit, but the currents
are not additive because the loads are in series
rather than parallel. The voltage across each load
is only 120 V, not 240, so the safety factor is
better. Take note that a full 240 V across the
power system wires is still operating but each load
is at a reduced voltage. If anyone is going to get
shocked, the odds are that it will be from coming
into contact with the conductors of a particular
load rather than from contact across the main
wires of a power system.
Theres only one disadvantage to this design: the
consequences of one load failing open, or being
turned off (assuming each load has a series on/off
switch to interrupt current) are not good. Being a
series circuit, if either load were to open, current
would stop in the other load as well. For this

reason, the design is modify to:
Instead of a single 240 V power supply, two 120

V supplies (in phase with each other!) in series is
use to produce 240 V, then run a third wire to the
connection point between the loads to handle the
eventuality of one load opening. This is called a
split phase power system. Three smaller wires
are still cheaper than the two wires needed with
the simple parallel design, so it is still ahead on
efficiency. The astute observer will note that the
neutral wire only has to carry the difference of
current between the two loads back to the source.
In the above case, with perfectly balanced loads
consuming equal amounts of power, the neutral
wire carries zero current.
Notice how the neutral wire is connected to
earth ground at the power supply end. This is a
common feature in power systems containing
neutral wires, since grounding the neutral wire
ensures the least possible voltage at any given
time between any hot wire and earth ground.
An essential component to a split phase power
system is the dual AC voltage source.
Fortunately, designing and building one is not
difficult. Since most AC systems receive their
power from a step down transformer anyway
(stepping voltage down from high distribution
levels to a user level voltage like 120 or 240),
that transformer can be built with a center
tapped secondary winding:
If the AC power comes directly from a generator

(alternator), the coils can be similarly center
tapped for the same effect. The extra expense
to include a center tap connection in a
transformer or alternator winding is minimal.
Here is where the (+) and (-) polarity markings
really become important. This notation is often
used to reference the phasings of multiple AC
voltage sources, so it is clear whether they are
aiding (boosting) each other or opposing
(bucking) each other. If not for these polarity
markings, phase relations between multiple AC
sources might be very confusing. Note that the
split phase sources in the schematic (each
one 1200 V), with polarity marks (+) to (-) just
like series-aiding batteries can alternatively be
represented as such:
To mathematically calculate voltage between

hot wires, we must subtract voltages, because
their polarity marks show them to be opposed to
each other:
1200
120180
2400
The term single phase is a counterpoint to

another kind of power system called polyphase.
Three Phase Power Systems
Split phase power systems achieve their high
conductor efficiency and low safety risk by
splitting up the total voltage into lesser parts and
powering multiple loads at those lesser voltages,
while drawing currents at levels typical of a full
voltage system. This technique, by the way,
works just as well for DC power systems as it
does for single phase AC systems. Such
systems are usually referred to as three wire
systems rather than split phase because
phase is a concept restricted to AC.
But from the experience in dealing with vectors
and complex numbers, AC voltages dont always
add up as they would if they are out of phase with
each other. This principle, applied to power
systems, can be put to use to make power
systems with even greater conductor efficiencies
and lower shock hazard than with split phase.
Suppose that two sources of AC voltage are
connected in series just like the split phase
system, except that each voltage source was
120 out of phase with the other:
120 + 0
(120 + 0)
240 + 0
If the two sources common connection point is

marked (the neutral wire) with the same polarity,
their relative phase shifts will be 180. Otherwise,
it is denoted with two voltage sources in direct
opposition with each other, which would give 0 V
between the two hot conductors.
Power
systems in American households and light
industry are most often of the split phase
variety, providing so called 120/240 VAC power.
The term split phase merely refers to the split
voltage supply in such a system. In a more
general sense, this kind of AC power supply is
called single phase because both voltage
waveforms are in phase, or in step, with each
other.
Since each voltage source is 120 V, and each

load resistor is connected directly in parallel with
its respective source, the voltage across each
load must be 120 V as well. Given load currents
of 83.33 A, each load must still be dissipating 10
kW of power. However, voltage between the two
hot wires is not 240 V (1200 120120)
because the phase difference between the two
sources is not 180.
Instead, the voltage is:
= (1200) (120120) = 207.85 30
Nominally, the voltage between hot

conductors is 208 volts (rounding up), and thus

the power system voltage is designated as
120/208.
The current through the neutral conductor will
not be zero, even with balanced load
resistances. Kirchhoffs Current Law tells us that
the currents entering and exiting the node
between the two loads must be zero:
1 2 = 0
= 1 + 2
= 1 2
= (83.330) (83.33120) = 83.33240
= 83.33 120
It is found out that the neutral wire is carrying a

full 83.33 A, just like each hot wire.
Note that 20 kW of total power are given to the
two loads, with each loads hot wire carrying
83.33 A as before. With the same amount of
current through each hot wire, the same gage
copper conductors is used, so the system cost
over the split phase 120/240 system is
reduced. However, a gain in safety is realized,
because the overall voltage between the two
hot conductors is 32 V lower than it was in the
split phase system (208 V instead of 240 V).
The fact that the neutral wire is carrying 83.33 A
of current raises an interesting possibility: since
its carrying current anyway, why not use that
third wire as another hot conductor, powering
another load resistor with a third 120 V source
having a phase angle of 240? That way, it could
transmit more power (another 10 kW) without
having to add any more conductors. Lets see
how this might look:
A full mathematical analysis of all the voltages

and currents in this circuit would necessitate the
use of a network theorem, the easiest being the
Superposition Theorem. Sure enough, there
would be 120 V across each load resistor, with
(approximately) 208 V between any two hot
conductors and conductor currents equal to 83.33
A. At that current and voltage, each load will be
dissipating 10 kW of power. Notice that this circuit
has no neutral conductor to ensure stable
voltage to all loads if one should open. This
situation is similar to our split phase power
circuit with no neutral conductor: if one load
should happen to fail open, the voltage drops
across the remaining load(s) will change. To
ensure load voltage stability in the event of
another load opening, a neutral wire is added to
connect the source node and load node together.
So long as the loads remain balanced (equal
resistance, equal currents), the neutral wire will
not carry any current at all. It is there just in case
one or more load resistors should fail open (or be
shut off through a disconnecting switch). This
circuit with three voltage sources is called a
polyphase circuit. Since the voltage sources are
all at different phase angles (in this case, three
different phase angles), this is a polyphase
circuit. More specifically, it is a three phase
circuit, the kind is used predominantly in large
power distribution systems.
A single phase system with three loads
connected directly in parallel would have a very
high total current (83.33 times 3, or 250 A).

This would necessitate 3/0 gage copper wire
(very large!), at about 510 pounds per thousand
feet, and with a considerable price tag attached.
If the distance from source to load was 1000 feet,
it would need over a half ton of copper wire to
do the job. On the other hand, a split phase
system with two 15 kW, 120 volt loads could be
design
The current is half of what it was with the simple

parallel circuit, which is a great improvement. It
could get away with using number 2 gage
copper wire at a total mass of about 600 pounds,
figuring about 200 pounds per thousand feet
with three runs of 1000 feet each between
source and loads. However, the increased
safety hazard of having 240 volts present in the
system, even though each load only receives
120 volts must be considered. Overall, there is
greater potential for dangerous electric shock to
occur. Contrasting the two examples against the
three phase system, the advantages are quite
clear. First, the conductor currents are quite a
bit less (83.33 amps versus 125 or 250 amps),
permitting the use of much thinner and lighter
wire. The use of number 4 gage wire at about
125 pounds per thousand feet, which will total
500 pounds (four runs of 1000 feet each) for the
example circuit. This represents a significant
cost savings over the split phase system, with
the additional benefit that the maximum voltage
in the system is lower (208 versus 240).
One question remains to be answered: how in
the world do we get three AC voltage sources
whose phase angles are exactly 120 apart?
Obviously you cant center tap a transformer
or alternator winding like in the split phase
system, since that can only give voltage
waveforms that are either in phase or 180 out
of phase. Perhaps, the use of capacitors and

inductors to create phase shifts of 120 could be
considered, but then those phase shifts would
depend on the phase angles of the load
impedances (substituting a capacitive or
inductive load for a resistive load would change
everything!).
The best way to get the phase shifts is to
generate it at the source: construct the AC
generator (alternator) providing the power in
such a way that the rotating magnetic field
passes by three sets of wire windings, each set
spaced 120 apart around the circumference of
the machine:
Together, the six pole windings of a three

phase alternator are connected to comprise three
winding pairs, each pair producing AC voltage
with a phase angle 120 shifted from either of the
other two winding pairs. The interconnections
between pairs of windings (as shown for the
single phase alternator: the jumper wire
between windings 1a and 1b) have been omitted
from the three phase alternator drawing for
simplicity.
In the example circuit, the three voltage sources
connected together in a Y configuration
(sometimes called the star or T configuration),
with one lead of each source tied to a common
point (the node where the neutral conductor is
attached). The common way to depict this
connection scheme is to draw the windings in the
shape of a Y.
Phase Rotation
The phase angle shift of 120 is a function of the
actual rotational angle shift of the three pairs of
windings.
If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will

generate its peak instantaneous voltage exactly
120 (of alternator shaft rotation) after winding 2,
which will hits its peak 120 after winding 1. The
magnet passes by each pole pair at different
positions in the rotational movement of the shaft.
Where we decide to place the windings will
dictate the amount of phase shift between the
windings AC voltage waveforms. If we make
winding 1 our reference voltage source for
phase angle (0), then winding 2 will have a
phase angle of - 120 (120 lagging, or 240
leading) and winding 3 an angle of - 240 (or 120
leading). This sequence of phase shifts has a
definite order. For clockwise rotation of the shaft,
the order is 1 2 3 (winding 1 peaks first, then
winding 2, then winding 3). This order keeps
repeating itself as long as we continue to rotate
the alternators shaft.
However, if we reverse the rotation of the
alternators shaft (turn it counterclockwise), the
magnet will pass by the pole pairs in the
opposite sequence. Instead of 1 2 3, well
have 3 2 1. Now, winding 2s waveform will
be leading 120 ahead of 1 instead of lagging,
and 3 will be another 120 ahead of 2.
The order of voltage waveform sequences in a

