ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM LAB

6th SEM MECHANICAL

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

SL.
NO.

NAME OF EXPERIMENTS

01.

Study of Lamont boiler and its various parts in

detail.

02.

Study of Velox boiler and its various paths in

details.

03.

Study of Benson boiler and its various parts in

details.

04.

To study the Flat Plate collectors.

05.

To study the solar parabolic collector.

06.

To study photo-voltaic cell.

PERFORMED REMARKS
ON

Signature of Teacher

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

The modern trend in central power station is to generate a steam at a high pressure
& efficiency. The modern high pressure boilers used for power generation are for
steam capacities ranging from 30 to 650 tons/h and above with a pressure up to 200
bar a maximum steam temperature about 600oC. Now, it is possible to generate
steam above the critical pressure of water (221.2 bars). But these supercritical
boilers are different than subcritical boilers in both design and operation because of
the fact that properties of steam in critical range are different. The high pressure
boilers are characterized by the following: (1) Forced circulation of water: in high pressure boilers, circulation of water
is forced instead of natural. Therefore, a pump is used to force the water in boiler.
(2) Arrangements of drums & tubing: in order to avoid any large resistance
to flow of water, these boilers have a parallel set of tube arrangement. They have a
very small steam separating drum or may be entirely free of drum.
(3) Improved method of heating: The following methods are used to improve
heating: a) superheated steam is used to heat the water.
b) Saving of latent heat by evaporation of water at pressure above critical.
c) The heat flow through the tube walls may be increased with the use of hot gases
travelling with supersonic velocity.
Advantages of high pressure boilers:
The following are the advantages of high pressure boiler: (a) Smaller bore and therefore lighter tubes make the unit more compact. The
space and weight requirements are minimized reduces the erection time and cost.
(b) Reduction in the number of drums.
(c) There is greater freedom for the heating surface and greater evaporation for a
given size.
(d) Lighter structure for a given output.
(e) The boiler is capable of making rapid changes of load without the use of

complicated or delicate control device.

(f) All the parts are heated uniformly which eliminate the danger of overheating
and setting up thermal stresses.
(g) Due to uniform temperature of parts, the differential expansion are minimized,
this reduces the leakage of gas and air.
(h) There is complete elimination of high head which is needed for natural
circulation.
(i)
Due to high circulation velocity the tendency to form scales is eliminated to
a large extent.
(j) If an external supply of power is available, very rapid start from cold state is
possible. Hence the boiler is suitable for carrying peak loads. It is also useful for
standby purpose in hydraulic stations.
The system is slightly complicated and a certain percentage of consumed by the
circulating pump.
Examples of high pressure boilers are Lamont, Benson, Velox, Monotube,
radiant etc.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is the main purpose of high pressure boilers?

Write about boiler mountings.
State importance advantages of high pressure boilers.
Name important advantage of high pressure boilers.
What are the appliances known as boiler accessories?

EXPERIMENT NO: 1
LAMONT BOILER

AIM: Study of LaMont boiler and its various parts in details.

SPECIFICATIONS:
High pressure, forced circulation boiler
Water pressure:
3.5 bar
Steam pressure:
120 atm
Superheated temp.:
500oC
Size:
45 to 50 tons.
Operating pressure:
130-140 bar.
Steaming capacity:
45 to 50 TSD (tones of steam per day)
Type of boiler:
Water tube
Nature of water circulation:
Forced circulation.
PART LIST WITH DETAIL:
ECONOMISER: Function of economizer is to recover some of the heat
carried away in the flue gases up the chimney and utilize for heating the feed
water to the boiler.
SUPER HEATER: The function of a super heater is to superheat the steam
up to the desired temperature. It is generally located in the passage of hot
flue gases.
AIR PREHEATER: The heat carried with the flue gases coming out of
economizer are further utilized for pre heating the air before supplying to the
combustion chamber. They are usually installed on steam generators that
burn solid fuels but rarely on gas or oil fired units.
RADIENT EVAPORATORS: They are placed in one or more walls of the
furnace of steam boilers where the super heaters tubes received heat by
direct radiation from fire and re-radiation from refractory walls behind them.
CHIMNEY: It is used for separating the flue gases to the atmosphere
BLOWER: It blows the cold air in to the air preheater.
ANTI-PRIMING DEVICE: It is used for separating out suspended
moisture and allowing as for separating out suspended particles.
Radiant surface of tubes in which radiant heat is supplied by combustion.

