OUR VISION

The prime objective of SAEINDIA NIT Kurukshetra Collegiate club is

to provide a platform to the budding engineers and help them to
practically apply the theoretical knowledge; to bring dynamism in their
vision and thinking; to find solutions to the existing problems by
encouraging collaboration between the minds of future engineers and
with pioneers of the industry.

The idea, vision and objectivity of the club and its working can be
uniformly summarized under the club motto
Ignite to Achieve.

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Index
1. Introduction to
Automotive.4
1.1 Automotive. 4
1.2 Automobile. 4
1.3 Components of an automobile.. .............4
2. Basic terminology..5
2.1 Vehicle axis system...5
2.2 Some common terms used in automobiles........................5
3. Chassis..6
3.1 Types of chassis...6
4. Aerodynamic
fundamentals....8
4.1 Introduction..8
4.2 Aerodynamic forces.....8
5. Engine..9
5.1 Introduction.....9
5.2 External and internal combustion engines.......................9
5.3 Classification of engines..........9
5.4(a) Petrol engine...11
5.4(b)Diesel engine...............................................................................................................11
5.5 Fuel injection..18
5.6 Turbochargers and superchargers...............20
5.7 Petrol engine v/s Diesel engine...............23
6. Transmission...24
6.1 Clutch..24
6.2 Types of clutches.24
6.3 Gear Ratio25
6.4 Types of transmission......25
6.5 Differential...31
6.6 Types of driveline.... .. 33
7.Electronics in cars............................................................................................................................. 35
7.1 Engine........................................................................................................................... 35
7.2 Transmission............................................................................................................ ...... 36
7.3 Chassis electronics....................................................................................................... . 36
7.4 Active Safety............................................................................................................... ... 37
7.5 Driver Assistance............................................................................................................37
7.6 Passenger comfort........................................................................................................... 37
8. Suspension system........ 38
8.1 Objectives of suspension system....... 38
8.2 Fundamental concepts.....38
8.3 Type of suspension......................................................................................................... 40
8.4 Magnetic suspension........................................................................................................43
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8.5 Hydro-pneumatic suspension..........................................................................................43

8.6 Motion ratio.....................................................................................................................43
8.7 Modern suspension trends...............................................................................................44
Steering system.......................45
9.1 Fundamental........................45
9.2 Steering behaviour.......46
9.3 Type of steering system.......47
9.4 Steering geometry............................................................................................................47
9.5 Steering ratio..................................................................................................................48
9.6 Power steering.................................................................................................................48

10 Wheel......50
10.1 Tyre type...........50
10.2 Tyre properties..50
10.3 Tyre size notation..51
10.4 The wheel assembly..52
11 Brakes..53
11.1 Introduction53
11.2 Brake fade..53
11.3 Types of brakes..53
11.4 Methods to reduce brake fade............54
11.5 Types of calipers........55
11.6 Hydraulic brakes....56
11.7 Inboard brakes...............................................................................................................56
11.8 Brake biasing.................................................................................................................56
11.9 Proportioning valve.......................................................................56
11.10 Anti-lock braking system........................57
11.11 Types of brake fluid57
# Common abbreviations..58
# Appendix60
# Test Yourself.60

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1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE
1.1

Automotive: It is a branch of engineering dealing with automobiles or anything automatically in

motion. Automotive engineering includes:

1. Mechanical Engineering
2. Vehicle Dynamics
3. Engine design
4. Drive train Engineering
1.2

Automobile:The word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek

word (auts,self) and the Latin mobilis (movable); meaning a vehicle that moves itself. A
passengers and goods. Each of these vehicles is operated by engine which consumes gasoline (petrol),
diesel, natural or LPG gas etc.
The first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in1885 in Mannheim, Germany.
Benz was granted a patent for his automobile. After that the automobile became a primary mode of
transportation for all countries. In 1806, Francois Issac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal
combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Further developments led to the
introduction of modern gasoline or petrol fuelled internal combustion engine in 1885.

1.3 COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The main units of an automobile
are:

The super structure or chassis

The power plant or engine
Transmission system or power
train
Steering system
Suspension system
Brakes
Wheels
Electrical system

Figure 1 -Various components of an automobile

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2. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
2.1Vehicle axes system

2.2.2 Track width:The lateral distance

2.1.1 Longitudinal axis:The line passing

between the contact patches of left and right wheel

is track width of vehicle.

through the front and rear roll centre of the vehicle

(vehicle rolls about this line) represented as Xaxis.

2.2.3 Turning radius:It is actually a

misnomer as it is the diameter of the circle of the
outside wheels that a car turns through while
turning at full lock.

2.1.2 Lateral axis:Axis about which vehicle

pitches, represented by Y axis.

2.2.4 Indicated Power:Indicated power is the

2.1.3 Vehicle axis:Axis about which vehicle

power actually developed by the engine cylinder.

experiences yaw movement.

2.2.4 Brake horse power (bhp): BHP is the

power available at the crankshaft.

2.2 Some common terms used

in automobiles:
2.2.1

Wheel

base:Wheel

base is the
longitudinal distance measured between contact
patches of front to rear wheel.

Figure 2 Axes of motion of a vehicle

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3. CHASSIS
3.1 Type of chassis
3.1.1 Ladder Chassis
Indicated by its name, looks like a ladder - two
longitudinal rails interconnected by several lateral
and cross braces. The longitude members are the
main stress bearing members. They deal with the

Figure 4 Tubular frame chassis of a formula

SAE car
These tubes are welded together and form a very
complex structure. For higher strength required by
high performance sports cars, tubular space frame
chassis usually incorporate a strong structure
under both doors hence result in difficult access to
the cabin.

Fig.3 Ladder chassis

load and also the longitudinal forces caused by
acceleration and braking. The lateral and cross
members provide resistance to lateral forces
produced during cornering and further increase
torsional rigidity.

3.1.3 Monocoque frame chassis

Monocoque is a one-piece structure which defines
the overall shape of the car. While ladder, tubular
space frame and backbone chassis provides only
the stress members and need to build the body
around them, monocoque chassis is already
incorporated with the body in a single piece. It is
actually made by welding several pieces together.
The floor-pan, which is the largest piece, and
other pieces are pressed by big stamping
machines. They are spot welded together by robot
arms.

3.1.2 Tubular Space Frame

As ladder chassis is not strong enough, motor
racing engineers developed a 3 dimensional
design - Tubular space frame. Tubular space
frame chassis employs dozens of circular-section
tubes, a square section can also be used for easier
connection to the body panels, though circular
section provides the maximum strength.

Figure 5 Monocoque chassis of Lamborghini

Aventedor

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stressed corners and joints, extruded sections are
connected by complex aluminium die casting. It is
very complex and production cost is far higher
than steel monocoque.

3.1.4 ULSAB Monocoque chassis

(Ultra-Light Steel Auto Body)
Pressing sheet metal to make chassis creates
inhomogeneous thickness at the edges hence to
maintain minimum thickness designers have to
choose a thicker sheet metal. By the Hydro form
technique thin steel tubes are used. The steel tubes
are placed in a die which defines the desired
shape, then fluid at very high pressure will be
pumped into the tubes, which expands the latter to
the inner surface of die. The thickness of steel
tube remains uniform which results in lighter
design.

3.1.7 Carbon fiber monocoque

The carbon fiber called Kevlar offers highest
rigidity-to-weight ratio. Kevlar can be found in the
body panels of many exotic cars, although most of
them simultaneously use other kinds of carbonfiber in even larger amount.
Carbon-fiber panels are made by growing carbonfiber sheets on either side of an aluminium foil,
the foil, which defines the shape of the panel, is
stacked with several layers of carbon fiber sheets
impregnated with resin, then cooked in a big oven
for 3 hours at 120C and 90 psi pressure. After
that, the carbon fiber layers will be melted and
form a uniform, rigid body panel.

3.1.5 Backbone frame chassis

A strong tubular backbone (usually in rectangular
section) connects the front and rear axle and
provides nearly all the mechanical strength. Inside
which there is space for the drive shaft in case of
front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout. The whole
drive-train, engine and suspensions are connected
to both ends of the backbone. The body is built on
the backbone, usually made of glass-fibre. It is
strong enough for smaller sports cars but not up to
the job for high-end ones.

Figure 7Carbon fiber chassis of a super sports

car
Figure 6 Backbone chassis

3.1.6 Aluminium space frame

chassis
It consists of extruded aluminium sections;
vacuum die cast components and aluminium
sheets of different thicknesses. They all are made
of high-strength aluminium alloy. At the highly

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4. AERODYNAMIC FUNDAMENTALS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Following section covers different types of
aerodynamic forces deployed in a vehicle.