polyphase system is called phase rotation,
phase sequence or phase order. If were using
a polyphase voltage source to power resistive
loads, phase rotation will make no difference at
all. Whether 1 2 3 or 3 2 1, the voltage
and current magnitudes will all be the same.
Since voltmeters and ammeters would be
useless in telling us what the phase rotation of
an operating power system is, we need to have
some other kind of instrument capable of doing
the job. One ingenious circuit design uses a
capacitor to introduce a phase shift between
voltage and current, which is then used to detect
the sequence by way of comparison between
the brightness of two indicator lamps.
The two lamps are of equal filament resistance

and wattage. The capacitor is sized to have
approximately the same amount of reactance at
system frequency as each lamps resistance. If
the capacitor were to be replaced by a resistor of
equal value to the lamps resistance, the two
lamps would glow at equal brightness, the circuit
being balanced. However, the capacitor
introduces a phase shift between voltage and
current in the third leg of the circuit equal to 90.
This phase shift, greater than 0 but less than
120, skews the voltage and current values
across the two lamps according to their phase
shifts relative to phase 3.
Starting out with a phase rotation of 3-2-1, we can
try all the possibilities for swapping any two of the

wires at a time and see what happens to the
resulting sequence:
No matter which pair of hot wires out of the three

we choose to swap, the phase rotation ends up
being reversed (1 2 3 gets changed to 2 1
3, 1 3 2 or 3 2 1, all equivalent).
The three phases may be numbered 1, 2, 3 or a,
b, c or as is customary, they may be given three
colors. The colors used commercially are red,
yellow (or sometimes white) and blue.
If the rotating magnet is able to keep up with the

frequency of the alternating current energizing
the electromagnet windings (coils), it will
continue to be pulled around clockwise.
However, clockwise is not the only valid
direction for this motors shaft to spin. It could
just as easily be powered in a counter
clockwise direction by the same AC voltage
waveform.
1. Positive Sequence (ABC Sequence)

120
30
30
2. Negative Sequence (ACB Sequence)
120
30
30
NOTE: If the phase sequence is not given, you
can use the positive phase sequence.
Alternators are designed to operate with positive
sequence voltage.
Polyphase Motor Design
Perhaps the most important benefit of
polyphase AC power over single phase is the
design and operation of AC motors.
Notice that with the exact same sequence of

polarity cycles (voltage, current, and magnetic
poles produced by the coils), the magnetic rotor
can spin in either direction. This is a common
trait of all single phase AC induction and
synchronous motors: they have no normal or
correct direction of rotation. The natural
question should arise at this point: how can the
motor get started in the intended direction if it
can run either way just as well? The answer is
that these motors need a little help getting
started. Once helped to spin in a particular
direction, it will continue to spin that way as long
as AC power is maintained to the windings.
Where that help comes from for a single phase
AC motor to get going in one direction can vary.

Usually, it comes from an additional set of
windings positioned differently from the main set,
and energized with an AC voltage that is out of
phase with the main power.
These supplementary coils are typically

connected in series with a capacitor to introduce
a phase shift in current between the two sets of
windings.
That phase shift creates magnetic fields from

coils 2a and 2b that are equally out of step with
the fields from coils 1a and 1b. The result is a set
of magnetic fields with a definite phase rotation. It
is this phase rotation that pulls the rotating
magnet around in a definite direction.
Polyphase AC motors require no such trickery to
spin in a definite direction. Because their supply
voltage waveforms already have a definite
rotation sequence, so do the respective magnetic
fields generated by the motors stationary
windings. In fact, the combination of all three
phase winding sets working together creates
what is often called a rotating magnetic field. It
was this concept of a rotating magnetic field that
inspired Nikola Tesla to design the worlds first
polyphase electrical systems. The line current
and safety advantages of polyphase power over
single phase power were discovered later. What
can be a confusing concept is made much clearer
through analogy. Have you ever seen a row of

blinking light bulbs such as the kind used in
Christmas decorations? Some strings appear to
move in a definite direction as the bulbs
alternately glow and darken in sequence. Other
strings just blink on and off with no apparent
motion. What makes the difference between the
two types of bulb strings? Answer: phase shift!
Examine a string of lights where every other bulb
is lit at any given time
When all of the 1 bulbs are lit, the 2 bulbs are

dark, and vice versa. With this blinking
sequence, there is no definite motion to the
bulbs light. Your eyes could follow a motion
from left to right just as easily as from right to
left. Technically, the 1 and 2 bulb blinking
sequences are 180 out of phase (exactly
opposite each other). This is analogous to the
single phase AC motor, which can run just as
easily in either direction, but which cannot start
on its own because its magnetic field alternation
lacks a definite rotation.
Now lets examine a string of lights where there
are three sets of bulbs to be sequenced instead
of just two, and these three sets are equally out
of phase with each other.
If the lighting sequence is 1 2 3, the bulbs

will appear to move from left to right. Now
imagine this blinking string of bulbs arranged
into a circle.
Now the lights appear to be moving in a

clockwise direction because they are arranged
around a circle instead of a straight line. It should
come as no surprise that the appearance of
motion will reverse if the phase sequence of the
bulbs is reversed.
The blinking pattern will either appear to move
clockwise or counter clockwise depending on
the phase sequence. This is analogous to a three
phase AC motor with three sets of windings
energized by voltage sources of three different
phase shifts.
With phase shifts of less than 180 we get true

rotation of the magnetic field. With single phase
motors, the rotating magnetic field necessary for
self starting must to be created by way of
capacitive phase shift. With polyphase motors,
the necessary phase shifts are there already.
Plus, the direction of shaft rotation for polyphase
motors is very easily reversed: just swap any two
hot wires going to the motor, and it will run in the
opposite direction!
Two phase System
Two phase electrical power was an early 20th

century polyphase alternating current electric
power
distribution
system.
Two circuits
were used,
with voltage
phases
differing by one quarter
of a cycle, 90. Usually circuits used four wires,
two for each phase. Less frequently, three wires
were used, with a common wire with a largerdiameter conductor. Some early two phase
generators had two complete rotor and field
assemblies, with windings physically offset to
provide two phase power. The generators at
Niagara Falls installed in 1895 were the largest
generators in the world at that time and were two
phase electric machines. As of 21st century, two
phase power was superseded with three
phases and is not used in the industry. There
remains, however, a two phase commercial
distribution system in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania;
many buildings in city center are permanently
wired for two phase and PECO (the local
electric utility company) has continued the
service. Three phase Y and Delta Configuration
Initially, the idea of three phase power systems
is by connecting three voltage sources together in
what is commonly known as the Y (or star)
configuration. This configuration of voltage
sources is characterized by a common
connection point joining one side of each source.
If a circuit is drawn showing each voltage source

to be a coil of wire (alternator or transformer

winding) and do some slight rearranging, the Y
configuration becomes more obvious.
The three conductors leading away from the

voltage sources (windings) toward a load are
typically called lines, while the windings
themselves are typically called phases. In a Y
connected system, there may or may not be a
neutral wire attached at the junction point in the
middle, although it certainly helps alleviate
potential problems should one element of a
three phase load fail open.
When we measure voltage and current in threephase systems, we need to be specific as to

where were measuring. Line voltage refers to the
amount of voltage measured between any two
line conductors in a balanced three phase
system. With the above circuit, the line voltage is
roughly 208 volts. Phase voltage refers to the
voltage measured across any one component
(source winding or load impedance) in a balanced
three phase source or load. For the circuit
shown above, the phase voltage is 120 volts. The
terms line current and phase current follow the
same logic: the former referring to current through
any one line conductor, and the latter to current
through any one component.
Y connected sources and loads always have
line voltages greater than phase voltages, and
line currents equal to phase currents. If the Y
connected source or load is balanced, the line
voltage will be equal to the phase voltage times

the square root of 3:
However, the Y configuration is not the only

valid one for connecting three phase voltage
source or load elements together. Another
configuration is known as the Delta, for its
geometric resemblance to the Greek letter of the
same name ().
At first glance it seems as though three voltage

sources like this would create a short circuit,
electrons flowing around the triangle with nothing
but the internal impedance of the windings to hold
them back. Due to the phase angles of these
three voltage sources, however, this is not the
case. One quick check of this is to use Kirchhoffs
Voltage Law to see if the three voltages around
the loop add up to zero. If they do, then there will
be no voltage available to push current around
and around that loop, and consequently there will
be no circulating current. Starting with the top
winding and progressing counter clockwise, our
KVL expression looks something like this:
1200 + 120240 + 120120 = 0
Another way to verify the fact that these three
voltage sources can be connected together in a
loop without resulting in circulating currents is to
1
0

open up the loop at one junction point and
calculate voltage across the break:
Perhaps the greatest advantage of the connected source is its fault tolerance. It is
possible for one of the windings in a - connected
three phase source to fail open without affecting
load voltage or current!
Starting with the right winding (120 V 120) and

progressing counter clockwise, our KVL
equation looks like this:
The only consequence of a source winding failing

open for a - connected source is increased
phase current in the remaining windings.
Compare this fault tolerance with a Y connected
system suffering an open source winding.
120120 + 1200 + 120240 + = 0