WORKING:
This is a high pressure forced circulation, water tube type boiler
invented by Lamont in 1925. The feed water from the hot well is supplied through
an economizer to a separating & sorting drum that contains a feed regulator, which
controls the speed of the feed pump. Since the economizer is placed in the boiler at
a place from where hot combustion gases pass, the economizer supplies sensible
heat to the feed water. Water from the boiler drum flour by gravity to a circulating
pump, which discharge in to a distributing header. Water from the distributing
header flows through long small diameter boiler tubes located in the walls & roof
of furnace to the drum where theSteam is separated and water returns to the pump.
Orifice located at inlet to each circuit on the disturbing headers correctly
proportion the water along the many parallel circuits so that each receiver its
proper shares. The circulating pump raiser the water pressure to about 3.5 bar
above the drum pressure to overcome the resistance to the flow controlling orifices
and the long circuit of small diameter tubing. At normal load the quantity of water
circulated in each tube is about 3.8 times the steam evaporated in the long circuit
of small tubes. This avoids the overheating of the tubes. Since three circuit tubes
are placed in the combustion chamber through which the hot gases are passing
upwards the steam is generated in them. The mixture of water and steam from
these tubes enter the boiler drum where the moisture is separate from the drum.
Now the steam is led to the super heater steam goes to ultimate destination through
the steam stop valve. It is essential to maintain a constant level of water in the
drum. This is possible by supplying feed water equivalent to the steam quantity
blow off continuously. The pump consumes about 0.5 to 0.6% of the boiler output
which is supplied by the power unit raising the steam from boiler. For economic
combustion forced air preheater by the flue gases is used.
The basic elements of a controlled circulation boiler:
It employs a steam and water drum which receives a mixture of steam and water
from the steam generating tubes and feed water from economizer. The steam drum
internals separate the steam from the excess boiler water. The saturated steam
containing a minimum of impurities discharges from the top of the steam drum
through a pipe or tube into a saturated header, and thence to the super-heater
position of the boiler. The separated excess boiler water mixes with the feed water
in the steam drum, and the mixture is discharged to the steam generating tube inlet

header by circulating pumps. Orifices in the inlet header control the flow of water
to the steam generating circuit.

Examples for La Mont boilers are:

Waste heat steam boilers at processes with hot gases and dust content.
Waste heat steam boilers behind fluidized bed combustion.
Waste heat system in nitric acid and caprolactum hydroxylamine plants.
Waste heat steam boilers in roasting processes.
Waste heat systems in sulphuric acid plants.

Potential fuels are:

Oil,
Gas,
Coal,
Biomass,
Waste,
Waste heat.

Advantage of the La Mont system compared to natural circulation system

Water circulation runs before heating starts. Inevitably, water is distributed on all
tubes according to heat absorption of each single tube. Even at very high specific
heat load of single locations there is no danger of a local tube overheating, as mass
flow is adjusted to that high load.

Material stress of the heated tubes

The possibility to use tubes with smaller diameter leads to thinner tube wall
thickness and therewith to decreased material stress of the tubes due the difference
between tube outer and inner temperature. Forced circulation provides an even
temperature in all tubes at start-up yet.
Steam and Water separation
Water circulation ratio is limited to a factor 2 to 5. Thereby, separation of steam
and water in the drum will be ease. As a consequence the drum can be smaller at
constant steam quality.