4.2 AERODYNAMIC FORCES

It plays a major role in high performance cars
through its contribution to Road load.
The force due to friction of air interacts with the
moving vehicles and causes drag, lift (or
downward), momentum role, pitch, yaw and noise
hence decreases fuel economy, handling etc.

Figure 8 - Drag forces with (upper) and

without (lower) spoiler

4.2.3 Lift

The fluid flow follows Bernoullis equation for

automotive aerodynamics.

The pressure difference between the top and the

bottom of the vehicle causes a lift force. These
forces are significant as they influences driving
stability and handling through reduced control
forces available at tires. Front lift that reduces
steering controllability is reduced by deploying a
front bumper spoiler and by rear ward inclination
of front surface. The lift at the rear of the vehicle
which reduces traction and stability is variable
with vehicle design. This lift can be reduced by
spoilers etc.

P (static) +P (dynamic) =P (total)

4.2.1 Side force: The lateral wind component

will impose a side force on the vehicle, attempting
to change the direction of travel. In case of a
strong cross wind the side force is greater than the
drag force, such that the angle of overall wind
force is much greater than the relative wind angle.

4.2.2 DRAG: It is the largest and most

important aerodynamic force encountered by a
passenger car at normal highway speed. More than
65% of drag arises from the body (fore-body,
after-body, under body and skin friction. After
body is the measure contributor of drag as it
contains a separation zone. Slope angle of
15degree consistently reduces drag.

Figure 9 Uplift produced due to airflow

DA= (V )CDA
CD=Aerodynamic drag co-efficient
A=Front area of vehicle
=Air density

Modifications in TATA NANO have shown a

drag reduction of 14.28% at a speed of 60 km/h
with the drag coefficient reduced to 0.336 from
0.392, thereby reducing the fuel consumption
allotted to external body by an amount of
approximately 14.28%, which means, there is a
saving of 2.14L of petrol for every full tank
refill.

(v2) is the dynamic pressure of the air. The

drag properties of a car are characterised by the
value of product of co-efficient of drag and front
area of the vehicle.

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5. ENGINE
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Engine is a machine designed to convert chemical

energy of the fuel into useful mechanical motion.

5.3.1a Rotary Engines

Reciprocating Engine

In order to reduce engine components and produce

more compact engine and to reduce losses caused
by alternating movements in traditional engine, an
engine with rotary pistons was invented which is
called Wankel engine. But now it is not used
because of its sealing and leakage problem.

5.2 EXTERNAL & INTERNAL

COMBUSTION ENGINES:

5.2a EXTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES:

Figure 10 A 4-stroke wankel engine

5.3.1b Reciprocating Engine

A Steam engine is an external combustion engine

in which heat is supplied to the working fluid
from fuel burned outside the engine. The water
turns to steam in a boiler and expands greatly in
volume, and can be used to generate mechanical
power, usually via pistons or turbines.

A Reciprocating engine also known as a piston

engine is a heat engine that uses one or more
reciprocating pistons to convert pressure on piston
into a rotating motion. Reciprocating engines have
different layouts or cylinder configurations such
as straight, V, H, W, U, X etc. V configuration is
mostly used.

5.2b INTERNALCOMBUSTION
ENGINES:
An internal combustion engine is also a heat
engine that burns fuel containing chemical energy
to get heat energy and then converts this heat
energy into mechanical energy.

5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF
ENGINES:
5.3.1 ON THE BASIS OF BASIC
Figure11 Various configurations of an engine

ENGINE DESIGN:

Rotary Engine
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autokriti 7.0
inside the cylinder increases due to compression
caused.

W16 configuration is used in

BUGATTI VEYRON.

c)Power stroke:
During this stroke the inlet and exhaust valve
remains closed. As the piston reaches near top
position spark plug produces an electric spark.
Combustion is started by an ignition system that
fires a high voltage spark. The spark produced
causes explosion of fuel. The hot gases expand
and force the piston to move downwards. The
piston is linked to the piston rod and the piston rod
to
the
crank
shaft.

5.3.2 On the basis of working cycle

5.3.2a Two stroke engine
In 2-stroke engines intake and exhaust valves are
replaced by openings in the lower portion of the
cylinder wall. During the latter part of the power
stroke, the piston uncovers first the exhaust port,
allowing the exhaust gases to be partially
expelled, and then the intake port allowing the
fresh air-fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of
the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
The mixture is then compressed as the piston
moves upwards during the compression stroke and
is subsequently ignited by a spark plug.

d)Exhaust stroke:
In this stroke the exhaust valve remains open at
the start. The piston is forced to move upwards
because of the momentum gained. This forces
gases to move through the exhaust valve into the
atmosphere. Now the exhaust valve closes and the
intake valve opens. After this the four strokes of
the engine are repeated again and again.

5.3.2b Four stroke engine

In four stroke engines the piston reciprocates four
times in the cylinder. Since the 4-stroke engine
produces two rotations of the crankshaft while 2stroke engine produces single rotation each time
the fuel is burnt, the efficiency of 4-stroke engines
is greater than 2-stroke engines. As their name
implies, operation of 4-stroke engine have four
basic steps. The four strokes are as follows:

a) Suction or intake stroke:

Figure 12 Working cycle of a 4-stroke engine

Initially when engine is started piston moves

downwards towards bottom of the cylinder which
creates low pressure at top. Due to this intake
valve opens and the fuel mixture containing petrol
vapours and air are sucked in by the cylinder.
Carburetor now decides in what ratio
gasoline/petrol and air should be mixed.

5.3.3 ON THE BASIS OF

IGNITION:
5.3.3a SPARK IGNITION
In SI engines, the burning of the fuel occurs by a
spark generated by a spark plug located in the
cylinder head of engine. Due to this fact they are
called SI engines. These are called petrol or
gasoline engines because petrol is used in these
engines.

b) Compression stroke:
After this the inlet valve gets closed. The piston
now moves towards the top of cylinder and
compresses the fuel mixture to one tenth of its
initial volume. The temperature and pressure
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6. The CI engine can be switched over from part
load to full load soon after starting from cold,
whereas the SI engine requires warming up.

Compression ratio of TATA NANO is 10.3

7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper

than the fuel (petrol) for SI engine.

5.3.3b COMPRESSION IGNITION

In CI engines, the burning of the fuel occurs
because of the high pressure exerted on the fuel.
The fuel is compressed to high pressures. Thus the
temperature of the fuel increases and it starts
burning, hence these engines are called CI
engines.

8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimised due

to the absence of the ignition system.
9. On part load, the specific fuel consumption of
the CI engine is low.
Why are Diesel engines still popular?

Compression ratio of TATA INDICA is

22:1

The first, the ecological regulations are

kept in foreign countries and the owners of
ecology-friendly autos have discounts on
assurance and other taxes.

COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES

Secondly, on condition of quality oil

fueling and maintenance on the regular base diesel
engine can operate up to half-million kilometers
without capital repair. And that is the sure gain.

The CI engine has the following advantages over

the SI engine.
1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than
that of the SI engine. This is because in case of the
failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor
system, the SI engine cannot operate, whereas the
CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each
cylinder, has less risk of failure.

The third, the turbo-supercharging diesel

engine can surely play the role of fire-starter.
Many car manufacturers follow that way.

5.4(a) PETROL ENGINE

2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is

uniform as each of them has a separate injector,
whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel
mixture is not uniform, owing to the design of the
single carburetor and the intake manifold.

Petrol Engine was introduced by the German

engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in
1885. It is considered as one of biggest
achievement in the automotive field. It uses petrol
called as gasoline in USA as a fuel. Within the
engine burning of fuel mixed with air causes hot
gases to expand against parts of the engine and
force them to move. So petrol engines are called
internal-combustion engines. Petrol engines are
compact and light in weight for the power they
produce.

3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection

system of CI engine is longer, its maintenance
cost is less than that of the SI engine.
4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher
than that of the SI engine; therefore, the heat loss
to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than
that of the SI engine.Consequently, the cooling
system of the CI engine can be of smaller
dimensions.

5.4(b)Diesel engine
The diesel engine (also known as a compressionignition or 'CI' engine) is an internal combustion
engine in which ignition of the fuel that has been
injected into the combustion chamber is initiated by

5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are

more uniform which results in better top gear
performance.
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autokriti 7.0
the high temperature which a gas achieves when
greatly compressed (adiabatic compression).

the spark plug are also located within the head

casting. The cylinder head is detachable for easy
access to the valves and piston tops and to
facilitate machining of the cylinder bore,
combustion chamber and valve ports.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal

efficiency (engine
efficiency)
of
any
practical internal or external combustion engine due
to
its
very
high compression
ratio and
inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by
the excess air.