0 + = 0
= 0
Having established that a - connected three
phase voltage source will not burn itself to a
crisp due to circulating currents, its practical use
as a source of power in three phase circuits
can be defined. Because each pair of line
conductors is connected directly across a single
winding in a circuit, the line voltage will be
equal to the phase voltage. Conversely,
because each line conductor attaches at a node
between two windings, the line current will be
the vector sum of the two joining phase currents.
Not surprisingly, the resulting equations for a
configuration are as follows:
One distinct advantage of a - connected system

is its lack of a neutral wire. With a Y connected
system, a neutral wire was needed in case one of
the phase loads were to fail open (or be turned
off), in order to keep the phase voltages at the
load from changing. This is not necessary (or
even possible!) in a - connected circuit. With
each load phase element directly connected
across a respective source phase winding, the
phase voltage will be constant regardless of open
failures in the load elements.
With a - connected load, two of the resistances

suffer reduced voltage while one remains at the
original line voltage, 208. A Y connected load
suffers an even worse fate with the same winding
failure in a Y connected source.
In this case, two load resistances suffer reduced

voltage while the third loses supply voltage
completely! For this reason, - connected
sources are preferred for reliability. However, if
dual voltages are needed (e.g. 120/208) or
preferred for lower line currents, Y connected
systems are the configuration of choice.
Three phase transformer circuits
Since three phase is used so often for power
distribution systems, it makes sense that a three
phase transformers is needed to be able to
1
1

step voltages up or down. This is only partially
true, as regular single phase transformers can
be ganged together to transform power between
two three phase systems in a variety of
configurations, eliminating the requirement for a
special three phase transformer. However,
special three phase transformers are built for
those tasks, and are able to perform with less
material requirement, less size, and less weight
than their modular counterparts.
A three phase transformer is made of three
sets of primary and secondary windings, each
set wound around one leg of an iron core
assembly. Essentially it looks like three single
phase transformers sharing a joined core.
Those sets of primary and secondary windings

will be connected in either or Y configurations
to form a complete unit.
Whether the winding sets share a common core
assembly or each winding pair is a separate
transformer, the winding connection options are
the same:
Primary
Secondary
Y
Probably the most important aspect of connecting

three sets of primary and secondary windings
together to form a three phase transformer bank
is paying attention to proper winding phasing (the
dots used to denote polarity of windings).
Getting this phasing correct when the windings

arent shown in regular Y or configuration can
be tricky. Three individual transformers are to be
connected together to transform power from one
three phase system to another. First, the wiring
connections for a Y Y configuration:
Note how all the winding ends marked with dots

are connected to their respective phases A, B,
and C, while the non dot ends are connected
together to form the centers of each Y. Having
both primary and secondary winding sets
connected in Y formations allows for the use of
neutral conductors (N1 and N2) in each power
system. Now for a Y - configuration:
The reasons for choosing a Y or configuration

for transformer winding connections are the
same as for any other three phase application:
Y connections provide the opportunity for
multiple voltages, while connections enjoy a
higher level of reliability (if one winding fails
open, the other two can still maintain full line
voltages to the load).
Note how the secondary windings are connected

in a chain, the dot side of one winding connected
1
2

to the non dot side of the next, forming the
loop. At every connection point between pairs of
windings, a connection is made to a line of the
second power system (A, B, and C). Now for a
- Y system:
Such a configuration would allow for the

provision of multiple voltages (line to line or
line to neutral) in the second power system,
from a source power system having no neutral.
And finally, for a - configuration:
When there is no need for a neutral conductor

in the secondary power system, -
connection schemes are preferred because of
the inherent reliability of the configuration.
Considering that a configuration can operate
satisfactorily missing one winding, some power
system designers choose to create a three
phase transformer bank with only two
transformers, representing a - configuration
with a missing winding in both the primary and
secondary sides:
This configuration is called V or Open . Of

course, each of the two transformers have to be
oversized to handle the same amount of power as
three in a standard configuration, but the overall
size, weight, and cost advantages are often worth
it. Bear in mind, however, that with one winding
set missing from the shape, this system no
longer provides the fault tolerance of a normal system. If one of the two transformers were to
fail, the load voltage and current would definitely
be affected. Advantages of Polyphase Systems
1. A polyphase transmission line requires less
conductor material than a single phase line
for transmitting the same amount of power at
the same voltage.
2. For a given frame size a polyphase machine
gives a higher input than a single phase
machine. For example, output of a 3 phase
motor is 1.5 times the output of a single phase
motor of the same size.
3. Polyphase motors have a uniform torque
where most of the single phase motor have a
pulsating torque.
4. Polyphase induction motors are self starting
and are more efficient. On the other hand,
single phase induction motors are not self
starting and are less efficient.
5. Per unit of output, the polyphase machine is
very much cheaper.
6. Power factor of a single phase motor is
lower than that of polyphase motor of the
same rating.
7. Rotating field can be set up by passing
polyphase current through stationary coils.
1
3

8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is
simple as compared to that of single phase
alternators because of pulsating reaction in
single phase alternator.
Advantages of Three Phase AC Power Systems
to Single Phase AC Power Systems
1. It is possible to get more power per kilogram
of metal from a three phase machine
2. The power delivered to a three phase load is
constant all the times
3. Three phase systems can use the service of
induction motors easier by allowing them to
start without auxiliary starting windings
4. Two voltages are available
5. Three phase motors are very robust,
relatively cheap, and generally smaller, have
self starting properties, provide a steadier
output and require little maintenance
compared with single phase motors.
Multiphase Systems
Three phase system is universally used.
However, attention has been given in recent
years to the use of more than three phases for
power transmission purposes. In particular, six
and twelve phase systems have been studied.
Advantage of six and twelve phase systems
relative to three phase systems are as follows:
1. Thermal loading capacity of lines is more.
2. Corona effects is less because for a given
conductor size and tower configuration the
stress on the conductor surface decreases
with the number of phases.
3. The higher the numner of phases, the
smaller the line to line voltage becomes
relative to the phase voltage, resulting in
increased utilization of rights of way
because of less phase to phase
insulation requirement.
4. Exisitng double circuit lines (two three
phase circuits on each tower) could be
converted to single circuit six phase lines.
It is always advantageous to describe
multiphase systems in terms of the phase
voltage rather than line to line, as in the
case for three phase systems. The

transmission efficiency is higher.
A six phase supply can be obtained by
suitable arrangement of the secondary windings
of a three phase transformer. The figure shows
the transformer connections and phasor
diagram.
Balanced Three Phase Circuit

The magnitude of the line currents are the same
and they have 120 phase difference.
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude
and are out of phase with each other by 120.
A balanced load is one in which the phase
impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.
A balanced Y Y system is a three phase
system with a balanced Y connected source
and a balanced Y connected load.
= 0
= + + = 0 =
120
= 120
+ + = 0 =

=
= 3
=
A balanced - system is one in which both the
balanced source and balanced load are connected.
= 0
1
4

NOTE: To Analyze Delta Connected system
using one line equivalent circuits, it is first
transformed into an equivalent wye connected
load making used off:
Comparison of Star and Delta Connections

1. Loads connected in delta dissipate three
times more power than when connected in
star to the same supply.
2. For the same power, the phase currents
must be the same for both delta and star
connections (since
), hence
the line current in the delta connected
system is greater than the line current in the
corresponding star connected system. To
achieve the same phase current in a star
connected system as in a delta connected
system, the line voltage in the star system is
3 times the line voltage in the delta system.
Thus for a given power transfer, a delta system
is associated with larger line currents (and thus
larger conductor cross sectional area) and a
star system is associated with a larger line
voltage (and thus greater insulation). A balanced
- Y system consist of a balanced - connected
source feeding a balanced Y connected load.
A balanced Y - system consist of a balanced Y
connected source feeding a balanced connected load.
1
5

BALANCED 3 phase EQUATIONS
where:
angle between VP & IP

Power Factor Improvement
The power factor of different loads are as follows:
Types of load
Power
factor
(range)
Heating and Lighting
Motor loads
Single phase motors
0.95 to unity
0.5 to 0.9
as low as 0.4
Electric welding units

0.2 to 0.3
The higher current due to poor power factor
affects the system and lead to the following
undesirable results:
1. Rating of alternators and transformers are
proportional to their output current hence
inversely proportional to power factor,
therefore large generators and transformers
are required to deliver same load but at a low
power factor.
2. When a load having a low lagging power is
switched on, there is a large voltage drop in
the supply voltage because of the increased
voltage drop in the supply lines and
transformers. This drop in voltage adversely
affects the starting torque of motors and
necessitates expensive voltage stabilizing
equipment for keeping the consumers
voltage fluctuations within the statutory limits.
3. The cross sectional are of the bus bar, and
the contact surface of switch gear is required
to be enlarged for the same power to be
deliverd but at a low power factor.
4. To transmit same power at low power factor,

more current will have to be carried by the
transmission line or the distributor or cable. If
the current density in the line is to be kept
constant the size of the conductor will have to
be increased. Thus more copper is required
to deliver the same load but at a low power
factor.
5. Copper losess are proportional to the square
of the current hence inversely proportional to
the square of the power factor, more copper
losses at low power factor and hence poor
efficiency.
Thus, the capital cost of transformers, alternators,
distributors, transmission lines increase with low
power factor.
Cause of Low Power Factor
1. All AC motors (except overexcoted
synchronous motors and certain types of
commutators motors) and transformers
operate at lagging power factor.
2. Due to typical characteristic of the arc, arc
lamps operate at low power factor.
3. When there is increase in supply voltage,
which usually occurs during low load periods
(such as lunch hours, night hours etc.), the
magnetizing current of inductive reactances
increases and power factor of the electrical
plant as a whole decreases.
4. Arc and induction furnaces operate at a very
low lagging power factor.
5. Due to improper maintenance and repairs of
motor the power factor at which motors
operate fall.
6. Very low lagging power factor of agriculture
motor pump set.
Methods of Improving Power Factor
1. Use of high power factor motors.
2. Use of induction motors with phase
advancers.
3. Use of static capacitors.
4. Use of capacitance boosters.
5. Use of synchronous condensers.
EARTHING AND GROUNDING
1
6

The process of connecting the neutral point
of a supply system on the non concurrent
carrying parts of electrical apparatus to the
general mass of earth in such a manner that
at all times and immediate discharge of
electrical energy takes place without danger
is called earthing. It also means connecting
earth terminals to electrodes installed
solidly in the mass of earth. It is also a wire
coming from the ground 2.5 to 3 meters
deep from an electrode (plate).
The earths potential is always taken as zero
for all practical purposes. The electrical
appliances or machines when connected
with earth attain zero potential and are said
to be earthed.
Good earthing is that earthing which gives
very low resistance to the flow of heavy
current (short circuit current) of a circuit.
Double earth is used to give minimum
resistance to the flow of whole current of the
apparatus in case short circuit to leakage or
any other such fault occurs. Second reason
is, if one earth is out of order, second will do
the work.
The earth resistance for coper wire is 1
and for GU wire it should not be more than
3 .
The earth resistance should be kept as low
as possible.
Objectives of Earthing
1. To save human life from danger or shock or
death by blowing fuse of any apparatus which
become leaky.
2. To protect all machines fed from overhead
lines from lightning arrestors.
3. To protect large buildings from atmospheric
lightning.
4. To maintain line voltage constant (since
neutral of every alternator, transformer is
earthed).
Methods of Earthing
1. Strip or wire earthing
2. Earthing through water mains
3. Rod earthing
4. Pipe earthing
5. Plate earthing
Earthing of a Power System
Earthing of neutrals of all industrial power
systems is always preferable. Earthing is
necessary as it offers many advantages:
1. Persistent arcing ground is eliminated.
2. Over voltage due to restriking is minimized.
3. The ground faults can be located an isolated
immediately.
4. Steady state voltage stress to earth is
reduced.
5. Sensitive protective apparatus can be used.
6. The maintenance expenditure is reduced.
7. Better safety is ensured.
8. Service reliability is improved.
9. Earthing
provides
improved
lightning
protection. The earthing of systems should be
done at the neutral of the supply transformers
and generators. If the supply transformers
and generators are delta connected, separate
earthing transformers may be used.
Examples:
1. If Vab = 400 V in a balanced Y connected
three phase generator, find the phase
voltages, assuming the phase sequence is: a.
abc
b. acb
2. Given that the line voltages of a three phase
circuit are
= 4200
= 420 120
= 420120
Find the phase voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn.
3. A balanced Y connected load with a phase
impedance of 16+j9 is connected to a
balanced three phase source with a line
voltage of 220 V. Calculate the line current IL.
4. A balanced Y Y four wire system has phase
voltages
= 1200
= 120 120
= 120120
1
7

