CONTINUOUS MONITORING OF THE RESUND BRIDGE:

SYSTEM AND DATA ANALYSIS

B. Peeters(1), G. Couvreur(2), O. Razinkov(2), C. Kndig(2), H. Van der Auweraer(1), and G. De Roeck(3)

(1)

LMS International
Interleuvenlaan 68
B-3001 Heverlee, BELGIUM
E-mail: bart.peeters@lms.be
www.lmsintl.com

(2)

GeoSIG
Europastrasse 11
CH-8152 Glattbrugg, SWITZERLAND
www.geosig.com

INTRODUCTION

The number of civil engineering structures that are equipped

with monitoring systems is rapidly increasing. Typical
examples are long-span cable-stayed and suspension
bridges which represent a large capital investment and
where the use of a permanent monitoring system is easily
justified and often recommended by insurance companies.
Such a monitoring system can serve several purposes:

Design verification. It is verified whether the structural

static and dynamic response is not exceeding the design
values.
Event recording. Important load (wind, traffic) or
response (strains, accelerations) quantities are recorded
when preset thresholds are exceeded; for archival
reasons or to take decisions about the serviceableness
of a bridge. For instance at too large wind speeds, it may
be uncomfortable to use the bridge.
Health monitoring. The recorded data can be used to
derive experimental models. Information on the structural

Department of Civil Engineering

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40
B-3001 Heverlee, BELGIUM
www.bwk.kuleuven.ac.be/bwm

health can be obtained by tracking the evolution of these

experimental models or by confronting experimental data
with analytical models.

ABSTRACT
The resund Bridge opened in July 2000. It is the most
striking part of the fixed link across the resund connecting
Copenhagen (Denmark) and Malm (Sweden), which further
includes a tunnel and an artificial island. The bridge is
equipped with a PC-based continuous monitoring system,
capable of measuring both static and dynamic quantities
such as temperatures, wind characteristics, air humidity,
strains and accelerations. The challenges for the design of
the monitoring system were the long distances between the
monitoring points and the variety of sensors. This paper
describes the bridge and the monitoring system
components. Some typical measurement data are
presented. Finally, the modal parameters of the bridge are
extracted from the deck, cable and tower vibrations. This
shows that the system does not only give information about
sudden events that exceed a certain threshold, but can also
be used as a health monitoring system by tracking the
evolution of the modal parameters.

(3)

Numerous examples of permanently monitored bridges are

readily found in the proceedings of the SHM [1], IMAC [2]
and SPIE [3] conferences of the last years.
This paper presents a state-of-the-art monitoring system that
was installed on a state-of-the-art bridge. In Section 2 the
resund Bridge is introduced. Section 3 presents the
monitoring system itself and its normal mode of operation. In
section 4 the vibration signals of the cables, deck and towers
are analysed. These analyses of dynamic data were done
offline, using data captured by the permanent system but are
not part of the standard analysis procedures of the system.
2

THE RESUND BRIDGE

Since July 2000, Sweden and Denmark are connected

through the resund fixed link consisting of 8 km of bridge
and 4 km of tunnel, joined by a 4 km long artificial island
(Figure 1). The bridge has a quite unique two-level design,
with a four-lane motorway placed above a two-track railway

Figure 1: The resund fixed link.

The tops of the pylons are at 204 m above sea level and the
minimum headroom under the main span is 57 m. The
monitoring system discussed in next section is installed on
the cable-stayed part of the bridge.

30.5 m

THE CONTINUOUS MONITORING SYSTEM

The bridge owner was concerned about the stay cable

oscillations under heavy wind conditions, as well as the
deformation of the bridge when trains or heavy trucks are
passing. Therefore GeoSIG installed a new type of
monitoring system (called CR-4 Central Recorder) that is
able to acquire both dynamic and static data.

18039602

Figure 2: Cross section of the cable-stayed bridge spans.

(Figure 2). The bridge consists of 49 approach spans (7

spans of 120 m, 42 spans of 140 m) and a cable-stayed
component with 2 side spans at each side (160 m and
141 m) and a main span of 490 m over the navigational
channel (Figure 3).
10 Pairs of cables at each side are connecting the pylons of
the two H-shaped towers with the bridge deck (Figure 4).

Figure 3: Cable-stayed part of the resund Bridge.