Quick Start-Up from cold Circulation

Start-Up can be carried out with high combustion capacity as a water circulation in
the tube already exists before start-up. At wastes heat boilers the tubes can be
loaded with the full heat amount immediately. For the actual boiler the start-up
velocity is only given by the valid temperature gradient in the drum wall, which
Depend on the wall thickness. The drum diameter at a La Mont can be smaller
than at a natural circulation boiler, so that the wall thickness can be smaller, which
leads to advantage at start-up. At start-up superheater and preheater can be cooled
with forced circulation by a corresponding circuit.
Fast load changes
Load changes from small to large can be carried out very quickly as mass flow in
the tubes already exists at small load. At natural circulation boilers mass flow has
to speed up at heating. At start-up from cold condition and at load increase a part
of water is displaced from the heating surfaces into drum by steam bubbles. A LA
MONT boiler has a smaller amount of water compared to a natural circulation
system as on the one hand circulation number is smaller and on the other hand
heating surfaces contains less water due to smaller tube diameter.
Pressure decreases
The valid pressure decrease velocity depends on the water velocity in the down
comers. At a natural circulation boiler this velocity is limited by the frictional
resistance, which again is given by natural buoyancy height, i.e. the boiler height.
At a LA MONT boiler the water velocity in the down comers can be optimized by
choosing the net pressure of the circulation pump.
Design freedom
Compared to natural circulation boiler where gravity has to be regarded at tube
arrangement, the tube in a LA MONT boiler can be arranged arbitrarily as water
circulation can be arranged independent by the special LA MONT circulation
pump.
All the reasons prove that a LA MONT boiler is an ideal waste heat boiler.
Tube arrangement can be adapted to the site condition without limitation. Even at
very high heating very long horizontal tube arrangements are possible. Utilization

of remaining heat from chemical or metallurgical processes is possible without

danger for the heating surfaces even with the highest temperatures. Additionally,
utilization of remaining heat from processes with relative low temperatures, but
very high fuel gas amount, where large draught cross section is required is
possible. Despite this high fuel gas amount the boiler can be adapted to the existing
site condition.
Usually for forced distribution of the water also the single tube banks are
provided with LA MONT nozzles. Exact water circulation calculations show if
nozzles are necessary.

Viva Questions:
1. Write about LA MONT boiler?
2. What is the major disadvantage of LA MONT boiler?
3. List the names of various types of boiler mountings & accessories?
4. Define boiler efficiency?
1. What do you mean by boiler trial?

EXPERIMENT NO-02
VELOX BOILER
AIM: - Study and performance of Velox Boiler.
SPECIFICATION:
High pressure, Forced circulation boiler,
Evaporative capacity:

10200 kg/hr

Size:

100 tons

Pressure range:

70 to 80 bar

Superheating temperature:

500 c

Thermal efficiency:

90 to 95 %

WORKING: Air is compressed to about 2.5 bar in an axial compressor (which at

the time of start is driven by motor) before being supplied to oil fuel furnace. The
purpose of this compression of air is to secure a high velocity of gas and also at the
time release of a great amount of heat .The fuel and the compressed air are injected
downwards into a vertical combustion chamber, Which is surrounded by hollow
evaporator tubes .on reaching the bottom of the combustion chamber the products
are deflected upwards into the evaporators tubes consisting of by means of a spiral
water coil. The evaporator tubes consist of outer annuals through which 10 to 20
times the water evaporated is circulated at high velocity. The care of the lower half
of the evaporator tube or element is occupied by a central pipe, which supplies
water to the outer annulus , while the upper half is occupied by U-type super heater
tubes. In the space between the inner and outer, the flue gas rushes at speed of
about 250 m/s. There is provision of a ring main which collects the steam and
water and discharge it tangentially in to the separating chamber. His forms a forced
vortex, which by centrifugal loading on water particles ,allow steam release,
without priming about two hundred times as great as in boiler of normal design.
The dry steam then passes up the central tube the superheating main, which
distribute it to various super beater element s. The mud drum collects the separated
water, which is extracted by means of a circulating pump. This circulating pump
also creates a high water velocity through the evaporator tubes. The flue gases,

after passing through the super heater enter exhaust gas turbines that drives the
compressor. The exhaust from the turbine passes through the counter flow feed
beater where the feed water is preheated and which is discharged tangentially into
the separating drum. This boiler is very compact steam generating plant of great
flexibility. It is capable of quick starting and its thermal efficiency is about go to
95%.