The load impedance per phase is 19+j13
and the line impedance per phase is 1+j2 .
Solve for the line currents and neutral current.
5. In a wye delta three phase circuit, the
source is a balanced, positive phase
sequence with = 1200 . It feeds a
balanced load with = 9 +
12 per phase through a balanced line with
=
1 + 0.5 per phase. Calculate the phase
voltages and currents in the load.
6. A balanced delta connected load has a
phase current = 1030 A.
a. Determine the three line currents
assuming that the circuit operates in the
positive phase sequence.
b. Calculate the load impedance if the line
voltage is = 1100 V.
7. A balanced delta connected source has
phase voltage = 41630 V and a positive
phase sequence. If this is connected to a
balanced delta connected load, find the line
and phase currents. Take the load impedance
per phase as 6030 and line impedance
per phase as 1+j1 .
8. Three loads, each of resistance 50 are
connected in star to a 400V, 3 phase supply.
Determine (a) the phase voltage, (b) the
phase current and (c) the line current.
9. A star connected load consists of three
identical coils, each of inductance 159.2mH
and resistance 50 . If the supply frequency
is 50 Hz and the line current is 3A determine
(a) the phase voltage and (b) the line voltage.
10. Three identical capacitors are connected in
star to a 400V, 50 Hz 3 phase supply. If the
line current is 12 A determine the capacitance
of each of the capacitors.
11. Three coils each having resistance 6 and
inductance LH are connected in star to a
415V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply. If the line
current is 30A, find the value of L.
12. A 400V, 3 phase, 4 wire, star connected
system supplies three resistive loads of
15kW, 20kW and 25kW in the red, yellow and
blue phases respectively. Determine the

current flowing in each of the four conductors.
13. In a balanced three phase - Y circuit, the
source is connected in the positive sequence,
with =
22020 V and = 20 + 15 . Find the line
currents.
14. Three 24 F capacitors are connected in star
across a 400V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply. What
value of capacitance must be connected in
delta in order to take the same line current?
15. A 3 phase, star connected alternator
delivers a line current of 65 A to a balanced
delta connected load at a line voltage of
380V. Calculate (a) the phase voltage of the
alternator, (b) the alternator phase current
and (c) the load phase current.
16. Three inductive loads each of resistance 75
and inductance 318.4mH are connected in
delta to a 415V,
50 Hz, 3 phase supply. Determine (a) the
phase voltage, (b) the phase current, and (c)
the line current.
17. A delta connected generator supplies a
balanced wye connected load with and
impedance 30 60 . If the line voltages of
the generator have a magnitude of 400 V and
are in the positive phase sequence, find the
line currents IL and phase voltage Vp at the
load.
18. A balanced wye connected load absorbs a
total power of 5 kW at a leading power factor
of 0.6 when connected to a line voltage of 240
V. find the impedance of each phase and total
complex power of the load.
19. A balanced delta connected load is supplied
by a 60 Hz three phase source with a line
voltage of 240 V. Each load phase draws 6
kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find:
a. The load impedance per phase
b. The line current
c. The value of capacitor needed to be
connected in parallel with each load to
minimize the current from the source
1
8

20. A 4200 V, three phase transmission line has
an impedance of 4+j1 per phase. If it is
supplies a load of 1 MVA at 0.75 power factor
lagging. Find: a. The complex power
b. The power loss in the line
c. The voltage at the sending end
21. The following three parallel connected three
phase loads are fed by a balanced three
phase source. Load 1: 250 kVA, 0.8 pf lagging
Load 2: 300 kVA, 0.95 pf leading
Load 3: 450 kVA, unity pf
If the line voltage is 13.8 kV, calculate the line
current and the power factor of the source.
Assume that the line impedance is zero.
22. A three phase generator supplied 3.6 kVA
at a power factor of 0.85 lagging. If 2500 W
are delivered to the load and line losses are
80 W per phase, what are the losses in the
generator?
23. Determine the total power dissipated by three
20 resistors when connected (a) in star and
(b) in delta to a 440V, 3 phase supply.
24. A balanced delta connected load has a line
voltage of 400V, a line current of 8 A and a
lagging power factor of 0.94. Draw a complete
phasor diagram of the load. What is the total
power dissipated by the load?
25. Three inductive loads, each of resistance 4
and reactance 9 are connected in delta.
When connected to a 3 phase supply the
loads consume 1.2kW.
Calculate (a) the power factor of the load, (b)
the phase current, (c) the line current and (d)
the supply voltage.
26. The input voltage, current and power to a
motor is measured as 415 V, 16.4 A and 6k
W respectively. Determine the power factor of
the system.
27. A 440V, 3 phase ac motor has a power
output of 11.25kW and operates at a power
factor of 0.8 lagging and with an efficiency of
84 percent. If the motor is delta connected
determine (a) the power input, (b) the line
current and (c) the phase current.
28. A three phase 440 V, 51 kW, 60 kVA

inductive load operates at 60 Hz and is wye
connected. It is desired to correct the power
factor to 0.95 lagging. What value of capacitor
should be placed in parallel with each load
impedance?
29. A 3 phase, star connected alternator
supplies a delta connected load, each phase
of which has a resistance of 15 and
inductive reactance 20 . If the line voltage is
400V, calculate (a) the current supplied by the
alternator and (b) the output power and kVA
rating of the alternator, neglecting any losses
in the line between the alternator and the
load.
30. Each phase of a delta connected load
comprises a resistance of 40 and a 40F
capacitor in series. Determine, when
connected to a 415V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply
(a) the phase current, (b) the line current, (c)
the total power dissipated, and (d) the kVA
rating of the load.
31. A professional center is supplied by a
balanced three phase source. The center
has four balanced three phase loads as
follows: Load 1: 150 kVA at 0.8 pf leading
Load 2: 100 kW at unity pf
Load 3: 200 kVA at 0.6 pf lagging
Load 4: 80 kW and 95 kVAR (inductive) If
the line impedance is 0.02+j0.05 per
phase and the line voltage at the loads is
480 V, find the magnitude of the line voltage
at the source.
32. A commercially available three phase
inductive motor operates at full load of 120 hp
(1 hp = 746 W) at 95 percent efficiency at a
lagging power factor of 0.707. The motor is
connected in parallel to a 80 kW balanced
three phase heater at unity power factor. If
the magnitude of the line voltage is 480 V rms,
calculate the line current.
33. Calculate the total power when three identical
resistances each of 10 are connected wye
when connected across 220 V, 3 phase, 60
Hz source.
1
9

34. Three identical resistances in star consume
2000 W. If the resistances are connected in
delta across the same supply, what is the
power consumed.
35. Three 50 resistance are connected in wye
across 220 V, 3 phase supply. What is the
equivalent delta connected resistance?
36. Three identical resistance connected in wye
carry a line current of 18 A. If the same
resistances are connected in delta across the
same supply, what is the line current?
37. The apparent power input to a balanced wye
connected load is 30 kVA and the
corresponding true power is 15 kW at 45.45
A. What is the phase voltage?
38. Three star connected impedances, Z1 = 12 +
j16 /phase are connected in parallel with 3
delta connected impedances, Z2 = 30 j45
/phase. The line voltage is 480 V. What is
the line current?
39. The phase b line voltage and phase a line
current of a balanced three phase system are
V = 220 sin (wt + 210) V and I = 10 sin (wt
30) A respectively. What is the power of the
system?
40. The three phase line has an impedance of 2
+ j4 . The line feeds two balanced three
phase loads that are connected in parallel.
The first load is Y connected and has an
impedance of 30 + j40 /phase. The second
load is delta connected and has an
impedance of 60 j45 /phase. The line is
energized at the sending end from a balanced
3 phase supply of line voltage 207.85 V.
Taking the voltage Van as reference
determine:
a. The current, real power and reactive
power drawn
from the supply
b. The line voltage at combined loads
c. The current per phase in each load
d. The real and reactive powers in each load
and the line
UNBALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced

voltage sources or an unbalanced load.
NOTE: Unbalanced three phase systems are
solved by direct application of mesh and nodal
analysis.
Unbalanced Three Phase Systems
Y Y System
Case 1: If Zneutral is considered zero, each

individual phase current can be independently
determined from the supply voltage in that phase
and the impedance of that phase.
Case 2: If there is a neutral impedance, then

using Millmanns theorem, we will first have to
determine the voltage of the star point of the
load with respect to the supply neutral.
Another way of solving this case is by Nodal

Analysis. Using the neutral as a node. The nodal
equation would be:
2
0

Using Mesh Analysis:
1( + + + + + )
+ 2( + + ) = 0
Case 3: If the system is a 3 wire system, rather

than a 4 wire system, the analysis is the same
as if Zneutral were (i.e. 1/Zneutral = 0). Thus again
Millmanns theorem is used to determine VSN
and the load currents are then determined.
+ 1( + + )
+ 2( + + + +
+ ) = 0
Phase Currents:
= 1 3
= 2 3
= 3
Line Currents:
=
=
=
Phase Voltages (LOAD): () =