At the resund Bridge, 85 dynamic channels are installed

which permanently record at a sample rate of 100 Hz signals
from 22 triaxial accelerometers and 19 strain gauges. The
static measurement channels are connected to 12
temperature sensors at different points of the bridge and to 2
weather stations, one at the top of a pylon and the other at
road level. Static information, such as minimum, maximum
and mean values, is extracted from the dynamic channels for
long-term analysis. The CR-4 acquisition system is placed in
a technical room at one of the pylons. There is a telephone
connection to the general control room of the resund link,
3 km away from the pylon, allowing automatic data retrieval.

Figure 4: Pylons and stay cables.

generating the sensor test pulse output, and CM-504

modules for Pt100 temperature sensors. Not used in this
project but also available is the CM-505 module for LVDT
displacement sensors. The junction box is connected to the
CR-4 main cabinet (Figure 5). Power can be supplied locally
or in this case from the cabinet. The signals from the junction
box are digitally transferred to the cabinet through a RS-485
link to avoid any loss of power.

3.1

CR-4 System description

The CR-4 system allows different data collection strategies:

Dynamic acquisition with A/D conversion in the recorder,

handles up to 33 dynamic channels with maximum
sample rate of 1000 Hz.
Dynamic acquisition with A/D conversion near the
sensor, handles up to 132 dynamic channels with a
maximum sample rate of 200 Hz.
Static acquisition with A/D conversion near the sensor,
handles up to 44 chains with each up to 26 static junction
boxes (see below) with each up to 6 channels. So as
much as 6864 static channels are possible.

Sensor
3-axis

CM-5xx
CM-5xx
CM-5xx
CM-500

For the resund Bridge a combination of the second and

third option has been chosen. The acquisition near the
sensor is done by means of a CM-500 junction box with
acquisition modules. Modules differ as a function of the type
of sensor that will be connected. In this case, CM-501
modules were used for the strain gauges, CM-502 modules
for voltage inputs like accelerometer and weather station
signals, CM-503 modules for powering the sensors and

The static architecture is different in the way that several

junction boxes can be connected to the same wire. This is
not possible in the dynamic mode because of the high baud
rate that must be guaranteed. To avoid unnecessary power
loss and voltage drops in the powering cables, the CM-500
only powers the sensor if a sample is requested. A start-up
routine assures constant values.
A 12V/115Ah battery assures power for 15 h in case of
power loss. This is sufficient for local conditions, as power
failures do not often occur and, if they occur, it would only be
for a short period. For accurate timing, a GPS receiver can
be connected to the CR-4 that updates the computer time.
3.2

Sensors

The resund installation contains 4 types of sensors. They

are specified below together with the type of information that

CR4-31
Galvanic
Separation

Power

Figure 5: The CR-4 (Central Recorder) main cabinet.

The block diagram of Figure 6 represents the architecture of

the dynamic measurement chain: from the sensors at the left
to the computer at the right. The analog signal goes from the
sensor to the CM-5xx acquisition module where it is
converted on request to a digital signal and transferred to the
CM-500 module. The CM-500 module makes a package
from the collected samples and sends it to the CR4-30
module through the CR4-31 protection board. The CR4-31 is
a galvanic separation between the CR-4 with the computer
and the external part of the system. The CR4-30 contains 4
PIC-Boards, each PIC controlling one CM-500 in dynamic
mode and up to 26 chained ones in static mode. The data
package of each channel is stored in the PIC and will be
sent on request to the CR4-20 DSP board where the data is
stored in ring buffers. Finally the computer (CR-4 software)
collects each second one-second packages of the DSPBoards. The computer does signal analysis and treatment,
and according to the user-specified trigger mode, the signals
are stored in an event file.

CR4-30
PICBoard

CR4-20
DSPBoard

Sensor
1-axis

Sensor
1-axis

Sensor
1-axis

Figure 6: Dynamic data acquisition architecture.

CM-5xx
CM-5xx
CM-5xx
CM-500

CR4-20
DSPBoard

CR4-20
DSPBoard

Computer

Figure 7: GeoSIG triaxial accelerometer AC-53 mounted on a cable.

is extracted from the quantities that they measure.