Velox Boiler

PARTLISTWITHDETAIL:
ECONOMISER: Functionofeconomizeristorecoversomeoftheheatfromthe
heat carry away from the flue gases up the chimney and utilize for heating the
feedwatertotheboiler.

SUPER HEATER: The function of super heater is to superheat the steam up to

thedesiredtemperature.Itisgenerallylocatedinthepassageofhotfluegases.

MAIN HOLE: The function of main hole is to provide opening through which a
mancanentertheboilerforcleaningandinspections.

FEEDPUMP:Functionofafeedpumpistopumpwaterspaceofaboiler.There
aremanytypesoffeedpump,rotaryandreciprocating.Rotarypumpareeither
arecontinuedrunbythesteamfromthesameboilertowhichwaterdrivenby
electricmotorsorsmallsteamturbines.Reciprocatingpumpsistobefed

MERITS:
Very high combustion rates are possible as 8 to 10 million Kcal per cu m of
combustionchambervolume.
Low excess air is required as the pressurized air is used and the problem of
draughtissimplified.
Itisverycompactgeneratingunitandhasgreaterflexibility.
It can be quickly started even though the separator has a storage capacity of
about10%ofthemaximumhourlyoutput.

EXPERIMENT NO: 03
BENSON BOILER
AIM: Study and performance of Benson Boiler.
SPECIFICATION:
High pressure, Forced circulation boiler,
Operating pressure 210 bar
Evaporating capacity 13500 kg/hr
Super heating Temperature 405 C
Efficiency 90%
THEORY: The Benson boiler was developed by Siemans-Schuckert-Werke and
has passed through many modifications. It is the first boiler to be designed for
operation above critical pressure. This drum less once-Through Boiler takes boiler
feed water at one end and discharges it as superheated steam as other. The presence
of steam bubbles in contact with surface of tubes retards the heat transmission from
the hot gases to water. This Boiler can operate at super critical pressure and that
question of bubble formation of latent heat of vaporization does not arise. The
water transforms into steam without boiling. But, raising of water to a pressure of
about 221.2 bar will mean large feed pump work and the efficiency of the plant
may reduce. This light weight boiler which has no drum, can we started in 15
minutes and is designed for pressures up to 50 bar and much more and steam rates
up to 13500 kg/hr & much more.
(a) Radiant evaporator section, where most of the heat is transmitted and water
get heated almost to the critical temperature (Water cooled walls from the
portion of the section).
(b) Residual evaporator and initial super-heater or transition super-heater where
any water that has not evaporated in the radiant evaporator may evaporate
and further super-heated to some degree.
(c) Radiation super-heater to ensure a proper designed degree of super-heat.
This has parallel circuits.
(d) Convection super-heater to obtain final desired temperature of super-heat.

Modern steam power plants working on sub critical pressure have efficiency of
35% and above. Supercritical pressure plants works at higher efficiency of about
40%. In supercritical boilers plants, about 65% of heat is transferred in
superheating of steam and reheating of the steam bled from steam turbine at
intermediate pressures. And to limit gas temperature a radiant type super heater is
used.

Benson Boiler
Working: Once-through water tube boiler demand for higher efficiency and
enlargement of energy demand led to higher pressure, temperature and
performance. This demand affects steam generator design and types. At natural
circulation pressure above 180 bar lead to the presented complications. However,
already in the 1930 the development of Once-through system was encouraged,
because big drums and down comers are not necessary in that system.
Additionally, a larger combustion chamber (for difficult coal types) can be design
due to higher design freedom compared to natural circulation systems. It was also
recognized that owing to a more flexible reaction on heat input a more frequent

start-up and shut down is not a problem. Obviously, the once-through system,
where feed water is pre-heated, evaporated and superheated in one step, allows
applying the highest yet controllable pressure and temperature. Supercritical
pressure of 400 bar, superheated temperature of almost 700oC at capacity of over
2000 ton/h steam and thermal efficiency of 43% in condensation power plant are in
realm of possibility.
Benson Boiler Arrangements: Benson boilers are designed and constructed in
two basic arrangements, the two-pass or lower type. Both perform equally well.
The selected arrangement is generally driven by customer preference and site
selection factors. Some particular advantages of two-pass design are:
Small plant profile (height)
Lower cost construction.
More optimized heating surface size because of decoupling back-pass from
furnace section,
Smaller stack height requirement, depending on regulations.
The tower arrangement also has certain advantages. They are:

Small plant footprint, especially if fitted with SCR.