() =
() =
- System
= , = , =
Another way of solving this problem is by mesh

analysis:
1( + + + + + )
+ 2( + + ) = 0
+ 1( + + )
+ 2( + + + +
+ ) = 0
= 1, = 2 1; = 2
= , = , =
= + +
NOTE: Converting a Y - and - Y Systems to

a Y Y System is possible. Just remember that it
falls as Case 3 for a Y Y system. The same
also applies in converting a Y - and - Y
Systems to a system.
Y - System
By Using Mesh Analysis:

= 1( + 2 + ) 2() 3()
= 1() + 2( + 2 + ) 3()
0 = 1() 2() + 3( + + )
Phase Currents: = 1 3, = 2 3, = 3
Line Currents:
=
=
=
Phase Voltages (LOAD): () =

() =
() =
- Y System
2
1

Using Mesh Analysis:
1( + + + + + )
+ 2( + + ) = 0
+ 1( + + )
+ 2( + + + +
R, Y and B lines respectively. The phase

sequence is RYB. Calculate the voltage
across each resistor.
4. A Y connected load is supplied from a 400
V, 3 phase, 3 wire symmetrical system
RYB. The branch circuit impedances are
+ ) = 0
Phase/Line Currents: = 1, = 2 1; = 2
= + +
Load Voltages:
=
=
=
Unbalanced Wye Loads

Unbalanced four wire Y systems without line
impedance are easily handled using Ohms law.
However, for three wire systems or four wire
systems with line and neutral impedance, you
generally have to use mesh equations or
computer methods. One of the problems with
unbalanced three wire Y systems is that you
get different voltages across each phase of the
load and a voltage between neutral points.
Unbalanced Delta Loads
Systems without line impedance are easily
handled since the source voltage is applied
directly to the load. However, for systems with
line impedance, use mesh equations.
EXAMPLES:
1. A 3 phase, 3 wire, 240 V, CBA system

supplies a delta connected load in which ZAB
= 2590, ZBC = 1530 and ZCA = 200 .
Find the line currents and total power.
2. A 3 phase, 4 wire, 380 V supply is
connected to an unbalanced load having
phase impedances of ZR = (8 + j6) , ZY = (8
j6) and ZB = 5 . Impedance of the neutral
wire is ZN = (0.5 + j1) . Ignoring the
impedances of line wires and internal
impedances of
the emf sources, find the phase currents and
voltages of the load.
3. A 300 V (line) 3 phase supply feeds a star
connected load consisting of non inductive
resistors of 15, 6 and 10 connected to the
Determine the current in each branch. Phase

sequence is RYB.
5. Three non inductive resistances of 5, 10 and
15 are connected in star and supplied from
a 230 V symmetrical 3 phase system.
Calculate the line currents (magnitudes).
6. A 3 phase, 4 wire, 400 V symmetrical
system supplies a Y connected load having
the following branch impedances:
= 100 , = 10 = 10
Compute the values of load phase voltages
and currents and neutral current. Phase
sequence is RYB. How will these values
change in the event of an open in the neutral
wire?
7. A delta connected load whose phase
impedances are = 50 , = 50 , and
= 50 is fed by a balanced wye
connected three phase source with = 100
. Find the phase currents.
8. A balanced three phase wye connected
generator with = 220 supplies an
unbalanced wye connected load with =
60 + 80 , =
100 120 , and = 30 + 40 . Find the
total complex power absorbed by the load.
9. In an unbalanced wye system, the phase
voltages are:
= 132 0
= 130 235
= 133 117 What
is the voltage at line a, b and c?
10. For the given circuit, Rab = 60 , Zbc = 80 +
j60 . Compute for (a) Phase and line
currents. (b) Power to each phase and total
power.
2
2
11. For the given circuit, compute the following:

(a) Line currents, magnitudes and angles. (b)
The neutral current.
12. Three impedances, ZR, ZY and ZB are

connected in star across a 440 V, 3 phase
supply. If the voltage of star point relative to
the supply neutral is 200150 V and Y and B
line currents are 10-90 and 2090 A
respectively, all with respect to the voltage
between the supply neutral and the R line,
calculate the values of
ZR, ZY and ZB.
Power System Loads
The single phase
and three phase
loads
must
be
connected in the
three
phase system as
accurate as possible
(This is necessary
because residential
and business customers require only single
phase power, while industrial customers
sometimes require both single phase and three
phase power.). Two points should be noted
here:
1. In order to approximately balance the
system, the utility tries to connect one third
of its single phase loads to each phase.
Three phase loads generally are

balanced.
2. Real loads are seldom expressed in terms
of resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
Instead, they are described in terms of
power, power factor, and so on. This is
because most loads consist of electric
lights, motors, and the like which are never
described in terms of impedance. (For
example, you purchase light bulbs as 60 W
bulbs, 100 W bulbs, etc., and electric motors
as horsepower, etc. You never ask for a
240 light!)
POWER MEASUREMENTS IN 3 PHASE
SYSTEMS For balanced systems:
1. One wattmeter method used to measure the
total balanced three phase power using one
wattmeter only.
If delta connected:
=
If star connected:
=
=
Methods used
a. Potential lead shift method the current coil

of one wattmeter is inserted in one line, say
line a and one of the other is shifted to line 2
and to line 3 for another reading.
= +
b. Artificial neutral method if three
resistances are connected in star across the
lines of a 3 phase source, its neutral point will
at every instant of time be exactly the same
electrical potential as the point of the load
2
3

c.
T method the current coil is inserted in one

line say line a and one of the potential coil
terminals is connected to the same line. The
other terminal is fastened to the junction
between a pair of equal resistances, the line
ends of which connected to the other two lines.
4. If pf < 0.5, only one wattmeter will read positive

and the other will give reversed reading Star
Connected Load:
d. Current transformer (CT) method this

scheme gives direct measurement of the total
power. It employs a pair of current
transformers and a single wattmeter.
2. Two wattmeter method used to measure power
drawn by a 3 phase, 3 wire system and 4 wire
system. Delta Connected Load:
For unbalanced systems:

The currents will not be equal nor they will
have 120 phase difference as was the case
of with balanced loads
For unbalanced 3 phase systems we
consider the first watt meters current coil in
line a, and potential coil between lines a and
c. While the second current coil in line b and
potential coil between lines b and c. The
wattmeter readings are:
1 = cos() the angle will be the
difference of and .
2 = cos() the angle will be the
difference of and .
3. Three wattmeter method used to measure
power drawn by a 3 phase, 4 wire system.
where: PT total real power of the balanced 3

phase load
- pf angle of the balanced 3 phase load
If line = If phase
1 = cos
2 = cos
If 1 + 2 is negative, just carry the negative

sign
1. If pf = 1, both watt meters read positive and
equal
2. If
pf
>
0.5,
both
readings
are
positive,
3 = cos
= 1 + 2 + 3
Watts Ratio Curve
The power factor for a balanced load can be obtained
from the wattmeter readings using a simple curve
called the watts ratio curve.
= 1 + 2
3. If pf = 0.5, only one wattmeter gives reading
and the other will not read = 1
2
4
where high reading

low reading
=
Blondel's Theorem: Number of Watt meters
Required
In general, the Number of Watt meters
required = the Number of Wires 1
EXAMPLES:
1. A three phase balanced system with a line

voltage of
202 V rms feeds a delta connected load with
= 2560 .
a. Find the line current.
b. Determine the total power supplied to the
load using two watt meters connected to
the A and C lines.
2. A balanced 3 phase load has a line current
of 120 A at 230 V line to line and 0.848 pf
lagging. If the two watt meters are used to
measure the power being drawn by the
system. What are the wattmeter readings?
3. A factory is being supplied by a 3 phase,
3 wire system with the following
characteristics: = 220 0
=
110 36.87
= 220 240
= 125 53.13
Determine the total power consumed by the
load.
4. A 3 phase, 3 wire feeder has the following
line current and voltages:
= 220 0
= 30 30
= 220 240
= 29 + 39.8
Determine the reactive power supplied by the
feeder. Let line b as your reference.
5. Given an unbalanced three phase system
with the following loads:
= 230 0
= 60
= 230 120
= 30 + 50
= 230 240
= 80
Determine the reading of the two wattmeters
properly connected using line c as the
common point.
Determine the reading of the two
wattmeters properly connected using line b
as the common point. Determine the
reading of the two wattmeters properly
connected using line a as the common
point.
6. The power input to a 50 hp, 480 V, 3 phase
motor running at full load is measured by 2
watt meters which indicates 25.4 kW and
17.2 kW respectively. What is the operating
power factor and line current?
7. Two watt meters are connected to measure
the input power to a balanced three-phase
load. If the wattmeter readings are 9.3kW
and 5.4kW determine (a) the total output
power, and (b) the load power factor.
8. 8kW is found by the two wattmeter method
to be the power input to a 3 phase motor.
Determine the reading of each wattmeter if
the power factor of the system is 0.85.
9. When the two wattmeter method is used to
measure the input power of a balanced load,
the readings on the watt meters are 7.5kW
and 2.5kW, the connections to one of the
coils on the meter reading 2.5kW having to
be reversed. Determine (a) the total input
power, and (b) the load power factor.
10. Three similar coils, each having a resistance
of 4 and an inductive reactance of 3.46
are connected (a) in star and (b) in delta
across a 400V, 3 phase supply. Calculate
for
each
connection the
readings
on
each of two
watt
meters
connected to
measure the
power by the
2
5

two wattmeter method. Symmetrical
Component Method Developed by Dr. C.L.
Fortesque,
an
American
scientist showed
that
any
unbalanced system
of three phase
currents (or
voltages) may be
regarded
as
being composed
of
three
separate
sets
of balanced vectors
namely:
1. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having
the same phase sequence as the original
unbalanced system of vectors (positive
sequence). These vectors are known as
Positive Sequence System.
2. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having
phase sequence which is opposite of the
original unbalanced system of vectors
(negative sequence). This balanced system
of 3 phase vectors are known as Negative
Sequence System.
3. A set of three (3) single phase vectors which
are equal in magnitude and having zero
displacement and which have exactly the
same 3 phase position with respect to any
given reference axis. This system of single
phase vector is known as Zero Sequence
System. Hence in mathematical form:
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
Zero Sequence Component
= =
= =
Operator A
- is one which when multiplied to a vector,
rotates through a 120 in the counter
clockwise direction.
Let:
= 1120
2 = 1240
3 = 1360 = 1
Positive Sequence Component
=
=
=
=
Negative Sequence Component