5.4.2 Cylinder block

The cylinder block is the portion of the engine
between the cylinder head and sump. All the
engine parts are mounted on it or in it and this
holds the parts in alignment. Large diameters
holes in the block castings from the cylinder bores
required to guide the pistons. Both spark-ignition
and compression-ignition cylinder blocks are
similar but later blocks are relatively heavier and
stronger to withstand high compression ratios and
internal pressure.

TATA NANO has 624cc, 2cylinder engine which gives

32.5bhp power @5500 rpm and
45Nm torque@3500rpm
TATA INDICA has 1405cc,4
cylinder engine which gives 84bhp
power @6000 rpm,
120Nm Torque @3500 rpm

Basic Engine Parts

5.4.1 Cylinder head
The cylinder head is a casting bolted to the top of
the cylinder block, injector location holes, form
the

Figure 14 Cylinder block of a 4 cylinder

engine
Within the cylinder, combustion process produces
rapid and periodic rises in temperature and
pressure. These induce circumferential and
mechanical properties such as strength, toughness,
hardness, and corrosion and wear resistance.
Figure 13 Cylinder head of a 4 cylinder engine

5.4.3 Crank case and Crank shaft

upper face of combustion chamber. The coolant

passages, cavities, intake and exhaust ports, and

The crankcase supports the individual main

journals and bearings of the crankshaft and also
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autokriti 7.0
eccentric

maintains the alignment of the journal axes of

rotation as they are subjected to rotary and

lobes

that

Figure 16 Camshaft of a 4 cylinder engine

Figure 15 Crank shaft of a 4 cylinder engine

actuate the components of the valve train. The

camshaft itself is forged from one piece of steel,
on which the lobes are ground. On single camshaft
engines there are twice as many lobes as there are
cylinders, plus a lobe for fuel pump actuation and
a drive gear for the distributor. The camshaft
operates cam followers that in turn operate the rest
of the valve train.

reciprocating inertia forces and the periodic torque

impulses. The crankshaft, which is one of a series
of links between pistons and the drive wheels, is a
one piece art located in the bottom end of the
engine that harnesses the huge forces produced by
the explosions in the combustion chamber. The
front end of the crankshaft, known as the snout,
turns the sprocket, or timing gear, to drive the
camshaft, pulley that runs a belt connected to the
alternator, fan, water pump and power steering.
The other end of the crankshaft is connected to the
flywheel, which is toothed, allowing the starter
motor to rotate the crankshaft.

Dual

overhead

camshaft(DOHC):The

main benefit of dual overhead cams is that they

allow an engine to have four valves per cylinder.
Each camshaft operates two of the valves, one
camshaft handles the intake valves, and one
handles the exhaust valves. It is now used in high
performance cars.

FUNCTION
When the fuel is ignited in the combustion
chamber in presence of highly compressed air, the
resulting explosions forces the pistons downward
with tremendous force. The function of the
crankshaft is to change the up-down motion of the
pistons to a rotating motion. This is accomplished
by having the connecting rods (which are attachd
to the pistons) connect to the crankshaft in an
offset manner, so that as they go up and down
their angle changes.

Single Overhead Camshaft is used in

both TATA Nano and TATA Indica

5.4.5 Rocker shafts and rocker arm

assembly
Rocker arm assembly consists of rocker
arm,rocker shaft and springs. Rocker arm comes
in contact with the valves as directed by the
rotation of the camshaft.

5.4.4 Cam shaft

Rocker shaft

Its job is to open and close the valves at just the

right time during engine rotation, so that
maximum power and efficient cleanout of exhaust
can be obtained. The camshaft drives the
distributor to electrically synchronize spark
ignition. Camshafts do their work through

Rocker shaft provides a rigid pivot support for the

rocker arms. These shafts are machined from
hollow steel tubing. These are mounted and
clamped on cast-iron or aluminium alloy
pedestals, which are generally fitted between each
pair of rocker-arms. For lubrication purpose radial
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autokriti 7.0
holes are drilled through rocker-shaft to align with
each rocker arm, and both end of the shaft are
plungged to prevent the oil leakage. One of the
support pedestals normally incorporates a vertical
drilled hole to supply the oil from the camshft to
the hollow rocker shaft. This hole matches with a
corresponding radial hole in the shaft. When
reassembling the rockers and shaft, these twoholes
must align, to restore oil supply to the shaft.

During operation of the piston, a temperature

gradient of about 150 k from the head of the
piston to its bottom is experienced. Also it has to
support piston sealing rings. Therefore, design of
a piston is based on a compromise between
strength, weight and thermal expansion control.
Functions of a piston in brief are:

It must form a sliding gas and oil tight seal

within the cylinder.
It must transmit thegas load to the small end of
the connecting rod.

It generally acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

Figure 17 A rocker shaft
After machining, the shaft is case-hardened to
withstand the rubbing action.

Rocker-arm
A rocker-arm rockes or oscillates about its pivot
and relays the push rod up-and-down movement
to the stem of the poppet valve. Therefore this arm
acts as a rocking beam.

Figure 19Piston & its parts

Figure 18 A rocker arm assembly

5.4.6 Piston
The automotive engine piston converts the
combustion pressure to a force on the crankshaft.
The piston starts, accelerates and stops twice in
each crankshaft revolution. This reciprocating
action of the piston produces large inertial forces.
The inertial force depends on the piston and less
inertia permits higher engine operating speeds.

Figure 20 Piston & its Gudgeon pin

The gudgeon-pin(piston pin) connects the piston
and connecting rod. It is supported in holes bored
in the piston at right angles to the piston axis
atabout mid height position, and the centre portion
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autokriti 7.0
of the gudgeon pin passes through the connecting
rod small-end eye. This hinged joint transfers
directly the gas thrust from the pistons to the
connecting rod and allows the rod to pivot relative
to the cylinder axis with an oscillating motion.

on the rocker arm and the valve closes.

Connecting rod
The connecting rod joins the piston to the
crankshaft and transfers piston reciprocating force
to crankshaft rotation. The small end of the
connecting rod reciprocates and the large end
follows the crank pin rotational pattern. For this
movement, the connecting rod should be as light
as possible. Each connecting rod is fastened to the
piston pins and to the crank pin(journal) of the
crank shaft by a plain split bearing.

Figure 21 Valve train with pushrods

5.4.8 Valve train and Valve timings

The valve train consists of valves, rockerarms,
pushrods, lifters, and the camshafts. Valve train
opening/closing and duration, as well as the
geometry of the valve train, controls the amount
of air and fuel entering the combustion chamber at
any given point in time. Timing for open/close
duration is controlled by the camshaft that is
syncronized to the crankshaft by a chain or belt.

DID YOU KNOW?

Only about 15% of chemical energy gets
converted to useful kinetic energy of the
vehicle.

5.4.7 Push Rod

Valve trains are built in several configurations,

each of which vary slightly in layout but still
perform the task of opening and closing the
valves at the time necessary for proper operation
of the engine. These layouts are differentiated by
the location of the camshaft within the engine:

A push rod is a straight stem with a roller ball at

each end. Some push rods are fabricated in one
piece, while others are fabricated in three pieces
that include the stem with welded roller balls at
each end. The engine will not start or run without
push rods.

Overhead

Camshaft:The

camshaft (or
camshafts, depending on the design) is located
above the valves within the cylinder head, and
operates either indirectly or directly on the valves.

Function
The roller ball at the lower end of the push rod
rides on the lobes of the camshaft. The upper ball
seats into a recessed cup on the underside of a
rocker arm. As the offset lobe of the cam contacts
the lower ball, the push rod is forced up and lifts
the rocker arm. This action opens an intake or
exhaust valve in the cylinder head of the engine.
As the cam turns farther, the push rod drops back
to its original starting point. This relaxes pressure

Cam-in-block:the camshaft is located within

the engine block, and operates directly on the
valves, or indirectly via pushrods and rocker arms.
Because they often require pushrods they are often
called pushrod engines.

Cam less:this layout uses no camshafts at all.

Technologies such as Solenoids are used to
individually actuate the valves.
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Intake and Exhaust Valves

Now-a-days, this is located in the cylinder head on
all the engines. Among the commonly used
sleeve, rotary and poppet type valves, the poppet
vave is most common because this offers
readonable weight, good strength and good
heattransfer characteristics.

By the time the piston is at 55 before BDC on

the power stroke, combustion pressures have
dropped considerably and little power is lost
by letting the exhaust gases have more time to
exit.
When an intake valve opens before TDC and
the exhaust valve opens before BDC, it is
called lead.
When an intake valve closes after BDC and
the exhaust valve closes after TDC, it is called
lag.
On the exhaust stroke, the intake and exhaust
valve are open at the same time for few
degrees around TDC. This is called valve
overlap.