22 Triaxial force balance accelerometers AC-53, 2 g full

scale (Figure 7). Most of these accelerometers (16) are
mounted on the stay cables to measure the cable
vibrations. The 2 tops of the east pylons are also
equipped with accelerometers, as well as 4 locations
along the deck. These sensors allow monitoring the
cable vibrations under heavy wind load and the bridge
response to railway and road traffic.

19 Strain gauges LV3400VS0. Twelve strain gauges are

mounted on 3 steel outriggers of the cables, one on each
side. Two are mounted on the rail level in the concrete
and five are mounted on the lower side of the bridge.
These sensors are mainly observing torsions due to
heavy wind and railway traffic.

12 Thermometers Pt100 are mounted on different

locations, but mostly at the pylons. These sensors are
measuring temperatures, which are correlated with the
strain gauge measurements.

2 Weather stations measuring wind speed, wind direction

(1172T), air humidity and air temperature (RHA1). One is
mounted on the top of a pylon, the other at road level
(Figure 8). The wind measurements serve as a reference
for the stay cable vibrations. The air humidity and
temperature complete the meteorological information.

3.3

CR-4 Software

The Windows-based data acquisition and processing

software for the CR-4 system consists of the following three
parts:

SEISLOG controls the CR-4 system and acquires data

from the DSP boards.
CENTRAL provides the interface for remote access to
the CR-4 systems.
CMS (Civil Monitoring System) processes the static data
acquired by the system.

The software used for data acquisition in the monitoring

system for the resund Bridge is an extended version of the
well-known seismic program SEISLOG developed and
supported by the University of Bergen, Norway [4]. GeoSIG
has extended this standard version with the new functionality
such as remote control, alarm functions, data view and
analysis, drivers for the CR-4 system and other options.
SEISLOG configures the system upon start up and then

Figure 8: Weather station at the deck level of the bridge.

acquires both dynamic and static data continuously from all

configured channels. Dynamic data are analysed by the
triggering algorithm, which is set to declare seismic events
and alarms if the signal of selected data channels exceeds
some specified level. In such cases the data are logged to
the event file, which can be viewed and analysed afterwards.
At the same time the alarm signal is sent to the traffic control
centre alerting responsible persons about strong vibrations
of the bridge. Static data are logged to another file
periodically. SEISLOG has a monitoring screen, which
indicates the operating status of all dynamic data channels,
status of the trigger and other parameters. The waveform
signal of any data channel can be viewed on the screen in
near real-time mode.
Every event file and every new portion of the static data is
delivered to the traffic control centre through a telephone
line. The CENTRAL software is responsible for receiving this
information. SEISLOG also reports to CENTRAL its state of
health (SOH) periodically. SOH, event files, static data and
other information about the CR-4 system can also be
requested from CENTRAL by an operator at any time.
Basically the CENTRAL software is used to monitor and to
control remotely many CR-4 systems. The software can be
configured to send automatically emails informing
responsible persons about the status of monitored systems
as well as about new-recorded events. And the last but not
least task of CENTRAL is to deliver received static data to
the Civil Monitoring System (CMS).
CMS is designed for the continuous monitoring of large
structures. It accepts data from many static channels, stores
all received data in the database, indicates the current status
of all monitored points graphically and prepares statistical
information. CMS has also an alarm system, which alerts
operators if any of monitored parameters is out of its allowed

(m/s2)
Real

0.13

(m/s2)
Real

0.13

-0.15

-0.21
0.00

299.90

299.90

0.00

149.90

(m2/s4)
Real

0.001

(m2/s4)
Real

0.002

0.00

-0.001

-0.001
0.00

149.90

(m2/s4)
Log

173e-6

(m2/s4)
Log

18.9e-6

135e-9

454e-9
0.00

Hz

4.99

0.00

Hz

4.99

Figure 9: Out-of-plane acceleration of longest cable from EastSouth pylon to mid span. (Top) Time history; (Middle) Output
correlations; (Bottom) Half spectrum magnitude.