=
=
=
=
Expressing Symmetrical Components of IB and IC
in terms of IA symmetrical components:
= 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 21 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 22 Adding
them up:
+ + = 30 + 1(1 + + 2) + 2(1 +
+ 2)
But 1 + + 2 = 0 also 1 + 2 + 4 = 0
Therefore,
= /( + + )
Also, Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A and Multiply Ic by
A2
= 0 + 1 + 2
2
6

= 0 + 31 + 22
2 = 20 + 31 + 42
Adding them up,
+ + 2 = 0(1 + + 2) + 31 + 2(1
+ 2 + 4)
= /( + + ) Also,
Ib1 = A Ia1 and Ic1 = AIa1
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A2 and Multiply Ic by
A
= 0 + 1 + 2
2 = 20 + 41 + 32
2
= 0 + 21 + 32
Adding them up,
+ + 2 = 0(1 + + 2) + 31 + 2(1
+ 2 + 4)
= /( + + )
Also, Ib2 = AIa2 and Ic2 = A2Ia2 In matrix
notation:
Some Facts about Sequence Currents

1. A balanced 3 phase system consists of
positive sequence components only; the
negative and zero sequence components
being zero.
2. The presence of negative or zero sequence
currents in a 3 phase system introduces
unsymmetry and is indicative of an
abnormal condition of the circuit in which
these components are found.
3. The vector sum of the positive and negative
sequence currents of an unbalanced 3
phase system is zero. The resultant solely
consists of three zero sequence currents.
0 + 0 + 0
4. In a 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced system, the
magnitude of zero sequence components is
one third of the current in the neutral wire
the line currents contain no zero sequence

components. A delta connected load provides
no path to the neutral and the line currents
flowing to delta connected load can contain no
zero sequence components.
5. In a 3 phase unbalanced system, the
magnitude
of
negative
sequence
components cannot exceed that of the
positive sequence components. If the
negative sequence components were the
greater, the phase sequence of the resultant
system would be reversed.
6. The current of a single phase load drawn
from a 3 phase system comprises equal
positive, negative and zero sequence
components.
Unbalanced Impedances and Admittances
Self Impedances Unbalanced impedances
can be resolved into symmetrical components,
although the impedances are vector operators,
and not rotating vectors as are three phase
voltages and currents. Consider the three star
impedances of (a), which form an unbalanced
load. Their sequence components are:
In the absence of path through the neutral of a 3

phase system, the neutral current is zero and
2
7

1
0 = ( + + )
3
1
1 = ( + + 2 )
3
1
2 = ( + 2 + )
3
are symmetrical, Z1 = Z2 = 0, and Z = Za. For this

condition,
0
1 = 1
2 = 2
and, as expected, the sequences are
independent. If the neutral point is not grounded
in (a) I0 = 0 but E0 = I1Z2 + I2Z1 so that there is a
zero sequence voltage, representing a neutral
voltage shift, created by positive and negative
sequence current flowing through the
unbalanced load. The previous equations also
hold for unsymmetrical series line impedances,
as shown in (b), where E0, E1 and E2 are
components of Ea, Eb and Ec, the voltage drops
across the impedances in the three phases.
Mutual Impedances between phases can also be
resolved into components. Consider Zmbc of (a),
as reference, then
1
= ( + 2 + )
3
The sequence components of current through the

impedances, and the sequence components of
the line voltages impressed across them are
interrelated by the following equations:
The above equation illustrate the fundamental

principle that there is mutual coupling between
sequences when the circuit constants are not
symmetrical. As the equations reveal, both
positive and negative sequence current (as well
as
zero
sequence current)
create a zero
sequence voltage
drop. If Za = Zb =
Zc, the impedances
The components of the three phase line

currents and the components of the three
phase voltage drops created by the mutual
impedances will be interrelated by the following
equations:
2
8
If, as in (b), both self and mutual impedances are

present in a section of a three phase circuit, the
symmetrical components of the three voltage
drops across the section are:
sequence voltage drops, etc. Fortunately, except

for
unsymmetrical
loads,
unsymmetrical
transformer connections, etc., the three phase
system usually encountered are symmetrical (or
balanced) and the sequences are independent.
Admittances can be resolved into symmetrical
components, and the components used to find
the sequence components of the currents through
a three phase set of line impedances, or star
connected loads, as functions of the symmetrical
components of the voltage drops across the
impedances.
and
Again, if both self and mutual impedances are

symmetrical, in all three phases,
0 = 0( + 2) = 00
1 = 1( ) = 11
2 = 0( ) = 22
Where Z0, Z1 and Z2 are, respectively, the
impedance to zero, positive, and negative
sequence. For this condition, positive sequence
currents produce only a positive sequence
voltage drop, etc. Z0, Z1 and Z2 are commonly
referred to as the zero sequence, positive
sequence and negative sequence impedances.
Note, however, that this is not strictly correct and
that Z1, the impedance to positive sequence
currents, should not be confused with Z1, the
positive
sequence
component
of
self
impedances. Since Z0, Z1 and Z2 are used more
frequently than Z0, Z1, and Z2 the shorter
expression zero sequence impedance is
usually used to refer to Z0 rather than Z. For a
circuit that has only symmetrical impedances,
both self and mutual, the sequences are
independent of each other, and positive
sequence current produces only positive
0 = 0 + 1 + 2 1
= 0 + 1 + 2
2 = 0 + 1 + 2 Note,
however, that Y0 is not the reciprocal of Z0, Y1 is
not the reciprocal of Z1, and Y2 is not the
reciprocal of Z2, unless Za = Zb = Zc; in other
words, the components of admittance are not
reciprocals of the corresponding components of
impedance unless the three impedances (and
admittances) under considerations are equal.
Star Delta Conversion Equations
If a delta arrangement of impedances, is to be

converted to an equivalent star, the following
equations are applicable.
2
9
When the delta impedances form a three phase

load, no zero sequence current can flow from
the line to the load; hence, the equivalent star
load must be left with neutral ungrounded.
The reverse transformation, from the star
impedances, to the equivalent delta, is given by
An equivalent delta for a star connected, three

phase load with neutral grounded cannot be
found, since zero sequence current can flow
from the line to the star load and return in the
ground, but cannot flow from the line to any delta
arrangement.
Power associated with Sequence Components

The total three phase power of a circuit can be
expressed in terms of the symmetrical
components of the line currents and the
symmetrical components of the line to neutral
voltages.
= 3(00 cos 0 + 11 cos 1 + 22 cos 2)
where 0 is the angle between 0 and 0, 1 is the
angle between 1 and 1 and 2 is the angle
between 2 and 2. The equation shows that the
total power is the sum of the three components of
power; but the power in one phase of an
unbalanced circuit is not one third of the above
expression, since each phase will contain
components of power resulting from zero
sequence voltage and positive sequence current,
etc. This power between sequences is
generated in one phase and absorbed by the
others, and does not appear in the expression for
total three phase power.
Only positive sequence power is developed by
the generators. This power is converted to
negative sequence and zero sequence power by
a circuit dissymmetry such as occurs from a
single line to ground or a line to line fault.

The unbalanced fault, unbalanced load, or other
dissymmetry in the circuit thus acts as the
generator for negative sequence and zero
sequence power.
For reactive power:
= 3(00 sin 0 + 11 sin 1 + 22 sin2) and
for Apparent power:
= 3(00 + 11 + 22) Examples:
1. In a 3 phase, 4 wire system, the currents in
R, Y and B lines under abnormal conditions
of loading are as under:
= 10030
= 50300
= 30180 Calculate the
positive, negative and zero sequence
currents in the R line and return current in
the neutral wire.
2. The currents in a 3 phase unbalanced
system are:
= (12 + 6) =
(12 12)
= (15 + 10)
The phase sequence in RYB. Calculate the
zero, positive and negative sequence
components of the currents.
3. The sequence voltages in the red phase are:
0 = 100
1 = (200 100)
2 = 100 Find
the phase voltages.
4. The
zero
and
positive
sequence
components of red phase are:
0 = 0.5 0.866
1 = 20
If the phase voltage = 30 , find the
negative sequence component of red phase
and the phase voltages EY and EB.
5. The current from neutral to ground
connection is 12 A. Calculate the zero phase
sequence components in phases.
6. A balanced star connected load takes 90 A
from a balanced 3 phase, 4 wire supply. If
the fuses in the Y and B phases are
3
0

removed, find the symmetrical components
of the line currents:
a. before the fuses are removed
b. after the fuses are removed
7. A 3 , 4 wire system supplies loads which
are unequally distributed in the three
phases. An analysis of the current flowing in
R, Y and B lines shows that in R line,
positive phase sequence component is 200
0 A and the negative phase sequence
component is 100 60 A. The total
observed current flowing back to the supply
in the neutral conductor is 300 300 A.
Calculate the currents in the three lines.
8. One conductor of a 3 phase line is open. The
current flowing to the connected load
through the line R is 10 A. With the current
in line R as reference and assuming that line
B is open, find the symmetrical components
of the line currents.
9. Three resistors of 5, 10 and 20 are

connected in delta across the three phases
of a balanced 100 volts supply. What are the
sequence components in the resistors and
in supply lines?
10. A delta connected load is supplied from a 3
phase supply. The fuse in the B line is
removed and current in the other two lines is
20 A. Find the symmetrical components of
line currents.
11. Three impedances of 5j10, 6 + j 5 and 3 +
j15 ohms are connected in star to red, yellow
and blue lines of a 3300 V, 3-phase, 3-wire
supply. The phase sequence is RYB.
Calculate the line current IR.
12. A star connected load consists of three
equal resistors of 1 resistance. The load
is assumed to be connected to an
unsymmetrical 3 phase supply, the line