VVT (Variable Valve Timing)

In internal combustion engines, variable valve
timing (VVT) is the process of altering the timing
of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve
performance, fuel economy or emissions. It is
increasingly being used in combination with
variable valve lift systems. There are many ways
in which this can be achieved, ranging from
mechanical devices to electro-hydraulic and cam
less systems. Two-stroke engines use a power
valve system to get similar results to VVT.

Figure 22 Intake and exhaust valve

The poppet valve also has great flow
characteristics and provides a good means to
direct fluid flow into the combustion chamber.
The stem of the valve usually rides up and down a
provision incorporated into the head itself that is
machined called a valve guide.
To see how valve timing works in a 4-stroke
engine cycle, lets show piston motion as a circle.
In the simple cycle, each stroke is shown as a
semi-circle. Theoretically speaking the intake
valve opens at top dead centre, and closes at
bottom dead centre and the exhaust valve opens at
bottom dead centre, and closes at top dead centre
before the new air fuel mixture enters the cylinder.
In practice, however, the intake valve usually
opens earlier than top dead centre, and stays open
a little past bottom dead centre. The exhaust valve
opens a little before bottom dead centre and stays
open a little past top dead centre.
This make valve opens 16 before the piston
reaches top dead centre and it closes 55 after
bottom dead centre.
The exhaust valve opens 55 before bottom
dead centre and stays open until 16 past top
dead centre. This gives exhaust gases more
time to leave.

DID YOU KNOW?

The Free Valve concept by Koenigsegg offers
the unique ability to have independent
control of the intake and exhaust valve can
be independently programmed.The system
has a verified fuel consumption reduction of
12-17 percent.

5.4.9 Sump or oil pan

The sump is attached to the bottom of the cylinder
block underneath the crankcase. The functions of
the sump are:
To store the engines lubrication oil for
circulation within the lubrication system.

16

autokriti 7.0

rotating at a fairly uniform speed under a

substantially constant load, it is necessary to
provide it with a flywheel. A flywheel is an
inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs
mechanical energy and serves as a reservoir,
storing energy during the period when the supply
of energy is more than the requirement and
releases it during the period when the requirement
of energy is more than the supply.

To collect the oil draining from the sides of

the crankcase walls and if ejected directly
from the journal bearings.
To provide a centralized storage area for any
contaminants like liquid fuel, water,
combustion products blown past the piston
ring, and worn metal particles.

To provide a short recovery period for the hot

churned up and possibly aerated oil before it is
re-circulated in the lubrication system.

Functions and Operation

The main function of a fly wheel is to smoothen
out variations in the speed of a shaft caused by
torque fluctuations. If the source of the driving
torque or load torque is fluctuating in nature, then
a flywheel is usually called for. Many machines
have load patterns that cause the torque time
function to vary over the cycle. Internal
combustion engines with one or two cylinders are
a typical example. Piston compressors, punch
presses, rock crushers etc. are the other systems
that have fly wheel. Flywheel absorbs mechanical
energy by increasing its angular velocity and
delivers the stored energy by decreasing its
velocity.

Figure 23 Oil sump of an engine

The sump generally has a shallow downward
slope at one end, which changes into a relatively
deep but narrow-walled reservoir at the other end.
The incoming oil flows towards the deep end,
where it submerges the pick-up pipe and strainer
of the lubricating system. A drain plug is located
at the lowest level in the sump for easy drainage
of used oil.

5.4.11 Spark Plugs

All spark plugs share the same basic design and
construction. The high voltage from your vehicle's
high-tension electrical system is fed into the
terminal at the top of the spark plug. It travels
down through the core of the plug and arrives at

5.4.10 Flywheel
In a combustion engine, & especially in one with
one or two cylinders, energy is imparted to the
crankshaft intermittently, & in order to keep it

Figure 25 Spark plug of a petrol engine

the centre electrode at the bottom where it jumps
to the ground electrode creating a spark. The crush

Figure 24 Flywheel of an engine

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autokriti 7.0
washer is designed to be crushed by tightening the
spark plug down when it's screwed into the
cylinder head, and as such, it helps keep the screw
threads under tension to stop the spark plug from
shaking loose or backing out. The insulator
basically keeps the high-tension charge away from
the cylinder head so that the spark plug doesn't
ground before it gets a chance to generate the
spark. This type of plug is known as
a projected nose type plug, because the tip extends
below the bottom of the spark plug itself. The
other main type of spark plug has the centre
electrode recessed into the plug itself and merely
grounds to the collar at the bottom. The advantage
of the projected nose type is that the spark is better
exposed to the fuel-air mixture.

just enough fuel to get into the cylinders to keep

the engine ticking over.

Figure 26 Cut through diagram of a

Carburetor

5.5 FUEL INJECTION

INTRODUCTION

5.4.12 Carburetor

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into

an internal combustion engine. It has become the
primary fuel delivery system used in automotive
engines, having replaced carburetors during the
1980s and 1990s.Edward Butler, from Erith, Kent,
and Henri Tenting, from Paris, were the first two
men to develop a fuel injection system for the
internal combustion engine in 1883 and 1891,
respectively.

A carburetor is basically a shaped tube. The shape

of the tube is designed to swirl the incoming air
and generate a vacuum in a section called the
venturi pipe (or just the venturi). In the side of the
venturi is a fuel jet which is basically a tiny hole
connected to the float chamber via a pipe. It has a
miniscule hole in the end of it which determines
the flow of fuel through it. The fuel is pulled
through the jet by the vacuum created in the
venturi. At the bottom of the tube is a throttle
plate or throttle butterfly which is basically a flat
circular plate that pivots along its centre line. It is
connected mechanically to the accelerator pedal or
twist-grip throttle via the throttle cable. The more
you push on the accelerator or twist open the
throttle, the more the throttle butterfly opens. This
allows more air in which creates more vacuum,
which draws more fuel through the fuel jet and
gives a larger fuel-air charge to the cylinder,
resulting in acceleration.When the throttle is
closed, the throttle butterfly in the carburetor is
also closed. This means the engine is trying to
suck
fuel-air
mix
and
generating
a
vacuum behind the butterfly valve so the regular
fuel jet won't work. To allow the engine to idle
without shutting off completely, a second fuel jet
known as the idle valve is screwed into the venturi
downwind of the throttle butterfly. This allows

The primary difference between carburetors

and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes
the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small
nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor
relies on suction created by intake air accelerated
through a Venturi tube to draw the fuel into the
airstream.

Figure 27 - cut through diagram of a typical

fuel injector

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autokriti 7.0

WORKING:

MPFI is used in TATA NANO

& Indirect Injection in used in
TATA INDICA

The Fuel Injection System as the name suggests is

mainly consists of an Injector, a valve with a small
nozzle at the extreme end which is responsible to
supply the fuel to the combustion chamber with
force resulting the atomization of the fuel, this
force is generated from the fuel pump which is
generally placed inside the fuel tank, the atomized
fuel is easier to burn when combined with the
radical oxygen molecules of the air intake creating
an optimum fuel and air ratio hence resulting into
increased fuel efficiency with remarkably cleaner
emission. When the injector is energized, an
electromagnet moves a plunger that opens the
valve, allowing the pressured fuel to squirt out
through a tiny nozzle. The nozzle is designed to
atomize the fuel as fine a mist as possible so that it
can burn easily.

3. Direct Injection
In Direct injection fuel is directly injected into the
combustion chamber. It suffers from an
extraordinarily high back-pressure due to its
placement, as well as other severe disadvantages.
Because of the exposure of the injector tips to the
combustion process, carbon build-ups easily clog
the injector tips.

TYPES OF FUEL INJECTION

1.Single-Point, Central Fuel Injection or
Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
Figure 28 a) Single point fuel injection b)
Multi point fuel injection c) Direct injection

Single-point simply replaces the carburetor with

one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle
body, which is the throat of the engines air intake
manifold. The system injects fuel into the throttle
body (a wet system), so fuel can condense and
cling to the walls of the intake system.

4. Programmed Fuel Injection (Pgm-FI)

The PGM-FI system precisely controls fuel
injection to match engine requirements, reducing
emissions and increasing driveability. The electric
fuel pump supplies fuel to the pressure regulator.
The fuel injectors are electric solenoid valves
which open and close according to signals
received from the Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
The ECU has sensors which measure the
temperatures of the engine, coolant, oil, and
outside air as well as pressure sensors to monitor
oil and barometric pressure. Based on these
readings and the location of the throttle, the ECU
calculates how much oxygen and fuel should be
mixed for optimal and efficient performance. The
ECU receives input from various sensors to
determine engine operating conditions. This
allows the ECU to determine the correct amount
of fuel to be injected by its pre-set program.

2. Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection devotes a separate
injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its
intake port, which is why the system is sometimes
called Port injection. The injector sprays gasoline
into the air inside the intake manifold. The
gasoline mixes with the air in a reasonably
uniform manner. This mixture of gasoline and air
then passes through the intake valve and enters
into the cylinder.
The main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel
more precisely than do TBI designs, better
achieving the desired air/fuel ratio and improving
all related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates the
possibility that fuel will condense or collect in the
intake manifold.
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autokriti 7.0

5. Gasoline direct injection system

assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be

lower, about 100 bar (10 MPa; 1,500 psi), using a
single orifice tapered jet injector. Mechanical
injection systems allowed high-speed running
suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds
of around 4,000 rpm). The pre-chamber had the
disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the
engine's cooling system, and restricting the
combustion burn, which reduces the efficiency by
510%.[51] Indirect injection engines are cheaper
to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quietrunning vehicles with a simple mechanical
system. In road-going vehicles most prefer the
greater efficiency and better controlled emission
levels of direct injection. Indirect injection diesels
can still be found in the many ATV diesel
applications.

GDI engine operate with lean mixture and

unthrottled at part loads, this operation provide
significant improvements in fuel economy. At full
load, as the GDI engine operates with
homogeneous charge and stoichiometric or
slightly rich mixture, this engine gives a better
power output. In GDI engine, fuel is injected into
cylinder before spark plug ignites at low and
medium loads. At this condition, Air/Fuel (A/F)
ratio in cylinder vary, that is, mixture in front of
spark plug is rich, in other places is lean. In all
cylinder A/F ratio is lean and A/F ratio can access
until 40/1. In homogeneous operation, fuel starts
injecting into cylinder at intake stroke at full
loads. The fuel, which is injected in the intake
stoke, evaporates in the cylinder. The evaporation
of the fuel cools the intake charge. The cooling
effect permits higher compression ratios and
increasing of the volumetric efficiency and thus
higher torque is obtained.

6.Indirect Injection System

An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel
into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called
a pre combustion chamber or ante-chamber, where
combustion begins and then spreads into the main
combustion chamber, assisted
by turbulence created in the chamber.
This system allows for a smoother, quieter
running engine, and because combustion is
Fig.29 Indirect Injection System

5.6 TURBOCHARGER & SUPERCHARGER

charging. This can significantly improve the
power-to-weight ratio for the engine.

5.6.1 TURBOCHARGER
A turbo can significantly boost an engine's
horsepower without significantly increasing its
weight, which is the huge benefit that makes
turbos so popular. Turbochargers are a type of
forced induction system. They compress the air
flowing into the engine. The advantage of
compressing the air is that it lets the engine
squeeze more air into a cylinder, and more air
means that more fuel can be added. Therefore, you
get more power from each explosion in each
cylinder. A turbocharged engine produces more
power overall than the same engine without the

In order to achieve this boost, the turbocharger

uses the exhaust flow from the engine to spin a
turbine, which in turn spins an air pump. The
turbine in the turbocharger spins at speeds of up to
150,000 rpm - that's about 30 times faster than
most car engines can go. And since it is hooked up
to the exhaust, the temperatures in the turbine are
also very high.

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autokriti 7.0
pushed into the engine, allowing the engine to
burn more fuel to produce more power.

Figure 30 Turbocharger plumbing in a car

Turbochargers allow an engine to burn more fuel
and air by packing more into the existing
cylinders. The typical boost provided by a
turbocharger is 6 to 8 pounds per square inch
(psi). Since normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7
psi at sea level, you can see that you are getting
about 50 percent more air into the engine.
Therefore, you would expect to get 50 percent
more power. It's not perfectly efficient, so you
might get a 30 to 40percent improvement instead.

Figure 31 Inside a turbocharger

One of the main problems with turbochargers is

that they do not provide an immediate power
boost when you step on the gas. One way to
decrease turbo lag is to reduce the inertia of the
rotating parts, mainly by reducing their weight.
This allows the turbine and compressor to
accelerate quickly, and start providing boost
earlier. One sure way to reduce the inertia of the
turbine and compressor is to make the
turbocharger
smaller.
A small turbocharger will provide boost more
quickly and at lower engine speeds, but may not
be able to provide much boost at higher engine
speeds.
Some turbochargers use ball bearings instead of
fluid bearings to support the turbine shaft. They
are super-precise bearings made of advanced
materials to handle the speeds and temperatures of
the turbocharger. They allow the turbine shaft to
spin with less friction than the fluid bearings used
in most turbochargers. They also allow a slightly
smaller, lighter shaft to be used. This helps the
turbocharger accelerate more quickly, further
reducing turbo lag.

Working
A turbocharger is made up of two main sections:
the turbine and the compressor. The turbine
consists of the turbine wheel and the turbine
housing. It is the job of the turbine housing to
guide the exhaust gas into the turbine wheel. The
energy from the exhaust gas turns the turbine
wheel, and the gas then exits the turbine housing
through an exhaust outlet area.
The compressor also consists of two parts: the
compressor wheel and the compressor housing.
The compressors mode of action is opposite that
of the turbine. The compressor wheel is attached
to the turbine by a forged steel shaft, and as the
turbine turns the compressor wheel, the highvelocity spinning draws in air and compresses it.

Ceramic turbine blades are lighter than the steel

blades used in most turbochargers. This allows the
turbine to spin up to speed faster, which reduces
turbo lag.

The compressor housing then converts the highvelocity, low-pressure air stream into a highpressure, low-velocity air stream through a
process called diffusion. The compressed air is
21

autokriti 7.0

5.6.2 Supercharger
A supercharger is a great way to achieve forced
air induction. A supercharger is any device that
pressurizes the air intake to above atmospheric
pressure. Both superchargers and turbochargers do
this. In fact, the term "turbocharger" is a shortened
version of "turbo-supercharger," its official name.
The difference between the two devices is their
source of energy. Turbochargers are powered by
the mass-flow of exhaust gases driving a turbine.
Superchargers are powered mechanically by beltor chain-drive from the engine's crankshaft.

Figure 32 Cut through diagram of a

supercharger

Working

As the air is compressed, it gets hotter, which

means that it loses its density and cannot expand
as much during the explosion. This means that it
can't create as much power when it's ignited by the
spark plug. For a supercharger to work at peak
efficiency, the compressed air exiting the
discharge unit must be cooled before it enters the
intake manifold.

Getting more fuel into the charge would make for

a more powerful explosion. But you can't simply
pump more fuel into the engine because an exact
amount of oxygen is required to burn a given
amount of fuel. This chemically correct mixture -14 parts air to one part fuel -- is essential for an
engine to operate efficiently. The bottom line: To
put in more fuel, you have to put in more air.
That's the job of the supercharger. Superchargers
increase intake by compressing air above
atmospheric pressure, without creating a vacuum.

5.6.3 Intercooler
When air is compressed, it heats up; and when air
heats up, it expands. So some of the pressure
increase from a turbocharger is the result of
heating the air before it goes into the engine, the
goal is to get more air molecules into the cylinder,
not
necessarily
more
air
pressure.

This forces more air into the engine, providing a

boost. With the additional air in the boost, more
fuel can be added to the charge, and the power of
the engine is increased. In high-altitude situations,
where engine performance deteriorates because
the air has low density and pressure, a
supercharger delivers higher-pressure air to the
engine so it can operate optimally. Unlike
turbochargers, which use the exhaust gases to
power the compressor, superchargers draw their
power directly from the crankshaft. Most are
driven by a belt, which wraps around a pulley that
is connected to a drive gear. The drive gear, in
turn, rotates the compressor gear. To pressurize
the air, a supercharger must spin rapidly -- more
rapidly than the engine itself. Making the drive
gear larger than the compressor gear causes the
compressor to spin faster.

Fig.33 Intercooler
An intercooler or charge air cooler is an additional
component that looks something like radiator,
except air passes through the inside as well as the
outside of the intercooler. The intake air passes
through sealed passageways inside the cooler,
22

autokriti 7.0
2. In diesel engine, fuel is injected at a high
pressure into the hot, compressed air in the
cylinder, causing it to burn and force the piston
down. No spark is required.

No intercooler is used in tata indica

while cooler air from outside is blown across fins

by engine cooling fan. The intercooler further
increases the power of the engine by cooling the
pressurized air coming out of the compressor
before it goes into the engine. This means that if
the turbocharger is operating at a boost of 7 psi,
the intercooled system will put in 7 psi of cooler
air, which is denser and contains more air
molecules than warmer air.

5.7.2 LIFE
Petrol destroys lubrication and burns the engine
whereas diesel doesnt. so a diesel engine would
last longer than a petrol engine.

5.7.3 WEIGHT
Petrol engines are lighter than diesel engines.

DID YOU KNOW?

