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Computer Architecture:
It is basically the higher-level or top-level functional view of the computer hardware.
Computer Architecture is study of the structure and behaviour of the various functional
modules of the digital computer as seen by the programmer and also how they interact
to provide the processing needs of the user.
Architecture includes the instruction formats, instruction
sets, and addressing modes.
Computer Organization:
Organization is basically the designer view of the computer hardware, i.e. as a designer,
one must know, how the different hardware elements are designed and implemented,
how they are interconnect, how they operate.
Organization includes- 1) Bus Org.
3) Memory Technology.
Harvard Architecture:
Harvard Architecture is a computer architecture where the storage and signal pathways
for instruction and data are physically separated. So, CPU can read both instruction and
data simultaneously from the memory.
Instruction Set:
Instruction Set is the set of instruction that a machine is able to execute. Each
particular machine has its own set of instructions i.e. an instruction set, which consists
of all the instruction used in that particular computer, varies from computer to computer
depending on the specific organization and architecture of the computer.
Instruction Format:
Instruction format deals whit the looks of basic instruction
Each instruction has three parts. These are i) op-code ii) addressing mode
iii) address
Op-code- Op-code is the operation code that indicates the specific operation to be
carried out by the instruction.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Effective Address: Effective address means the actual address of the operands.
Implied Mode- In this mode the operands are specified implicitly in the
(ii)
(iii)
value is a constant.
Register Mode or Register Direct Mode- In this mode the operands reside
in the register that reside within the CPU i.e. the operands reside directly in
(iv)
(v)
Direct Address Mode- In this mode, the effective address of the operand is
equal to the address part of the instruction i.e. the address part of the
instruction indicate the memory location containing the operand.
(vi)
Indirect Address Mode- In this address field of the instruction gives the
address where the effective address is stored in memory i.e. the address part
of the of the instruction indicates the memory location whose content is the
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
Base Register Address Mode- In this mode the content of the base register
is added to the address part of the instruction to obtain the actual address of
the operand (i.e. the effective address).
(x)
Stack Addressing Mode- Here the address of the operand is specified by the
stack pointer (SP). The length of the instruction is the shortest as it does not
include any address of the memory location or mention any register. After
each stack operation, the contents of the SP are automatically incremented or
decremented. PUSH and POP are two commonly used instruction of this type.
(ii)
(iii)
B
Program Control and Status Checking Instructions- Program Control
instructions (like branch instruction) change the program execution sequence.
Example- JMP NZ (Jump if not zero). Status checking instructions monitors
the status of the flag for a condition and checks whether the condition is true
or false. If true then some operation is performed and if false then some other
operation performed.
(iv)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)- Such computers have very less
number of instructions in the instruction set and hence can be executed much faster
within the CPU, almost without having to use memory as often.
The Characteristics of RISC are:
(a) Very simple and less number of instructions in the instruction set.
(b) Few addressing modes.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Adder
Adder Subtractor Unit
Arithmetic Unit
Logical Unit
Increment Unit
Decrement Unit
Adder:
There are two types of adder. These are- a) Serial Adder, b)Parallel Adder.
Serial Adder- Serial adder is a binary adder that adds the two numbers bit-pair wise.
Each bit-pair are added in a single clock pulse. The carry of each pair is propagated to
the next pair.
Parallel Adder- Parallel adder is two types, one Carry propagate adder/Ripple carry
adder and another is Carry Look-ahead adder.
Carry propagate adder- Binary adder is the digital circuit that generates the arithmetic
sum of two binary numbers of any lengths. Multiple cascaded full adder circuits
constitute a binary adder. The output carry from one full-adder is connected to the input
carry of the next higher order full-adder and so on.
Carry Look-ahead adder- This is very fast adder circuit which speeds up the generation
of carry signals by using the same (almost) logic as that of parallel adders. The logic
expressions for sum (si) and carry-out (ci) of stage i are:
si = Ai + Bi + ci
and
The expression Gi and Pi are called generate and propagate function of stage i
respectively.
Arithmetic Unit:
The basic component of an arithmetic circuit is the parallel adder. By controlling the
data inputs to the adder, it is possible to obtain different types of arithmetic operations.
The output of the binary adder is calculated from the following arithmetic sum:
D = A + Y + Cin
Where A is the 4-bit binary number at the X inputs and Y is the 4-bt binary number at
the Y inputs of the binary adder. Cin is the input carry, which can be equal to 0 or 1.
Here + sign is arithmetic plus.