voltages are 200 V, 346 V and 400 V. Find
the magnitude of current in any phase by the
method of symmetrical components.
13. The line currents in a 3 phase, 4 wire system
are: = 300 + 400 = 200 + 200
= 400 200 Calculate the
positive, negative and zero components of all
the line currents.
14. The sequence components of phase a
currents are:
0 = 0.47 + 1.49
1 = 18.4 31.6
2 = 3.23 168.2
Calculate the following: a. The
line current Ia
b. The line current Ib
c. The line current Ic
15. If the currents of a wye connected
transformer are:
= 10 30
= 12 215
= 15 82
What is the phase b positive sequence
component?
16. Three equal impedances (8+j6) ohms are
connected in wye across a 3 phase, 3 wire
supply. The symmetrical components of the
phase A voltage are
0 = 40 + 0
1 = 220 + 28.9
2 = 40 28.9
If there is no connection between the load
neutral and the supply neutral. Calculate the
line currents Ia, Ib and
Ic.
Sequence Networks
In unbalanced three phase analysis, each piece of
equipment will have three values of impedance one
corresponding to each sequence current:
i.
Positive sequence
impedance (Z1) ii.
Negative
sequence impedance (Z2) iii. Zero
sequence impedance (Z0) The
following points may be noted:
3
1

a. In a 3 phase balanced system, each piece of
equipment or circuit offers only one impedance
the one offered to positive or normal sequence
current. This is expected because of the absence
of negative and zero sequence currents in the 3
phase balanced system.
b. In a 3 phase unbalanced system, each piece of
equipment or circuit will have three values of
impedance: positive sequence impedance,
negative sequence impedance and zero
sequence impedance.
c. The positive and negative sequence impedances
of linear, symmetrical and static circuits (e.g.
transmission lines, cables, transformers and static
loads) are equal and are the same as those used
in the analysis of balanced conditions. This is due
to the fact that impedance of such circuits is
independent of the phase order, provided the
applied voltages are balanced. It may be noted
that positive and negative sequence impedances
of rotating machines (e.g.
synchronous and induction motors) are normally
different.
d. The zero sequence impedance depends upon the
path taken by the zero sequence current. As this
path is generally different from the path taken by
the positive and negative sequence currents,
therefore, zero sequence impedance is usually
different from positive or negative sequence
impedance.
Sequence Impedances of Power System
Elements
The concept of impedances of various elements of
power system (e.g. generators, transformers,
transmission lines etc.) to positive, negative and zero
sequence currents is of considerable importance in
determining the fault currents in a 3 phase
unbalanced system.
a. Transmission Lines are static devices and
hence the phase sequence has no effect on the
impedance because currents and voltages
encounter the same geometry of the line.
Therefore, positive and negative sequence
impedances of transmission lines are equal.
=
Zero sequence currents are in phase and flow
through the phases (a, b, c conductors) to return
through the grounded neutral. The ground or any
shielding wire are in the path of zero sequence
and zero sequence impedance ZTL0, which
includes the effect of the return path through the

ground, is different from Z1 and Z2.
Consider a 1 meter length of a three phase line
shown in the figure. The ground surface is
approximated to an equivalent conductor located
at the average distance Dn from each of the three
phases. The phase conductors carry sequence
currents with return paths through a grounded
neutral.
0
+
0
+
0 + = 0
Since
Since 0 = 0 = 0 and = 30
Since
Therefore,
= +
b. Synchronous Machines is designed with
symmetrical windings and it induces emfs of
positive sequence only. The positive sequence
generator impedance is the value found when
positive sequence current flows due to an imposed
positive sequence set of voltages. Neglecting
armature resistance, the positive sequence
impedance of the machine is
(Sub transient)
(Transient)
= (Steady state value) With
the flow of negative sequence currents in the
stator, the net flux in the air gap rotates at opposite
direction to that of the rotor. Therefore, the net flux
rotates twice the synchronous speed to the rotor.
3
2

In this case, field winding has no influence
because field voltage is associated with positive
sequence variables and only the damper winding
produces an effect in the quadrantal axis.
Therefore, the negative sequence impedance is
close to the positive sequence sub transient
impedance.
In a synchronous machine, no zero sequence
voltage is induced. Zero sequence impedance of
the machine is due to the flow of zero sequence
current. The flow of zero sequence currents
creates three mmfs which are in time phase but
are distributed in space phase by 120. Therefore,
resultant air gap flux would be zero and there is no
reactance due to armature reaction. Hence,
machine offers a very small reactance due to the
leakage flux. Therefore, the rotor windings present
leakage reactance only to the flow of zero
sequence currents
=
It may be worthwhile to mention here that any
impedance Ze in the earth connection of a star
connected system has the effect to introduce an
impedance of 3Ze per phase. It is because the
three equal zero sequence currents, being in
phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but
they flow back along the neutral earth connection.
c. Two Winding
Transformers
In power transformers, core losses and
magnetizing current are on the order of 1 % of
rated value and hence magnetizing branch is
neglected. The transformer is modelled with
equivalent
series
leakage
impedance.
Transformer is a static device and if the phase
sequence is changed, leakage impedance will not
change. Therefore, positive, negative and zero
sequence impedances are the
same and equal to leakage impedance of the
transformer
1 = 2 = 0 = The equivalent
circuit for the zero sequence impedance
depends on the winding connection and also upon
whether or not the neutrals are grounded.
a. Wye (grounded) Wye (grounded)
connection: Both neutrals are grounded and
there is a path for the
zero sequence current to flow in the primary
and secondary.
b. Wye (grounded) Wye connection:

Primary neutral is grounded and secondary
neutral is isolated. Zero sequence current
in the secondary is zero. Consequently, zero
sequence current in the primary is zero.
c.
Wye Delta connection: In this case

neutral is isolated. As neutral is isolated, zero
sequence current cannot flow.
d. Wye (grounded) Delta connection: In this

case neutral is grounded. Primary current can
flow because there is zero sequence
circulating current in the delta connected
secondary and a ground return path for the
wye connected primary. Also note that no
zero sequence current can leave the delta
terminals, therefore, there is an isolation
between primary and secondary side.
e. Delta Delta connection: In this case zero

sequence current circulate the delta
connected windings, but no current can leave
the delta terminals.
3
3

d. Three Winding
Transformers
Three
phase,
three winding
have an
additional tertiary
winding, and may
be represented by
a single line
diagram
corresponding
to
the
ampere turn balance, or power balance.
+ + = 0 or + + = 0
which in per unit quantities would yield the
common equation
, +
, + , = 0 This
may be represented
by three
reactances
connected in T,
giving the general single line
diagram for fault studies for the 3
winding transformer, as shown.
The positive sequence and negative sequence
diagrams would have a direct connection to the T
connection of reactances from P, S and T.
The zero sequence network would again be built
up from the single winding arrangements
described and would yield the single line diagrams
given:
A particular point to keep in mind is that what is

generally available from measurements for a 3
winding transformer would be the impedances
across a pairs of windings. (ie.
ZPS, ZPT, and ZST), with the third winding on open
circuit. Thus we could relate the values to the
effective primary, secondary and tertiary
impedances (ZP, ZS and ZT) as follows, with
reference to the equivalent circuit.
= +
= +
= +
The values of ZP, ZS and ZT can then be
determined as
= 0.5( + )
= 0.5( + )
= 0.5( + )
As in the case of the 2 winding transformer, 3Zn
is included wherever earthing of a neutral point
is done through an impedance Zn.
Sequence Network of Loaded Synchronous
Machines
3
4

4. Draw the zero sequence network of the sample
power system shown. Data are given as: G: xg0 =
0.05 pu
M: xm0 = 0.03 pu
T1: xt1 = 0.12 pu
T2: xt2 = 0.10 pu
Line 1: xl10 = 0.7 pu
Line 2: xl20 = 0.7 pu
A Positive, B Negative and C Zero Sequence

Network Points to remember:
1. The three sequence networks are independent.
2. The neutral of the system is the reference for
positive and negative sequence networks but
ground is the reference for the zero sequence
network.
3. There is no voltage source in the negative or
zero sequence networks. Only the positive
sequence network has a voltage source.
4. The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero
sequence network as 3Zn.
Examples:
1. Draw the three sequence networks for the
transmission network shown.
5. Draw the Zero sequence network. Data is given

below:
G1: 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg10 = 0.05 pu
G2: 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg20 = 0.05 pu
T1: 100 MVA, 11/220 kV, XT1 = 0.06 pu
T2: 100 MVA, 220/11 kV, XT2 = 0.07 pu
Line 1: XL10 = 0.3 pu
Line 2:XL20 = 0.3 pu
6. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence

component of the power system.
7.
Draw the zero sequence network of the
sample power system.
2. Draw the positive sequence network of the power
system.
3. Draw the zero sequence network of the power

system.
8. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence

networks of the sample power system shown in
the diagram.
3
5
9. A 50 MVA, 11 kV, synchronous generator has a

sub transient reactance of 20%. The generator
supplies two motors over a transmission line with
transformers at both ends as shown below. The
motors have rated inputs of 30 and 15 MVA, both
10 kV, with 25% sub transient reactance. The
three phase transformers are both rated 60
MVA,
10.8/121 kV, with leakage reactance of 10%
each. Assume zero sequence reactances for
the generator and motors of 6% each. Current
limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each are connected
in the neutral of the generator and motor No. 2.
The zero sequence reactance of the
transmission line is 300 ohms. The series
reactance of the line is 100 . Draw the positive,
negative and zero sequence networks.
Normally, transmission
lines implies
the
bulk transfer of power by high voltage
links between main load centers. On the other
hand, distribution system is mainly responsible
for the conveyance of thos power to the
consumers by means of lower voltage
networks.
Electric
power is generated in the range
of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is increase by
stepped up transformers ot the main
transmission voltage. At
sub
stations, the connection between
various
components are made, for example, lines and
transformers
and
switching
of
these
components is carried out. Transmission level
voltages are in the range of 66 kV to 400 kV (or
higher). Large amounts of power are transmitted
from the generating stations to the load centers
at 220 kV or higher.
The power supply network can be divided int two
parts, transmission and distribution systems. The
transmission system may be dividided into
primary and secondary distribution system. Most
of the distribution networks operate radially for
less short circuit current and better protective
coordination.
10.
Draw the zero sequence network of the sample
power network.
Introduction to Power System
Generation,
Transmission and
Distribution
systems are the
main components
of
an electric
power system.
Generating
stations and
distribution
systems are
connected through
transmission lines.
3
6

