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Chapter Outline

What is Alloy?

Composed of 2 or more chemical elements, at least

Intermetallic Compound

one of it is metal.

Contains 2 basic forms; solid solution and

intermetallic compounds

Solute and solvent

Crystal structure maintained during alloying called

solid solution

Substitutional Solid Solution size similar to solvent

Complex structure which consist of two metals

Solute are present in solvent atom

Strong hard, brittle, and hard

High melting point

Good oxidation resistance

Low density

E.g:

Ti3Al, Ni3Al, Fe3Al

Interstitial solid solution size much smaller than

solvent atom

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Two-Phase System
Alloy consist of two or more solid phase
Two solid phase called two phase system
Homogenous portion which each has it own characteristics.
e.g: sand and water, or ice in water
Such as small amount of lead in solid solution copper, lead
dispersed through out of structure.

Phase Diagram

(a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed

throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy.
The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are
lead as a second phase.
(b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system consisting of two sets of grains:
dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions
and properties.

Binary Isomorphous Alloy System

Phase diagrams show the mixture of

phases present in thermodynamic
equilibrium
Tells you what phase(s) present for a given
temperature and composition roadmap
Temperature vs. Composition
One basis is: Temp. vs Time cooling curves
It is very valuable to be able to construct a
phase diagram and know how to use it to
predict behaviour of materials

Binary Isomorphous Alloy System:

Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram

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Lever rule

A copper nickel alloy contains 47wt % Cu and 53 wt% Ni and is at

1300oC.
1. What is the weight percent of copper in the liquid and solid
phase at this temperature?
2. What weight percent of this alloy is liquid and what weight
percent of solid?

Wt fraction of solid phase = Xs = wo wl / ws wl

Wt fraction of liquid phase= Xl= ws-wo / ws-wl

The intersection of the 1300OC tie line with the

liquidus gives 55wt% Cu in the liquid phase and the
intersection of the solidus of 1300OC tie line gives
42wt% Cu in the solid phase.

From figure wo=53%, wl=45% and ws=58%.

(i) Wt fraction of liquid phase, Xl
= ws-wo/ws-wl
= 58-53/58-45
= 0.38 (Wt of liquid phase is 38%)

Lines on the Phase Diagram

(ii) Wt fraction of solid phase, Xs

= wo-wl/ws-wl
= 53-45/58-45
= 0.62 (Wt % of solid phase= 62%)

liquidus - line representing the temperatures at

which various compositions begin to freeze upon
cooling (liquid and mush)
solidus - line representing the temperatures at
which various compositions finish freezing upon
cooling (mush and solid)
solvus - line representing the limit of solid
solubility; a line separating solid phases (1 phase
and 2 phases)

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What phases are present?

What are the proportions of the phases present?

To determine the proportions of B + L at Z, carry
out the following steps:
Draw a line through Z, parallel to the base of the
diagram (This line is at a constant temperature and
is an isothermal) This line should extend only to
the boundaries of the B + L field - Points X and Y.
Measure the three line segments - ZX, Zy and XY
and ratio these lengths using the lever rule.
% B = ZX/XY * 100 = 38% B
%L = ZY/XY * 100 = 62% L

Point Z lies in the field where two phases, B + L, are in

equilibrium, therefore the two phases present have to be solid B
and Liquid.

Binary Eutectic Alloy System:

Lead-Tin Phase Diagram

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Eutectic reaction:
L (61.9%Sn) --> (19.2%Sn) + (97.5%Sn)

(oC)

oC

o
183 C

A has a low temperature phase dissolve about 5% B

A has a high temperature phase dissolve as much as 40% B

232oC

Try this:

B can dissolve up to 10% A, the phase is labelled .

1 kg of an alloy of 70% Pb and 30% Sn is slowly

cooled from 300oC. Refer to the lead-tin phase
diagram and calculate the following:
a) The wt% of the liquid and proeutectic alpha at
250oC
b) The wt% of the liquid and proeutectic alpha
just above the eutectic temp (183oC) and the
weight in kg of these phases
c) The weight in kg of alpha and beta formed by
the eutectic reaction.