Even flow distribution of flue gas and particulates.
Lower flue gas velocity and erosion potential.
Direct load transmission to the boiler roof and free expansion.
No temperature differences between adjacent wall systems,
Ease of extreme cycling operation.

Part List with Details: This boiler consist of

Air preheater in which air is preheated for economical combustion.

Economizer in which sensible heat is imparted to feed water.
Radiant surface of tubes in which radiant heat is supplied by combustion.
Evaporative surface where the major quantity of water is evaporated.
Super heater tubes in which steam is superheated and led to the work.

Merits:

There are no pressure limitations and it may be as high as super critical.

Absence of circulating pump and down comers.
Absence of drum hence the cost is less.
Lighter in weight, height specific output with high safety factor.
Evaporation is quick.
Self-contained unit can be easily erected.

Demerits:
Evaporation process is accompanied by formation of salt and solids in the
tubes. Special arrangements are required to remove this.
On evaporative surface there is chance of corrosion of the tubes.
Overheating of the tubes in case of insufficient water supply.
Since the storage capacity is small, it requires close coordination between
steam, feed water and fuel input.

Viva Questions:
1. Write about Benson boiler? State some important advantages of Benson
boilers?

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
AIM: To study the solar plate collectors.
THEORY: A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic
cover (called glazing) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The
side and bottom of the collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss. Sun
light passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up,
changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing
through pipes attached to the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly
painted with selective coatings which absorbed and retain better than ordinary
black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal- typically copper and
aluminum- because the metal is good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive,
but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. In locations
with available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately one-halfto one square foot per gallon of one days hot water use.

Flat plate collectors may be divided into two main classifications based on the
types of heat transfer fuel used.
1) Liquid heating collector is used for heating water and non-aqueous solution
and occasional for non-aqueous heat transfer fluids.
2) Gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.
The majority of flat collectors have five main components. They are as
follows:-

a) A transparent corner which may be one or more sheet of glass or

radiation transmitting plastic film or sheets.
b) Tubes, fine passages or channels are integral with the collector absorber
plate or connected to it which carry the water air of other fluids.
c) The absorber plate normally metallic or with a blank surface although a
wide variety of other materials can be used with air heater.
d) Insulation which should be provided at a back side to minimize the heat
losses. Standard insulating materials such as fiber glass hydro foam are
used for this purpose.
Applications: The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where
the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means
a situation with a large family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is
excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include
Laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The
technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or
if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most
likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are
expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require
large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat
water for swimming pools. Because these collectors need not withstand high
temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. They
also do not require freeze-proofing because swimming pools are generally used
only in warm weather or can be drained easily during cold weather. While solar
collectors are most cost-effective in sunny, temperate areas, they can be cost
effective virtually anywhere in the country so should be considered.
Advantages:
They have the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar radiation.
They do not require orientation towards the sun.
They require little maintenance.
They are mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflector observing
surfaces and orientation devices of focusing collectors.
Viva Questions:
What are the main components of flat plate collectors?
Give various applications of solar air heaters?