5.7.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

Superchargers can spin at speeds as high as

50,000 to 65,000 RPM,Which is more than
Engines RPM

5.7 PETROL ENGINE

DIESEL ENGINE

Diesel engine would pull heavy loads easily than a

petrol engine. Though the pick-up of a petrol
engine would be much more than of a diesel
engine. The diesel engine would be steady and
carry heavier loads to longer distances.

v/s

5.7.5 FUEL EFFICIENCY

Diesel engines have better fuel efficiency as
compared to petrol due to the fact that they have
higher compression ratio.

5.7.1 EXPANSION STROKE

1. In petrol engine, the air and fuel mixture is
ignited using a spark plug and burns expanding
and forcing the piston down.

Sr.no.

Diesel engine

petrol engine

It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark plug.

2
3
4

It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and spark

plug.
Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to 22:1
It uses diesel oil as fuel.
Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction stroke.

It has got fuel injection pump and injector.

Fuel is injected in combustion chamber where

burning of fuel takes places due to heat of
compression.
Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to 38%.
Engine weight per horse-power is high.
Operating cost is low.
Torque produced is even.

7
8
9
10

Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.

It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosine as fuel.
Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the cylinder in
suction stroke.
It has got no fuel injection pump and injector, instead
it has got carburetor and ignition coil.
Air fuel mixture is compressed in the combustion
chamber when it is ignited by an electric spark.
Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%.
Engine weight per horsepower is comparatively low.
Operating cost is high.
Torque produced is less even.

23

autokriti 7.0

6.TRANSMISSION
spinning on the end of the engine crank but it no
longer drives the gearbox because the clutch plates
aren't pressed up against it.As you start to release
the clutch pedal, pressure is released on the throwout bearing and the diaphragm springs begin to
push the pressure plate back against the back of the
clutch plates, in turn pushing them against the
flywheel again. Springs inside the clutch plate
absorb the initial shock of the clutch touching the
flywheel and as you take your foot off the clutch
pedal completely, the clutch is firmly pressed
against it. The friction material on the clutch plate
is what grips the back of the flywheel and causes
the input shaft of the gearbox to spin at the same
speed.

6.1 CLUTCH
A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and
disengages the power transmission, especially from
driving shaft to driven shaft. The clutch is what
enables you to change gears, and sit at traffic lights
without stopping the engine. The clutch is
composed of three basic elements; the flywheel, the
pressure plate and the clutch plate(s). The flywheel
is attached to the end of the main crank and the
clutch plates are attached to the gearbox lay shaft
using a spline.

6.2 Types of Clutches

6.2.1 Multi-plate clutches
Adding plates to a clutch unit to form a multi-plate
clutch will increase its torque capacity, without
increasing spring strength or clutch diameter. This
clutch assembly has more than two friction discs, with
friction material riveted to both sides of each. An
internally-splined hub on each disc mates with the
splines on the transmission input shaft. A cast-iron
separator plate fits between each disc. The separator
plate locates on driving pins on the flywheel.

Figure 34 Components of a diaphragm spring

clutch
In the diagram here, the clutch cover is bolted to
the flywheel so it turns with the flywheel. The
diaphragm springs are connected to the inside of
the clutch cover with a bolt/pivot arrangement that
allows them to pivot about the attachment bolt. The
ends of the diaphragm springs are hooked under the
lip of the pressure plate. So as the engine turns, the
flywheel, clutch cover, diaphragm springs and
pressure plate are all spinning together.
The clutch pedal is connected either mechanically
or hydraulically to a fork mechanism which loops
around the throw-out bearing. When you press on
the clutch, the fork pushes on the throw-out bearing
and it slides along the lay shaft putting pressure on
the innermost edges of the diaphragm springs.
These in turn pivot on their pivot points against the
inside of the clutch cover, pulling the pressure plate
away from the back of the clutch plates. This
release of pressure allows the clutch plates to
disengage from the flywheel. The flywheel keeps

Figure 35 Components of a Multi-plate clutch

This friction unit is between the flywheel and the
pressure plate when the pressure plate assembly is
bolted to the flywheel. The pressure plate spring
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autokriti 7.0
then provides a frictional clamping force on each
mating surface.

6.3 Gear ratio

Gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of
the input shaft to that of the output shaft. It is
calculated as the ratio of the number of teeth on
the output gear to the number on the input gear.
For example, imagine an input gear with 10
teeth, a secondary gear with 20 teeth and a final
gear with 30 teeth. From the input gear to the
secondary gear, the ratio is 20/10 = 2:1. From
the second gear to the final gear, the ratio is
30/20 = 1.5:1. The total gear ratio for this
system is (2*1.5):1, or 3:1. i.e. to turn the
output gear once, the input gear has to turn
three times. This also neatly shows how you
can do the calculation and misses the middle
gear ratios - ultimately you need the ratio of
input to output. In this example, the final output
is 30 and the original input is 10. 30/10 = 3/1 =
3:1.

6.2.2 Wet & Dry Clutches

A wet clutch is immersed in a cooling lubricating
fluid that also keeps surfaces clean and provides
smoother performance and longer life. Wet
clutches; however, tend to lose some energy to the
liquid. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be
slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in
engine oil), stacking multiple clutch discs can
compensate for the lower coefficient of friction and
so eliminate slippage under power when fully
engaged. A dry clutch, as the name implies, is not
bathed in liquid and should be, literally, dry.

6.2.3 Centrifugal Clutch

A centrifugal clutch is a clutch that uses centrifugal
force to connect two concentric shafts, with the
driving shaft nested inside the driven shaft. The
input of the clutch is connected to the engine
crankshaft while the output may drive a shaft. As
engine rpm increase, weighted arms in the clutch
swing outward and force the clutch to engage. The
most common types have friction pads or shoes
radially mounted that engage the inside of the rim
of housing.

Figure 37 Figure depicting gear ratios

6.4 Types of Transmission

6.4.1 Manual Transmission
6.4.1a Constant Mesh type Gearbox
You can see the helical gears meshing with each
other. The lower shaft in this image is called the
layshaft - it's the one connected to the clutch - the
one driven directly by the engine. The output shaft
is the upper shaft in this image. Well look at the
output shaft. You can see 5 helical gears and 3 sets
of selector forks. At the most basic level that tells
you this is a 5-speed box (note that my example has

Figure 36 Parts of a Centrifugal clutch

On the centre shaft there are an assorted number of
extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe.
When the central shaft spins fast enough, the
springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage
the friction face.
25

autokriti 7.0
no reverse gear). With the clutch engaged, the
layshaft
is always turning.
All
the

This locks it to the dog gear which itself is locked

to the output shaft with the splines. When the
clutch is let out and the engine drives the layshaft,
all the gears turn as before but now the second
helical gear is locked to the output shaft and it is fourth gear.

6.4.1b Reverse Gear

Reverse gear is normally an extension of
everything you've learned above but with one extra
gear involved. Typically, there will be three gears
that mesh together at one point in the gearbox
instead of the customary two. There will be a gear
each on the layshaft and output shaft, but there will
be a small gear in between them called the idler
gear. The inclusion of this extra mini gear

Figure 38 A constant mesh gearbox

helical gears on the layshaft are permanently
attached to it so they all turn at the same rate. They
mesh with a series of gears on the output shaft that
are mounted on sliprings.Therefore they actually
spin around the output shaft without turning it.
Look closely at the selector forks; you'll see they
are slipped around a series of collars with teeth on
the inside. Those are the dog gears and the teeth are
the dog teeth. The dog gears are mounted to the
output shaft on a splined section which allows them
to slide back and forth. When you move the gear
stick, a series of mechanical pushrod connections
move the various selector forks, sliding the dog
gears back and forth.Observing the close-up of the
area between third and fourth gear, when the
gearstick is moved to select fourth gear, the
selector fork slides backwards. This slides the dog
gear backwards on the splined shaft and the dog
teeth engage with the teeth on the front of the
helical
fourth
gear.

Figure 40 Idler gear being used to reverse

direction of motion
causes the last helical gear on the output shaft to
spin in the opposite direction to all the others. The
principle of engaging reverse is the same as for any
other gear - a dog gear is slid into place with a
selector fork. Because the reverse gear is spinning
in the opposite direction, when you let the clutch
out, the gearbox output shaft spins the other way in reverse. The image here shows the same gearbox
as above modified to have a reverse gear.