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Iron-Carbon System

Thank You

Phase Diagram

Tells you what phase(s) are present for a

given temperature and composition
Temperature vs. Composition

Compositions of Phases

Microstructure in Steels

Iron-Carbon System

Ferrous alloys, cast iron and cast steels used extensively

due to low cost and versatile properties.

Pure iron 0.008% carbon, steels up to 2.11%carbon, cast

iron up to 4% carbon.

Steels and cast iron representated by iron-carbon binary

system.

Solid phases in Fe-Fe3C phase diagram:

i. ferrite
ii. Austenite ()
iii. Cementite (Fe3C)
iv. ferrite

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Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this
diagram is one of the most important of all phase diagrams.

-Ferrite

ferrite or ferrite, maximum solid solubility of 0.025%C
at 723oC.

Relatively soft and ductile; magnetic at room
temperature to 768oC.

Amount of Carbon can affect the mechanical properties
of ferrite.

Austenite ()

Between 1394 to 912oC iron undergoes change from

BCC to FCC structure that is -iron or most commonly

called austenite

Solid solubility up to 2.11% carbon at 1148oC.

Have interstitial carbon in FCC structure

Single phase FCC structure ductile at elevated
temperature, good formability, and non magnetic steels

Cementite (Fe3C)

Intermetallic compound (between Fe and C)

Content of 100% of iron carbide (Fe3C), which is carbon

content of 6.67%, and 93.3% Fe.

Very hard and brittle.

-ferrite

Solid solution of Carbon in -iron

Maximum solubility ~0.09% at 1465oC

BCC structure

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Reactions in Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Eutectoid Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 723C and can be written as

Peritectic Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 1495C and it can be written as
Liquid (0.53 % C) + (0.09 % C)  (0.17 % C)

Ferrite is high-temperature phase and is not encountered

austenite (0.8 % C)  ferrite (0.02 % C) + Fe3C (6.67 % C)

The eutectoid reaction takes place completely in the solid phase,
and is important for some of the heat treatments of plaincarbon steels.

in plain-carbon steels at lower temperatures.

Eutectic Reaction:
This reaction occurs at 1148C and is written as
Liquid (4.43 % C)  austenite (2.08 % C) + Fe3C (6.67 % C)
This reaction is not encountered in plain-carbon steels because
their carbon content is too low.

Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below

Eutectoid Temperature

Schematic illustration
of the microstructures
for an iron-carbon alloy
of eutectoid
composition (0.77%
carbon), above and
below the eutectoid
temperature of 727 C
(1341 F).

Various can be changed depend on the carbon content,

amount of plastic deformation (working) and heat
treatment.

At 0.07% carbon content called eutectic point.

Where cooled very slowly from high temperature 1100oC
in the austenite phase.

At 727oC austenite is transformed into ferrite(BCC)+
cementite which is the the reaction called eutectoid reaction.
Single solid phase change into two solid phase (ferrite
+cementite). This structure is called pearlite.

Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel,

formed from austenite of eutectoid
composition. In this lamellar structure, the
lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker
regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X.
Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.

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Mechanical properties of pearlite are intermediate

Hypoeutectoid Plain- Carbon steels

between those ferrite (soft and ductile) and

cementite (hard and brittle).

Less then 0.77% carbon consist of pearlite

phase + ferrite phase. The ferrite phase is called

proeutectoid ferrite, forms at temperature higher
than the eutectoid temperature of 727oC in the +
region.

More than 0.77% carbon, austenite transform

Microstructure of a 0.35% C
hypoeutectoid plain-carbon
steel slowly cooled from
austenite region. The white
is proeutectoid ferrite; the
dark constituent is pearlite

into pearlite and cementite. The cementite int the

pearlite is called eutectoid cementite, and the
cementite phase is called proeuctectoid cementite.