Figure 10: Out-of-plane acceleration of 3rd longest cable from EastNorth pylon to side span. (Top) Time history; (Middle) Output
correlations; (Bottom) Half spectrum magnitude.

range. The program can display any set of stored data

collected within a specified time interval in text datasheets
and graphically. CMS of the resund monitoring system
handles the data acquired by two weather stations,
thermometers and the strain gauges. The average values of
all dynamic data channels are processed as well. The CMS
application is running in the traffic control centre in the same
computer as the CENTRAL communication software.

engineering is peak picking. The method is named after its

key step: the identification of the eigenfrequencies as the
peaks of power spectrum plots. However, there exist more
advanced methods that better exploit the data and lead to
higher quality models. It is for instance possible to extend
classical modal parameter estimation methods, such as the
LSCE (Least Squares Complex Exponential) method, so that
they also work on output-only data [6]. Another option is to
use a state-of-the-art method, such as stochastic subspace
identification. In this method, a so-called stochastic statespace model is identified from output correlations [7] or
directly from measured output data [8]. The first application
of stochastic subspace identification to bridge vibration data
dates from 1995 [9]. It is such a stochastic subspace
identification method that will be used in this paper [10]. An
extensive overview and detailed discussion on operational
modal analysis methods can be found in [11][12].

DYNAMIC DATA ANALYSIS

In this section, a 5-minute recording of the acceleration

channels of the CR-4 monitoring system is thoroughly
analysed. Although the type of analysis performed here
(operational modal analysis), is not part of the standard
procedures of the resund Bridge, it is instrumental to see
what kind of information can be extracted from the cable,
deck and tower vibrations. A comprehensive overview of
numerical and experimental dynamics of cable-stayed
bridges can be found in [5].
4.1

Operational modal analysis

The aim is to identify an experimental dynamic model of the

bridge. In laboratory situations, such a model can be
obtained by artificially exciting a structure and measuring the
responses. Measurement functions (so-called Frequency
Response Functions) that relate the input to the output serve
as input for modal analysis methods to achieve this goal.
Obviously, the data recorded by the monitoring system is socalled operational data: bridge responses are measured
under dynamic wind or traffic loading without being able to
measure exactly all these forces. Nevertheless it is still
possible to derive an experimental dynamic model of the
structure from only response measurements. Hereto, a
technique called operational modal analysis is used. A very
popular operational modal analysis method in civil

4.2

Cable vibrations

The simplest and cheapest method to measure the cable

forces is by measuring the eigenfrequencies of that cable.
Evidently, this is an indirect measurement: the tension force
is derived from eigenfrequencies, which are derived from
accelerations. Figures 9 and 10 show 5-minute recordings of
typical accelerations of two stay-cables. The top parts are
showing the time histories. The auto-correlations Ri , shown
in the middle, are estimated from the time data y k according
to:
Ri =

1
N

N 1

y
k =0

k +i

yk

(1)

where N is the number of time samples used to compute

the correlations. From the plots it is clear that the
correlations have an impulse-response like behaviour. This
can also be theoretically proven provided that the structure is
excited by white noise. The auto-correlations of the cables

Table 1: Determination of cable tension forces from out-of-plane acceleration measurements. Not for all cables it was possible to extract the
same number of harmonics.

Pylon
Cable number
L [m]
m [kg/m]
Cable eigenfrequencies [Hz]

ES
1
262
91.2
0.473
f1
0.929
f2
1.386
f3
1.851
f4
2.323
f5
2.779
f6
3.242
f7
3.706
f8
4.171
f9
4.621
f 10
0.463
Least Squares estimate of f 1S [Hz]
Cable force H [kN] based on LS frequency
5368
309
Dimensionless parameter [-]
Equivalent taut string fundamental freq. f 1S [Hz] 0.458
Cable force H [kN] (with bending stiffness)
5246
2
Bending stiffness EI [kNm ]
3781
Cable force difference [%]
2.3

ES
2
239
91.2
0.508
0.995
1.498
1.990
2.493
2.991
3.494
3.974
4.466
4.973
0.498
5157
315
0.493
5059
2920
1.9

are subsequently used as basic functions in stochastic

subspace identification to extract the eigenfrequencies. The
bottom part of Figures 9 and 10 are showing the magnitudes
of the discrete Fourier transform of the positive correlation
lags. These are estimates of the so-called half spectra,
which are not used in the identification method, but are given
here for reference reason as they clearly indicate the
presence of resonances. As any parametric estimation
method, subspace identification enables the use of so-called
stabilisation diagrams that allows for an easy and objective
selection of the cable eigenfrequencies. An example of such
a diagram is shown in Figure 11. By repeating this analysis a
number of times, eigenfrequencies are extracted from the
accelerations of 10 cables; the 5 longest cables connecting
the East-South (ES) pylon to the main span and the 5