6.4.1c Synchromesh gearbox

Fig. 39 Gear selection in a constant mesh
gearbox

A synchro is a device that allows the dog gear to

come to a speed matching the helical gear before
the dog teeth attempt to engage. In this way, you
26

autokriti 7.0
don't need to 'blip' the throttle and double-clutch to
change gears because the synchro does the job of
matching the speeds of the various gearbox
components for you. To the left is a colour-coded
cutaway part of my example gearbox. The green
cone-shaped area is the syncho collar. It's attached
to the red dog gear and slides with it.

most common type of CVT operates on an

ingenious pulley system that allows an infinite
variability between highest and lowest gears with
no discrete steps or shifts. Most CVTs only have
three basic components: A high-power metal or
rubber belt, A variable-input "driving" pulley, An
output "driven" pulley
CVTs also have various microprocessors and
sensors, but the three components described above
are the key elements that enable the technology to
work. The variable-diameter pulleys are the heart
of a CVT. Each pulley is made of two 20-degree
cones facing each other. A belt rides in the groove
between the two cones. When the two cones of the
pulley are far apart (when the diameter increases),
the belt rides lower in the groove, and the radius of
the belt loop going around the pulley gets smaller.
When the cones are close together (when the
diameter decreases), the belt rides higher in the
groove, and the radius of the belt loop going
around the pulley gets larger.

Figure 41 Cone shaped synchro collars

As it approaches the helical gear, it makes friction
contact with the conical hole. The more contact it
makes, the more the speed of the output shaft and
free-spinning helical gear are equalised before the
teeth engage. If the car is moving, the output shaft
is always turning (because ultimately it is
connected to the wheels). The layshaft
is usually connected to the engine, but it is freespinning once the clutch has been operated.
Because the gears are meshed all the time, the
synchro brings the layshaft to the right speed for
the dog gear to mesh. This means that the layshaft
is now spinning at a different speed to the engine,
but that's OK because the clutch gently equalises
the speed of the engine and the layshaft, either
bringing the engine to the same speed as the
layshaft or vice versa depending on engine torque
and vehicle speed.

Figure 42 CVT at low and high speeds

CVTs may use hydraulic pressure, centrifugal force
or spring tension to create the force necessary to
adjust the pulley halves. One of the pulleys, known
as the drive pulley (or driving pulley), is connected
to the crankshaft of the engine. The driving pulley
is also called the input pulley or variator because
it's where the energy from the engine enters the
transmission. The second pulley is called the driven
pulley because the first pulley is turning it. As an
output pulley, the driven pulley transfers energy to
the driveshaft. When one pulley increases its
radius, the other decreases its radius to keep the
belt tight. As the two pulleys change their radii
relative to one another, they create an infinite

6.4.2 Continuously Variable

Transmission
Unlike traditional automatic transmissions,
continuously variable transmissions don't have a
gearbox with a set number of gears, which means
they don't have interlocking toothed wheels. The
27

autokriti 7.0
number of gear ratios -- from low to high and
everything in between. For example, when the
pitch radius is small on the driving pulley and large
on the driven pulley, then the rotational speed of
the driven pulley decreases, resulting in a lower
gear. When the pitch radius is large on the driving
pulley and small on the driven pulley, then the
rotational speed of the driven pulley increases,
resulting in a higher gear. CVT has an infinite
number of gears that it can run through at any time,
at any engine or vehicle speed.
When you roll off the throttle, the centrifugal force
is reduced and the spring loaded rollers drop back,
allowing the front pulley to open slightly, which
allows the belt to ride lower within the springloaded, sliding halves of the pulley, which in turn
allows the rear pulley to close up and lower the
gearing.

ratio for the gearset. We can get lots of different

gear ratios out of this gearset.
Input

Output

Stationary Calculation

Sun (S)

Planet
Ring (R)
Carrier (C)

1 + R/S

Planet
Ring (R)
Carrier (C)

Sun (S)

Sun (S)

Planet
-R/S
Carrier (C)

Ring (R)

Gear
Ratio
3.4:1

1 / (1 + S/R) 0.71:1
-2.4:1

Figure 43 Sun and Planet gears arrangement

in an automatic transmission

TATA NANO has Synchromesh on all

forward gears, Sliding mesh on reverse
gear with overdrive on 4th gear. It has 4speed manual transmission

Also, locking any two of the three components

together will lock up the whole device at a 1:1 gear
reduction. Notice that the first gear ratio listed
above is a reduction -- the output speed is slower
than the input speed. The second is an overdrive -the output speed is faster than the input speed. The
last is a reduction again, but the output direction is
reversed. There are several other ratios that can be
gotten out of this planetary gear set, but these are
the ones that are relevant to automatic
transmission.

6.4.3 Automatic Transmission

Automatic transmission is totally different from
manual transmission. There is no clutch pedal and
no gear shifter in an automatic transmission car.
Once you put the transmission into drive,
everything else is automatic. Automatic
Transmission uses a torque converter instead of a
clutch. The key difference between a manual and
an automatic transmission is that the manual
transmission locks and unlocks different sets
of gears to the output shaft to achieve the various
gear ratios. While in an automatic transmission, the
same set of gears produces all of the different gear
ratios. The planetary gearset is the device that
makes this possible in an automatic transmission.
Any planetary gearset has three main components:
The sun gear, the planet gears and the planet
gears' carrier, the ring gear.

But in the Compound Planetary Gearset there are

two sun gears and two sets of intermeshing planet
gears. It has one ring gear that is always the output
of the transmission. It looks like a single planetary
gearset but actually behaves like two planetary
gearsets combined. In this system we can now have
four forward gear ratios and one reverse gear. In
the arrangement shown we have two sets of planet
gears that are arranged as inner and outer planets
and the inner one are shorter and only engage the
smaller sun gear and the outer planet gears. And
then the outer planet gear in turn rotates the larger
sun gear at the bottom and the outermost ring gear.

Each of these three components can be the input,

the output or can be held stationary. Choosing
which piece plays which role determines the gear
28

autokriti 7.0
,centrifugal force causes the fluid to flow outward
from the center of the impellar.as speed increases
further,fluid is forced out away from the impellar
towards the turbine.The fluid strikes the vanes of
turbine causing it to rotate in the same direction as
the impellar.

Hydraulic automatic transmissions

The predominant form of automatic transmission
is hydraulically operated; using a fluid coupling or
torque converter, and a set of planetary gearsets to
provide a range of gear ratios.Fluid couplings and
torque converters are fluid-filled units installed
between the engines crankshaft and the
transmission. They consist of two sets of blades.
One set of blades is driven by the engine, and the
other set of blades is connected to the
transmissions input shaft. The blade set connected
to the engine is called the impeller, and the blade
set connected to the input shaft is called the
turbine. See Figure 1-13. A hydraulic pump in the
transmission forces fluid into the converter. Inside
the converter, the fluid is spun by the impeller
blades. As the fluid is thrown from the impeller
blades, it strikes the turbine blades. See Figure 114. Power is transmitted from the impeller to the
turbine through the fluid. When the vehicle is
stopped, the fluid from the impeller continues to
strike the turbine, but the fluid allows enough
slippage between the impeller and the turbine to
prevent engine stalling.

After the fluid dissipates its energy against the

vanes of the turbine,it flows inward along the vanes
of the turbine. When it reaches the interior of the
turbine,the turbines curved inner surface directs the
fluid at the vanes of the stator.Fluid strikes the
curved vane of the stator causing the one way
clutch to lick the stator and redirect the fluid at the
impellar vanes in the direction of the engine
rotation, increasing engine torque.
As the impellar and turbine approach the same
speed, fluid strikes the back of the stator
vanes,releasing the one way clutch and allows the
stator
to
freewheel.Unless
the
stator
freewheels,being mounted to the transmission
body,fluid will strike the vanes of the stator and
limit engine rpm and upper engine performance.

Hydraulic automatic transmissions consist of three

major components:

1.Torque Converter
Fluid couplings and torque converters are fluidfilled units installed between the engines
crankshaft and the transmission. They consist of
two sets of blades. One set of blades is driven by
the engine, and the other set of blades is connected
to the transmissions input shaft. The blade set
connected to the engine is called the impeller, and
the blade set connected to the input shaft is called
the turbine. A hydraulic pump in the transmission
forces fluid into the converter. Inside the converter,
the fluid is spun by the impeller blades. As the
fluid is thrown from the impeller blades, it strikes
the turbine blades.

Fig.44 Torque converter

2. Planetary gear train
It Consists of planetary gear sets as well as clutches
and bands. These are the mechanical systems that
provide the various gear ratios, altering the speed of
rotation of the output shaft depending on which
planetary gears are locked.
To effect gear changes, one of two types of clutches
or bands are used to hold a particular member of the
planetary gearset motionless, while allowing another
member to rotate, thereby transmitting torque and
producing gear reductions or overdrive ratios. These
clutches are actuated by the valve body (see below),

When the impellar is driven by the engine

crankshaft, the fluid around the impellar rotates in
the same direction.as impellar speed increases
29

autokriti 7.0
their sequence controlled by the transmission's
internal programming. Principally, a type of device
known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine
upshifts/downshifts.

gear changes and keeps power delivery constant. A

standard manual transmission can't do this because
it must use one clutch for all odd and even gears.