Hypereutectoid Plain- Carbon steels

Question
A 0.80 % C eutectoid carbon-steel is slowly cooled from 750 Celcius
to a temperature just slightly below 723 Celsius. Assuming that the
austenite is completely tranformed to alpha ferrite and cementite;
Calculate the weight percent eutectoid ferrite formed
Calculate the weight percent eutectoid cementite formed

Microstructure of a 1.25% C
hypereutectoid plain-carbon
steel slowly cooled from
austenite region. In this
structure proectectoid
cementite appears in white
thas has formed at the
former austenite grain
boundaries. The remaining
structure consist of coarse
lamellar pearlite.

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Austenite, Ferrite, & Martensite

Exercise
1.

Define the following phases that exist in the Fe-Fe3C

phase diagram:
(a) austenite, (b) ferrite, (c) cementite, (d) ferrite.

2.

The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite.
(d) The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice
dimensions for martensite.
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Note, also, the
increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect
causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a
rectangular prism.

A 0.55 %C hypoeutectoid plain-carbon steel is slowly

cooled from 950C to a temperature just slightly
below 723C.
(a) Calculate the weight percent proeutectoid ferrite
in the steel.
(b) Calculate the weight percent eutectoid ferrite and
the eutectoid cementite in the steel.

Cast Iron

Refers to a ferrous alloy composed of iron, carbon

(ranging from 2.11% to 4.5%), and silicon (up to 3.5%).

Thank You
Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of
cementite) as the stable phase.

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Heat treatment

Hardenability

Annealing

Metal Alloys:

Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys

Austenite, Ferrite, & Martensite

Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys

Microstructure can be modified by heat treatment

techniques, by controlling the heating and cooling of

the alloys at various state. It will force phase
transformation which effect the mechanical
properties.

Effects of thermal treatment depend on the alloy, on it

The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite.
(d) The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice
dimensions for martensite.
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Note, also, the
increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect
causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a
rectangular prism.

composition and microstructure, on the degree of prior

cold work, and on the rates of heating and cooling
during heat treatment.

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Heat Treating: Concept I

To force a metal to do something the normal

laws of solubility will not let it do.
Usual case is to cause one phase to dissolve in
another when it normally wouldnt.

Heat Treating: Concept II

So, we must have a two-phase region (at room

temperature) with a single phase region at a higher

temperature.

When we heat up to higher temperature, the metal
becomes one phase.

Then we cool fast enough that we retain the higher
temperature phase at the lower temperature.

Where it may exist as that phase or change
(transform) into something else thats useful.

Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below

Eutectoid Temperature

Schematic illustration
of the microstructures
for an iron-carbon alloy
of eutectoid
composition (0.77%
carbon), above and
below the eutectoid
temperature of 727 C
(1341 F).

Austenite
To
Pearlite
Transformation
(a)Austenite-to-pearlite transformation of iron-

carbon alloy as a function of time and

temperature.
(b)Slow cooling

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Martensite
Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Interlamellar Spacing
Eutectic Grain Size
Shape of the Eutectic
Amount of Eutectic

Plain-carbon steel austenite condition rapidly cooled to room

temperature by quenching in water.

A supersaturated interstitial solid solution of carbon in body

centered tetragonal iron

Structure change from austenite to martensite

The temperature,upon cooling, at which the austenite to

martensite transformation starts is called the martensite start,

Ms.

The temperature at which transformation finishes is called the

martensite finish, Mf ,temperature.

The Ms, temperature for Fe-C alloys decrease as the weight

percent carbon increases in these alloys.

Quench

cooled in air.

If Austenite quenched rapidly enough and to a low

enough temperature, below Ms, martensite is

produced.

Temperature (oF)

Is generally done in water or oil; tool steels often

Temperature (oC)

A rapid cooling after solution heat treatment.

It is a metastable phase (not an equilibrium

phase) hard, brittle, interstitial supersaturated

solid solution of carbon in BCT iron.

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Martensite

Austenite rapidly cooled to room temperature by quench in

water it will changed to martensite.

The temperature, upon cooling at which autenite-tomartensite transformation called martensite start Ms,
finish called martensite finish Mf.

The Ms decrease as the weight percent of carbon increase

Austenite is cooled at a high temperature FCC is transformed to

body centered tetragonal (BCT) which this structure is called
martensite
Long lamellae and others slightly elongated of its priciples
Hard and brittle and lack of toughness

(b)

(a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of

martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite;
they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions).
Magnification: 1000X.