ES
3
216
91.2
0.563
1.115
1.677
2.201
2.772
3.325
3.930
4.457
4.962

ES
4
192
91.2
0.631
1.248
1.870
2.496

ES
5
169
91.2
0.728
1.445
2.166
2.878
3.583
3.741 4.302
4.351 5.005
4.956 5.727
5.547

EN
5
169
91.2
0.743
1.471
2.198
2.928

EN
4
192
91.2
0.638
1.263
1.894
2.528

EN
3
216
91.2
0.560
1.106
1.662
2.218
2.784
3.307
3.868
4.414
4.960

EN
2
239
91.2
0.504
0.985
1.480
1.966
2.499

EN
1
262
91.2
0.457
0.894
1.350
1.789
2.261
4.386 3.792
2.712
4.394
3.126
4.999
3.919 3.586
5.621
4.408 4.069
4.911
0.555 0.620 0.717 0.732 0.627 0.552 0.491 0.450
5248 5169 5352 5581 5288 5194 5030 5069
283
331
284
208
316
293
312
208
0.550 0.615 0.710 0.723 0.621 0.547 0.486 0.443
5140 5102 5249 5444 5207 5091 4930 4911
3000 1727 1855 3596 1938 2770 2896 7786
2.1
1.3
2.0
2.5
1.6
2.0
2.0
3.2
longest cables connecting the East-North (EN) pylon to the
side span. These frequencies are presented in Table 1.
From Figures 9 and 10 and Table 1, the set of cable
frequencies seems to be composed of a fundamental
frequency f 1 and its higher harmonics f n = n f 1 . A stay
cable is assumed to satisfy the taut string theory with
following relation between frequencies and cable tension
forces:

f nS = n

1
2L

H
m

(2)

th

where f nS [Hz] is the n harmonic; L [m] is the cable

length; H [N] is the cable force; and m [kg/m] is the cable
mass per unit length. In this paper, an estimate of the
fundamental frequency is obtained from all harmonics by
applying Least Squares. Afterwards, the cable forces are
computed according to (2) and shown in Table 1. An
interesting alternative approach to find the fundamental
frequency of a set of harmonics is explained in [13]; where
the cepstrum is used to detect the periodicity in the spectra
of vibrating stay cables. This approach is easy to automate,
but its accuracy is limited by the resolution of the cepstrum.
However, the taut string theory does not exactly hold for stay
cables which, inevitably, have some bending stiffness which
becomes more important as the cables are shorter. In [14],
following equation is derived to compute the out-of-plane
eigenfrequencies f nEI of a stay cable:

f nEI
2 4 + n 22 / 2
=
1
+
+

f nS
2

(3)

where f nS are the frequencies if the bending stiffness would

be zero (the taut string frequencies (2)) and is a
dimensionless parameter related to the bending stiffness
EI [Nm2]:
Figure 11: Stabilisation diagram obtained by applying stochastic
subspace identification to the acceleration data of Figure 9.

=L

H
EI

(4)

Cable Force [kN]

5600

Cable w ith Bending

Stiffness

5500

Taut String

5400
5300
5200
5100
5000
4900
4800
1

ES ES ES ES ES EN EN EN EN EN

Cable
Figure 12: Cable forces estimated from vibration measurements.

In [15] it is shown how these equations can be incorporated

in software that estimates the cable forces and bending
stiffness from identified eigenfrequencies. The procedure is
as follows:

Apply non-linear least squares to estimate f 1S and

from the measured frequencies f n , which are assumed
to behave like f nEI in (3).
From the cable length L and mass per unit length m ,
and f 1S and estimated in previous step, it is
straightforward to estimate the cable force H (2) and
bending stiffness EI (4).