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
SOLAR PARABOLIC COLLECTORS
AIM: To study the solar parabolic collector.
THEORY: Focusing collector is a device to collect radiation on the energy
absorbing surface. The main difference between focusing and non focusing type is
that the form concentrate only direct radiation converting coming from specific
direction. Since the diffuse radiation arrives from all direction only a very small
proportion is from the direction for which focusing occurs.
Focusing collectors may be of two types:
1. Line focusing type
2. Point focusing type.
The parabolic trough collector is line type of focusing collector. The solar
radiation coming from the particular direction is collected over the area of the
reflecting surface and is concentrated at the focus of parabola if the reflector is in
the form of trough with cross section, the solar radiation is focused along line
mostly cylindrical parabolic concentrators are used in absorber is placed along
focus axis. The collector pipe preferring with selective absorber coating is used as
an absorber. For solar radiation to be brought to focus by parabolic through
reflective the sun must be in such direction that its plane passing through the focal
line and vertex of the parabola.
Solar power is energy from the sun. Although the sun is 150 million kilometers
away it is still extremely powerful. The amount of energy it provides for the earth
in one minute is large enough to meet the earths energy needs for one year. The
problem is in the development of technology that can harness this free energy
source.
Solar collectors are one way of focusing the sun rays to heat up fluids. A typical
array of solar collectors is seen opposite. They are basically unusually shaped
mirrors (parabolic in shape) that focus the heat of the sun on a pipe carrying a
special fluid. The temperature of the fluid in the pipe increases as it flows down the
pipe, along the solar collectors. The pipe extends the entire length of the mirrors.

This type of set up works at its best in desert areas where there is no shortage of
sunlight and very little cloud. The hot fluid in the pipe can be used, through a
system of heat exchangers, to produce electricity or hot water.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Reflecting surfaced require less material and structurally simpler than the flat
plate collector.
2. The absorbers are a concentrator system in the smaller than that of flat plate
collector solar energy collection and therefore the installation energy is generated.
3. Because of the area from which the heat lost to surrounding percent of the solar
energy collector used is less than for flat plate collector.
4. Owing smaller area of absorber unit if solar energy collector areas select the
surface treatment and vacuum insulation efficiency is economically feasible.

5. Focusing or concentrating system can be used for electric solar generator when
not used for heating or cooling.
6. Because of temperature attainable with the amount of heat which can be spread
per unit volume is larger.
7. In solar heating cooling is separate on due to higher temperature attaining the
higher efficiency.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Out of the beam and difficult solar radiation component only beam component is
collected in case of focusing collector because diffused component cannot be
reflected and is thus lost.
2. Addition requirement of maintain particular to retain the quality of reflecting
surface against air, weather, oxidation etc.
3. Non uniform flux on the absorber.
Viva Questions:
1. Enumerate the different types of concentrating type collectors?
2. Why orientation is needed in concentrating type collectors?
3. Advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors over a flat plate
collector?

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL
AIM-To study photo-voltaic cell
THEORY: Direct connection of solar energy to electrical by means of photo
voltaic effect takes place i. e production of electromotive forces as a result of
ionized radiation. As single converter is called solar cell or more called photos
voltaic cell. they are model of semiconductor that revive 5.electrical when they
absorbs light .As photons are revive free electrical energy are generated that can be
collected on contacts applied to the surface of semiconductor .It has theoretical
efficiency o nearly 25% but alternate it is less than even its half.
INTRODUCTION: The ability to produce electricity directly from the suns
energy is a revolutionary development. THE technology involved in the production
of these silicon cell is complicated and the efficiency are still not even close to
those of thermal solar applications ,but these unique energy devices are now seen
in places as common as the yard , the highway one of course the common
calculator. Some material exhibit known as the photoelectric effect that case them
absorb photons of light $ release elections. When these free electrons are captured,
an electric current results that can be used as electricity .This diagram illustrates
the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called solar cell. When light energy
strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the
semiconductors material. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and
negative sides. Forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the
form of an electric current that is electricity.

APPLICATIONS:
1. Power generation in spacecraft.
2. Calculator.
3. Power generation source in houses.
The silicon solar cell used has an efficiency of 12-15%.
A photo voltaic system consist of1. Solar cell worry.
2. Leveler.
3. Storage system.
4. Tracking system (when necessary).

Viva Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Give application of solar photo-voltaic system.

Give advantages and disadvantages of photo-voltaic system.
What is the principle of solar photo-voltaic power generation?
What are the main elements of a photo-voltaic system?