Tempered Martensite
Martensite is tempered to improve mechanical properties.
Tempering by heating: hardness is reduced and toughness is
improved.
o
o
Heating at 150 C -650 C where it decompose to 2 phase consist of
BCC ferrite and small particles of cementite
Increasing tempering time and temperature, hardness decrease due
to particles cementite grow bigger

Structure of lath martensite

Plate type
oC

The transformation of austenite to martensite in Fe-C alloys is

oC

considered difussionless since the transformation taken too rapidly.

oC

Carbon contents in Fe-C martensite of less than about 0.2% C the

austenite transform to a BCC ferrite crystal structure.

oC

oC
oF)

oF)

oF)

oF)
oF)

Hardness of tempered martensite, as a

function of tempering time, for 1080
steel quenched to 65 HRC. Hardness
decreases because the carbide
particles coalesce and grow in size,
thereby increasing the interparticle
distance of the softer ferrite.

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Spheroidite

Isothermal Decomposition of Austenite

Martensite is heated to just below eutectoid temperature

and the held for a period of time (anneling) such for a day

Previous section the reaction products from the

decomposition of austenite of eutectoid plain-carbon

steels for very slow or rapid conditions have been
describe
Microstructure of
eutectoid steel.
Spheroidite is formed by
tempering the steel at
700 C (1292 F).
Magnification: 1000X.

Now, what reaction products form when austenite of

eutectoid steels is rapidly cooled to temperature below

the eutectoid temperature and the isothermally
transformed.

Isothermal tranformation experiments to investigate

the microstructural changes for the decomposition of

eutectoid austenite.

Specimens are 1st austenitized in furnace temperature

above the eutectoid temperature.

Then rapidly cooled(quenched) in a liquid salt bath at the
desired temperature below eutectoid temperature at various
time intervals.

Then samples quenched into water at room temperature.
The microstructure after each transformation time can then
be examined at room temperature

After being austenitized, sample are hot quench in to salt

bath at 705oC. After 6 min, coarse pearlite formed to a
small extent.

After 67min, the austenite is completely transformed to
coarse pearlite.

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Bainite
Fine microstructure of ferrite and cementite
Exist when cooling rates are higher
Stronger and more ductile than pearlite steel at the
same hardness level

S curved next to temperature axis indicate the time

necessary for the isothermal transformation of austenite to

begin, and the second curve indicate the time required for
the transformation to be completed

Coarse Pearlite, Fine Pearlite, Bainite, Martnesite

Isothermal transformation of

Upper bainite

Lower bainite

eutectoid steels at temperature 723oC

and about 550oC produce pearlite
microstructure (hot quench).

Transformation temperature decrease
in this range, the pearlite change from
a coarse to fine structure.

Rapid quenching from 723oC of
eutectoid steel where it is in austenite
condition, transform austenite into
martensite.

If euctectoid steels in the austenite
condition are hot quenched to
temperature in the 550-250oC range
and are isothermally transformed,
structure intermediate between pearlite
and martensite, called bainite.

Upper bainite formed by isothermal
transformation temperature between
550-350oC, large, rodlike cementite
region.

Lower bainite formed from 350250oC, fine cementite particles.

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Continous Cooling Transformation Diagram for

a Eutectoid Plain-Carbon Steel

Industrial heat treating operations, in

most cases a steel is not isothermally

transformed at a temperature above the
martensite start temperature but
continously cooled from the austenitic
temperature to room temperature.

The transformation from austenite to
pearlite occurs over the range of
temperature rather than at a single
isothermal temperature.

The continuous cooling
transformation diagram start and finish
lines are shifted to longer times and
slightly lower temperature below about
450oC for the austenite to bainite
transformation.

Hardness and Toughness of

Annealed Steels
(a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon
steels, as a function of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are
lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate.
The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles.
Note that the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease after
0.77% carbon.

Figure show different cooling rates of

eutectoid plain carbon steels cooled

continuously from austenite region to
room temperature.