Power system engineers have devised the per
unit system such that different physical
quatities such as current, voltage, power and
impedance are expressed as a decimal fraction
or multiple of base quantities. In this system, the
different voltage levels disapper and a power
network consisting synchronous generators,
transformers and lines reduces to a system of
simple impedances.
Power System Representation
Distribution networks are different than
transmission networks in many ways, quite apart
from voltage magnitude. The general structure or
topology of the distribution is different and the
number of branches and sources is much higher.
A typical distribution system consists of a step
down transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a
number of lines with varying length from a few
hundred of meters to several kilometers. Several
three phase step down transformes are
spaced along these feeders and from these, three
phase four wire networks of consumers are
supplied which gives 230 V, single phase supply
to houses and simular loads.
A complete circuit diagram of a power system for

all the three phases is very complicated. It is
very much practical to represent power system
using simple symbols for each component
resulting in what is called a single line diagram.
Equivalent Circuit and Reactance Diagram

The power system components are: generators,
transformers, transmission lines, and loads.
Equivalent circuits of these components may
then be interconnected to obtain a circuit
representation for the entire system. In other
words, the one line diagram may be replaced by
an impedance diagram or a reactance diagram
(if resistances are neglected).
3
7
In the equivalent circuit of the components are

based on the following assumptions:
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage
source in series with an inductive reactance.
The internal resistance of the generator is
negligible compared to the reactance.
2. The motor load is inductive.
3. The static load has a lagging power factor.
4. A transformer is represented by a series
impedance on a per phase basis.
5. The transmission line is of medium length and
can be represented by a T section.
The reactance diagram is drawn by neglecting all
the resistances, static loads, and capacitances of
the transmission line. Reactance diagrams are
generally used for short circuit calculation,
whereas the impedance diagram is used for
powerflow studies.
Single Phase Representation of Balanced Three
Phase System
1. Three phase two winding Y Y
transformer bank
2. Three phase two winding Y

transformer bank
3
8

3. The per unit values clearly represent the
relative values of the circuit quantities. Many
of the ubiquitous scaling constants are
eliminated.
4. Ideal for computer simulations
The definition of any quantity (voltage, current,
power, impedance) in the per unit system is
The complete characterization of a per unit
system requires that all four base values be
defiend. Given the four base values, the per unit
quantities are defined as
Note that the numerator terms in the previous
equations are in general complex while the base
values are real valued. Once any two of the four
base values are defined, the remaining two can
be determined according to their fundamental
circuit relationships. Usually the base values of
power and voltage are selected and the base
values of the current and impedance are
determined according to
The Per Unit System
An interconnected power system typically
consists of many different voltage levels given a
system containing several transformers and/or
rotating machines. The per unit system
simplifies the analysis of complex power
systems by choosing a common set of base
parameters in terms of which, all systems
quantities are defined. The different voltage
levels disappear and the overall system reduces
to a set of impedances. The primary advantages
of the per unit system are:
1. The per unit values for transformer
impedance, voltage and current are
identical when referred to the primary and
secondary (no need to reflect impedances
from one side of the transformer to the other,
the transformer is a single impedance).
2. The per unit values for various
components lie within a narrow range
regardless of the equipment rating.
It can also be assume that:

1. The value of Sbase is constant for all points in
the power system, and
2. The ratio of voltage bases on either side of a
transformer is chosen to equal the ratio of the
transformer voltage ratings,
then the transformer per unit impedance
remains unchanged when referred from one side
of a transformer to the other. This will allow us to
eliminate the ideal transformer from the
transformer model.
In three phase per unit anlysis, the per phase
base voltage, current , apparent power of a circuit
is related by the following equations in single
phase
3
9
Thus, the final equations for three phase per unit

analysis are:
4. The figure shows single line diagram of a

power system. The ratings of the generators
and transformers are given below: G1: 25
MVA, 6.6 kV, xg1 = 0.2 pu
G2: 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg2 = 0.15 pu
G3: 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, xg3 = 0.15 pu
T1: 30 MVA, 6.6 - 115 Y kV, xT1 = 0.1 pu
T2: 15 MVA, 6.6 - 115 Y kV, xT2 = 0.1 pu
T3: Single phase unit each rated 10
MVA, 6.9/69 kV, xT3 = 0.1 pu
Change of Base Formula
Examples:
1. A single phase transformer is rated 20 kVA,
480/120 V, 60 Hz. The equivalent leakage
impedance of the transformer referred to the
120 V winding, denoted by winding 2, is 2
= 0.052578.13 . Using the transformer
ratings as the base values, determine the
per unit leakage impedance referred to
winding 2 and referred to winding 1.
2. A single phase two winding transformer is
rated 25 kVA, 1100/440 volts, 50 Hz. The
equivalent leakage impedance of the
transformer referred to the low voltage side
is 0.06 < 78 . Using transformer rating as
base values, determine the per unit
leakage impedance referred to low voltage
winding and referred to high voltage
winding.
3. The figure shows single line diagram of a
single phase circuit. Using the base values
of 3 kVA and 230 V, draw the per unit
circuit diagram and determine the per unit
impedances and per unit source voltage.
Also calculate the load current both in per
unit and in Amperes.
Draw the per unit circuit diagram using base

values of 30 MVA and 6.6 kV in the circuit of
generator 1.
5. A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator
has a reactance of 15%. The generator is
connected ot the motors through a
transmission line and transformers as
shown. Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA,
30 MVA and 20 MVA at 30 kV with 20%
reactance each. Draw the per unit circuit
diagram.
6. Draw the per unit impedance diagram of

the system shown. Assumed base values
are 100 MVA and 100 kV.
G1: 50 MVA, 12.2 kV, xg1 = 0.10 pu
4
0

G2: 20 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg2 = 0.10 pu
T1: 80 MVA, 12.2/132 kV, xT1 = 0.10 pu
T2: 40 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT2 = 0.10 pu
Load: 50 MVA, 0.8 pf lagging operating at 124
kV.
7. The figure shows a sample power system
network. Find the current supplied by the
generator, the transmission line current, the
load current, the load voltage and the power
consumed by the load.
8. The single line diagram of a three phase

ower system is shown. Select a common
base of 100 MVA and 13.8 kV on the
generator side. Draw per unit impedance
diagram.
G: 90 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg = 18%

T1: 50 MVA, 13.8/220 kV, xT1 =
10% T2: 50 MVA, 220/11 kV, xT2
= 10%
T3: 50 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT3 = 10%
T4: 50 MVA, 132/11 kV, xT4 = 10%
M: 80 MVA, 10.45 kV, xm = 20%
Load: 57 MVA, 0.8 pf (lagging) at
10.45 kV.
xline1 = 50
xline2 = 70
9. The simple power system contains a 480 V
generator connected to an ideal 1:10 step
up transformer, a transmission line, an ideal
20:1 step down transformer, and a load.
The impedance of the transmission line is
20 + 60 , and the impedance of the load
is 1030. The base values for this system
are to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator.

Find the base voltage, current, impedance
and apparent power at every point in the
power system. Convert the power system to
its per unit equivalent circuit and find the
power supplied to the load and power lost in
the transmission line in this system.
10. A 13.8 kV, 100 MVA, 60 Hz, 3 phase
synchronous generator has a nameplate
resistance R of 10% or 0.10 pu and a
reactance X of 80% or 0.8 pu. These values
are specified on the base of the machines
rating. The base quantities of the power
system it is connected to are VLLbase = 14.4
kV and Sbase = 500 MVA. Find the pu
impedance of the generator on the base of
the power system.
REFERENCES:
[1]
Alexander, Charles K. and Sadiku,
Michael N.O. (2013). Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits pp. 503 554. McGraw Hill Higher
Education.
[2]
Bird, John (2007). Electrical and
Electronic Principles and Technology pp. 311
326. Elsevier. [3] Boylestad, Robert L. (2007).
Introductory Circuit Analysis pp. 1029 1066.
Pearson Prentice Hall.
[4]Glover, J. Duncan, Sarma, Mulukutla S. and
Overbye, Thomas (2012). Power System:
Analysis & Design pp. 1 158. CENGAGE
Learning.
[5]Hobson, J.E. and Whitehead, D.L.
Symmetrical Components [PDF Document].
Retrieved
from
https://www.scribd.com/doc/63947448/Sym
metricalComponents
[6]Lucas, J.R. (2001). Three Phase Theory &
Symmetrical
Components [PDF Document]. Retrieved from
http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/EE201_3phase_sym
_comp.pdf [7] Nahvi, Mahmood and Edminister,
Joseph (2003). Schaums Outlines: Electric
Circuits pp. 248 272. McGraw Hill Higher
Education.
4
1

[8] Rajput, R.K. (2006). A Textbook of Electrical
Technology pp. 129 183. Laxmi Publications
LTD. [9] Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. (2003).
A Textbook of Electrical Technology pp. 665
854. S. Chand & Company LTD.
4
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Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

Single Phase Power Systems

Depicted above is a very simple AC circuit. If the

83.33 A for each load resistor in the figure adds

permitting the use of smaller, lighter, and cheaper

Now the total circuit current is 83.33 A, half of

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

The current through each load is the same as it

would stop in the other load as well. For this

Instead of a single 240 V power supply, two 120

If the AC power comes directly from a generator

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

To mathematically calculate voltage between

The term single phase is a counterpoint to

If the two sources common connection point is

Since each voltage source is 120 V, and each

Nominally, the voltage between hot

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

It is found out that the neutral wire is carrying a

A full mathematical analysis of all the voltages

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

The current is half of what it was with the simple

of phase. Perhaps, the use of capacitors and

Together, the six pole windings of a three

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will

The order of voltage waveform sequences in a

The two lamps are of equal filament resistance

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

No matter which pair of hot wires out of the three

If the rotating magnet is able to keep up with the

1. Positive Sequence (ABC Sequence)

Notice that with the exact same sequence of

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

These supplementary coils are typically

That phase shift creates magnetic fields from

through analogy. Have you ever seen a row of

When all of the 1 bulbs are lit, the 2 bulbs are

If the lighting sequence is 1 2 3, the bulbs

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

Now the lights appear to be moving in a

With phase shifts of less than 180 we get true

Two phase electrical power was an early 20th

If a circuit is drawn showing each voltage source

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

The three conductors leading away from the

When we measure voltage and current in threephase systems, we need to be specific as to

voltage will be equal to the phase voltage times

However, the Y configuration is not the only

At first glance it seems as though three voltage

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis

Starting with the right winding (120 V 120) and