The estimated quantities are shown in Table 1. One cable

consists of 70 tendons, each consisting of 7 wires of 5 mm
diameter. The mass per unit length is estimated at
91.2 kg/m. From the positions of the anchor points on the
tower and the bridge, the lengths of the cables are

The analysis presented in this section shows that it is

possible to monitor the cable forces from the accelerations
that are recorded by the continuous monitoring system.
4.3

Deck and tower vibrations

Figures 13 and 14 show 5-minute recordings of a vertical

acceleration at the main span deck and a transversal
acceleration at the top of the East-South pylon. Again, the
time histories, the auto-correlations and the half spectra are
shown. The recordings contain the passage of train, which
caused an increase of vibration levels as can be seen from
Figure 13. From the pylon accelerations (Figure 14) it
becomes difficult to observe the train passage because the
pylon vibrations are mainly caused by the wind. The cable
vibrations (Figure 9 and 10) are apparently not influenced by
the train loading. As in Section 4.2, stochastic subspace
identification was applied to determine the deck and tower
modal parameters. Due to the limited number of
accelerometers at the deck and tower, no detailed mode
shapes can be obtained. Nevertheless, it was possible to

( m/s2)
Real

0.02

( m/s2)
Real

0.13

calculated. As seen from Table 1, the dimensionless bending

stiffness parameter is about 200 to 300. This is within the
limits for normal stay cables: 70 < < 600 . The frequency
f 1S , and so the cable force, is determined more accurately
than the dimensionless parameter , and so the bending
stiffness. The resulting bending stiffnesses have a
comparable magnitude, except for cable 1 of the East-North
pylon (last column of Table 1). Finally, Figure 12 compares
the two cable force estimates of the different cables: one
estimate according to the taut string theory using a Least
Squares estimate of the fundamental frequency; the other
taking the bending stiffness into account. The differences of
the force estimates for the same cable range from 1.3 to
3.2%. The tension force differences between cables can go
up to 11%, regardless of the estimation method.

-0.10

-0.02
0.00

299.90

299.90

( m2/s4)
Real

20.3e-6

( m2/s4)
Real

69.7e-6

0.00

-21.3e-6

-6.70e-6
0.00

149.90

0.00

Hz

149.90

( m2/s4)
Log

280e-6

( m2/s4)
Log

492e-6

0.00

28.1e-6

9.86e-6
0.00

Hz

5.00

Figure 13: Vertical acceleration at the main span deck. (Top) Time
history; (Middle) Output correlations; (Bottom) Half spectrum
magnitude.

Figure 14: Transversal acceleration at the top of the East-South

pylon. (Top) Time history; (Middle) Output correlations; (Bottom)
Half spectrum magnitude.

5.00

First Vertical Eigenfrequency

[Hz]

Table 2: Deck and tower modal parameters.

Description

Frequency Damping
[Hz]
ratios [%]
Deck + tower transversal
0.252
0.74
Tower transversal, pylons in-phase
0.294
1.83
Tower transversal, pylons out-of- phase
0.300
0.82
0.368
0.65
Deck 1st vertical bending + tower longitudinal
Tower longitudinal, pylons in-phase
0.540
0.40

interpret the lowest modes. They are represented in Table 2.

It is interesting to compare these results with the ones
obtained from other bridge tests. For example, in Figure 15
st
such comparison is made based on a plot of the 1 vertical
deck bending eigenfrequency as a function of the main span
length. The data for the other plotted cable-stayed and
suspension bridges were found in [1][2][3].
In a continuous monitoring and modal analysis process, the
bridge eigenfrequencies could be used to assess the health
of the structure. This is for instance shown in [11] for the
Z24-Bridge in Switzerland. In [16], it is demonstrated that
detailed mode shapes of a cable-stayed bridge (in this case
the Vasco da Gama Bridge) can be obtained by using
ambient vibration data and stochastic subspace
identification. In this case, the accelerations at much more
deck and tower locations had been measured with nonpermanent equipment.
CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, the continuous monitoring system of the

resund Bridge was presented. It was also shown how
operational modal analysis, applied to the dynamic data
captured by the system, provide useful information about the
health of the bridge. Measuring and analysing cable
vibrations allow monitoring the cable tension. Measuring and
analysing deck and tower vibrations allow assessing the
health of these structural parts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Mr. Svensson from
resundsbro Konsortiet (www.oeresundsbron.com) for
granting us the right to use monitoring data and photographs
of the resund Bridge.

[5]

[6]

[8]

[9]

[10]
[11]

[12]

REFERENCES

[14]

[2]
[3]
[4]

resund Bridge

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
500

1000

1500

Figure 15: First vertical deck bending eigenfrequency as a function

of main span length for cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

[13]

Proceedings of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd International Workshop on

Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford University, CA, USA,
199719992001.
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