A curve very slow cooling, such as by
shutting off power of an electric furnace
and allowing the steel cool as the
furnace cools. Microstructure would be
coarse pearlite.

B more rapid cooling such as by
removing austenitized steel from a
furnace and allowing the steel to cool in
the air. Fine pearlite microstructure

C starts with the formation of
pearlite, but there is insufficient time to
complete the austenite -to-pearlite
transformation. The remaining austenite
do not transform to pearlite will
transform to martensite at lower temp.
250oC. Mix of pearlite and martensite.

Cooling at a rate faster that curve E
(critical cooling rate), will produce fully
hardened martensite structure.

Variation on the microstructure of

eutectoid carbon steel by continously
cooling at different rates

Mechanical Properties of
Annealed Steels

Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition

and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength
and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing
amounts of pearlite and iron carbide.

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Hardenability of ferrous alloy

Jominy test

HARDENABILITY

The capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat treatment

A measure of the depth of hardness that can be obtained
by heating and subsequent quenching
Most common test is Jominy hardenability test.
The hardenability of steels depends primarily on:
i.
The composition of steel
ii. The austenitic grain size
iii. The structure of the steel before quenching and
iv. The cooling rate

Jominy Test

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Annealing

The restoration of cold-worked or heat treated alloy

to its original properties.
To increase ductility, reduce hardness and strength as
to modify microstructure.
Also to release residual stress to improved
machinability and dimensional stability
Three process involved;
i. Heating the workpiece to a specific range of
temperature in a furnace,
ii. Holding at that temperature for a period of time,
iii. Air furnace cooling

Heat-treating temperature ranges for plain-carbon steels,

as indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.

Annealing

Temperature higher than recrystallization

temperature such as copper ranges 200300C, Annealing to recover the original
properties from 260-650C.
Full annealing term for annealing of ferrous
alloys, generally low carbon and mediumcarbon steels. Steel heated at A1or A3, and
the cooling slowly in a furnace. Obtained
coarse pearlite which soft and ductile and
has small uniform grains.

Normalizing

The normalizing heat treatment for steel

consists of heating within the austenitic
region and then cooling in still air.
Some of the purposes for normalizing
include:
1. to refine the grain structure;
2. to increase the strength of the steel, as
compared to annealed steel;
3. to reduce compositional segregation in
castings or forgings and thus provide a more
uniform structure.
4. to avoid excessive softness from
annealing of steels cooling in still air

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Normalizing

Fine pearlite with small uniform grains.

Higher strength and hardness lower ductility
than full annealing.
To obtain uniform structure, to decrease
residual stresses and to improve
machinability
Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized
conditions, as a function of carbon content.

Austempering

Tempering

Thermal treatment of steels (generally done below

1330oF).
The purpose is to reduce brittleness caused by
previous rapid cooling that created the martensite.
Strength/hardness properties are reduced,
toughness and ductility improved.

Heated steel is quenched from austenizing

temperature rapidly enough to avoid formation of
ferrite and pearlite.
Certain temperature until isothermal transformation
from austenite to bainite is complete, then cooled to
room temperature
Medium of quench is molten salt cooled in still air

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Martempering
The martempering or marquenching process for a plain-carbon
steel produces a martensitic microstructure and consists of:
1. austenitizing the steel;
2. quenching the steel in oil or molten salt at a temperature just
slightly above the Ms temperature;
3. holding the steel in the quenching medium temperature for a
time period sufficient to provide thermal equilibrium of the
steel with the medium, without causing the initiation of the
austenite-to-bainite transformation;
4. cooling the steel at a moderate rate to room temperature.

Martempering
The advantages of martempering are
i.
The minimization of distortion and
cracking of the workpiece.
ii.
By subsequent tempering, the
martempered steel develops a tempered
martensite microstructure which provides for
higher impact energy.

Ausforming
In the austempering process, the steel is austenitized, then quenched in a
molten salt bath at a temperature just above the steel Ms temperature, held
isothermally until the austenite-to- bainite transformation is complete, then
cooled to room temperature in air.

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Tutorial

Define austenite, pearlite and martensite. (sketch the microstructure)

Define tempering. What is the significance?

How malleable iron is made?

Describe about heat treated products.

Differentiate between pearlite and spheroidite.

Thank You

Explain about normalizing heat treatment for steel and what are some
of it purposes?

Outline of Heat Treatment

Processes for Surface Hardening

Case Hardening
Alteration only the surface properties (surface indention,
fatigue, and wear)
Application and parts such as gear teeth, cams, shafts,
bearing, fasteners, pins and etc.
Hardening is not desirable due to hard part lacks of
necessary toughness
Small surface crack could propagate rapidly through
cause total failure
Various surface-hardening process available;
carburizing, carbonitriding, cyaniding, boronizing, flame
hardening, induction hardening and laser hardening.

TABLE 4.1

Process

Carburizing

Carbonitriding

Metals
Element
hardened added to
surface
LowC
carbon
steel
(0.2% C),
alloy
steels
(0.08
0.2% C)

Lowcarbon
steel

C and N

Procedure

General
Characteristics

Typical
applications

Heat steel at 870

950 C (1600
1750 F) in an
atmosphere of
carbonaceous
gases (gas
carburizing) or
carboncontaining solids
(pack
carburizing).
Then quench.
Heat steel at 700
800 C (1300
1600 F) in an
atmosphere of
carbonaceous gas
and ammonia.
Then quench in
oil.

A hard, high-carbon
surface is produced.
Hardness 55 to 65
HRC. Case depth <
0.51.5 mm ( < 0.020
to 0.060 in.). Some
distortion of part
during heat
treatment.

Gears, cams,
shafts,
bearings,
piston pins,
sprockets,
clutch plates

Surface hardness 55
to 62 HRC. Case
depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm
(0.003 to 0.020 in.).
Less distortion than
in
carburizing.

Bolts, nuts,
gears

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Outline of Heat Treatment

Processes for Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1

Process

Metals
hardened

Cyaniding

Lowcarbon
steel
(0.2% C),
alloy
steels
(0.08
0.2% C)
Steels (1% N
Al, 1.5%
Cr, 0.3%
Mo), alloy
steels (Cr,
Mo),
stainless
steels,
high-speed
tool steels

Nitriding

Element
added to
surface
C and N

Procedure

General
Characteristics

Typical
applications

Heat steel at 760845

C (14001550 F) in a
molten bath of
solutions of cyanide
(e.g., 30% sodium
cyanide) and other
salts.

Bolts, nuts,
Surface hardness
screws, small
up to 65 HRC.
Case depth 0.025 gears
to 0.25 mm (0.001
to 0.010 in.).
Some distortion.

Heat steel at 500600

C (9251100 F) in an
atmosphere of
ammonia gas or
mixtures of molten
cyanide salts. No
further treatment.

Surface hardness
up to 1100 HV.
Case depth 0.1 to
0.6 mm (0.005 to
0.030 in.) and
0.02 to 0.07 mm
(0.001
to 0.003 in.) for
high speed steel.

Gears, shafts,
sprockets,
valves,
cutters, boring
bars, fuelinjection
pump parts

Outline of Heat Treatment

Processes for Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1

Process

Metals
hardened

Element
added to
surface
B

Procedure

General
Characteristics

Boronizing

Steels

Part is heated using

boron-containing gas
or solid in contact with
part.

Extremely hard
and wear resistant
surface. Case
depth 0.025
0.075 mm (0.001
0.003 in.).
Surface hardness
50 to 60 HRC.
Case depth 0.7 to
6 mm (0.030 to
0.25 in.). Little
distortion.

Flame
hardening

Mediumcarbon
steels,
cast irons

None

Surface is heated with

an oxyacetylene torch,
then quenched with
water spray or other
quenching methods.

Induction
hardening

Same as
above

None

Metal part is placed in

copper induction coils
and is heated by high
frequency current, then
quenched.

Same as above

Typical
applications
Tool and die
steels

Gear and
sprocket teeth,
axles,
crankshafts,
piston rods,
lathe beds and
centers
Same as above

Thank You

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