AUTOMATED MANUAL
TRANSMISSION

3. Hydraulic controls uses special transmission

fluid sent under pressure by an oil pump to control
various clutches and bands modifying the speed of
the output depending on the cars running condition.

Dual

Clutch

Transmission

An AMT is composed of a dry clutch, a gearbox,

and an embedded dedicated control system that
uses electronic sensors, processors, and actuators to
actuate gear shifts on the drivers command. This
removes the need for a clutch pedal while the
driver is still able to decide when to change the
gear. The clutch itself is actuated by electronic
equipment that can synchronize the timing and the
torque required to make gear shifts quick and
smooth. The system is designed to provide a better
driving experience,especially in cities where
congestion frequently causes stop-and-go traffic
patterns.

(DCT)

A dual-clutch transmission offers the function of

two manual gearboxes in one. A dual-clutch
gearbox uses two clutches, but has no clutch pedal.
Sophisticated electronics and hydraulics control the
clutches, just as they do in a standard automatic
transmission. In a DCT, however, the clutches
operate independently. One clutch controls the odd
gears, while the other controls the even gears.
Using this arrangement, gears can be changed
without interrupting the power flow from the
engine to the transmission. A two-part transmission
shaft is at the heart of a DCT. Unlike a
conventional manual gearbox, which houses all of
its gears on a single input shaft, the DCT splits up
odd and even gears on two input shafts. The outer
shaft is hollowed out, making room for an inner
shaft, which is nested inside. The outer hollow
shaft feeds second, fourth and sixth gears, while the
inner shaft feeds first, third and fifth.

AMTs have been used in racing cars for many

years, but only recently have they become feasible
for use in everyday vehicles with their more
stringent requirements for reliability,cost, and ease
of
use.

Fig.46 Shift buttons on the steering wheel of a FIAT

Bravo

Benefits of AMT
Changing gears without using a foot to operate
the clutch

Figure45 Basic arrangement of a 6-speed dual

clutch transmission

No engine or gear modifications

The diagram shows this arrangement for a typical

6-speed DCT. Notice that one clutch controls
second, fourth and sixth gears, while another
independent clutch controls first, third and fifth
gears. That's the trick that allows lightning-fast

Less physical or psychological stress

More comfortable than manual transmissions

30

autokriti 7.0
More fun factor compared to fully automatic
transmissions.

AMT systems are currently installed by several automakers under different

commercial names, such as SeleSpeed by FIAT, Sequential Manual Gearbox
by BMW, 2Tronic by Peugeot, SensoDrive by Citroen, and EasyTronic by Opel.
Commercial DCT systems include the Direct-Shift Gearbox by Volkswagen
Group and the Dual Dry Clutch Transmission by FIAT Group

travel at a lower speed. Driven wheels are linked

together so that a single engine and transmission
can turn both wheels. If your car did not have a
differential, the wheels would have to be locked
together, forced to spin at the same speed. This
would make turning difficult and hard on your car.
For the car to be able to turn, differential is used.

6.5 DIFFERENTIALS
Car wheels spin at different speeds, especially
when turning. Each wheel travels a different
distance through the turn, and that the inside
wheels travel a shorter distance than the outside
wheels. The wheels that travel a shorter distance

6.5.1 Open differential

Open differentials are most commonly used and
they supply the same amount of torque to each
output. Open differentials have e a few essential
components, illustrated below. The input pinion
gear is the gear that is driven from the drive-train typically the output shaft from the transmission. It
drives the ring gear which, being larger, is what
gives that final gear reduction. Attached to the ring
gear is the cage, containing two captive pinion
gears that are intermeshed with the two output
pinion gears, one connected to each axle.
Fig. 47 Differential

The captive pinions are free to rotate how they

wish. As the input pinion spins, it meshes with the
ring gear. The ring gear spins, spinning the cage
and the two captive pinions. When the vehicle is
travelling in a straight line, neither drive pinion is
trying to spin any differently from the other, so the
31

autokriti 7.0
captive pinions don't spin and the turning of the
ring gear is translated directly to both drive pinions.

are off the ground, you're stuck. This is where the

limited slip differentials are of great help.

These are connected to the drive-shafts to the

wheels so effectively that the ring gear spins the
wheels at the same speed that it is turning. When
the vehicle starts to turn a corner, one of the wheels
spins more quickly than the other. At this point, the
captive pinions come into play, allowing the two
drive pinions to spin at slightly different speeds
while still transmitting torque to them. One can
check whether a vehicle's differential is working
properly by jacking the driven axle up off the
ground and spinning one wheel. Now gearbox is
stationary, it holds the ring gear solid, the captive
pinions spin in opposite directions, and the other
wheel on the axle spins the other way around. This
also explains why a two-wheel-drive vehicle can
get into trouble when one wheel has less friction
with the ground than the other.

6.5.2 Limited slip Differentials

The simplest form of limited-slip differential is
designed to combat the scenario outlined above.
Physically there's not a lot of difference in the
design of a limited-slip differential and an open
differential. It still has all the components of an
open differential but there are two crucial extra
elements. The first are spring pressure plates which
are a pair of springs and pressure plates nestled in
the cage between the two drive pinions.These push
the drive pinions outwards where the second extra
clement comes into play - clutch packs. The
backside of the drive pinions have friction material
on them which presses against clutch plates built
into the cage. This means that the clutch is always
going to try to behave as if the car was moving in a
straight line by attempting to make both output
pinions spin at the same speed as the ring gear and
cage. However, when a car with a LSD goes into a
corner, there are enough forces at play that the
drive Pinions begin to slip against the clutch
material, thus allowing them to turn at different
speeds again. The stiffness of the spring pack
coupled with the friction of the clutch pack
together determines the amount of torque required
to overcome the clutch. With a limited slip
differential, because of the packs even though one
wheel differential is going to attempt to spin both
drive pinions at the same speed. With low engine
revs and steady throttle control, the wheel on the
road will get enough spin to move the vehicle
forwards. If the engine is revved hard though it can
still generate sufficient torque to overcome the
clutch pack and once again, only the wheel on the
ice will spin. To get around this, its a good idea to
try to pull away in second gear that gives the
limited-slip differential a chance to do its job. The
render here shows the generic open differential

Figure 48 An open differential

The open differential cannot compensate for this. If
one drive pinion is held solid compared to the
other, then all the input gets redirected to the drive
Pinion that has the least resistance. This is why
when you gun a two-wheel-drive car with one
wheel on ice and the other on the road, the wheel
on the ice spins and the wheel on the road doesn't.
The vehicle doesn't go anywhere because all the
engine power is directed to the wheel with least
resistance - the one on the ice. Imagine the same
scenario on a four-wheel-drive vehicle that has
open differentials on the front and rear. If you're
off-roading in such a vehicle and get it into a
situation where one front wheel and one rear wheel
32

autokriti 7.0
from

above

modified

to

be

LSD.

A locking differential is designed to overcome the

chief limitation of a standard open differential by
essentially "locking" both wheels on an axle
together as if on a common shaft. This forces both
wheels to turn in unison, regardless of the traction
available to either wheel individually.

6.6 TYPES OF DRIVELINE

6.6.1 Two-Wheel drive
Figure 49 Exploded view of a limited slip
differential

This is by far the most common type of drive-train

in any car today. The engine drives the gearbox
which sends its output to an open differential either
on the front or rear axle, which in turn drives those
wheels. If one of the driven wheels comes off the
ground, or gets on a slippery surface like ice, the
car gets stuck because all the torque is being sent to
that wheel while the other three sit there
helpless.(Refer appendix 1,2).

A locking differential is a variation on the standard

automotive differential. A locking differential may
provide increased traction compared to a standard
or open differential by restricting each of the two
wheels on an axle to the same rotational speed
without regard to available traction or differences
in resistance seen at each wheel.When the
differential is open, it allows each wheel to rotate at
different speeds (such as when negotiating a turn),
thus avoiding tire scuffing. An open (or unlocked)
differential always provides the same torque
(rotational force) to each of the two wheels, on that
axle. So although the wheels can rotate at different
speeds, they apply the same rotational force, even
if one is entirely stationary, and the other spinning.

6.6.2 Four wheel Drive

A vehicle with a four wheel drive (4WD) has a
drive train that can send power to all the four
wheels. This provides maximum traction for offroading. It also provides maximum traction when
the road surface is slippery or covered with ice or
snow. Some vehicles have a four wheel drive
system that engages automatically or remains
engaged all the time. Other vehicles have a
selective arrangement that permits the diver to shift
from 4WD to 2WD and back according to driving
conditions.
(Refer
appendix-3
DID YOU KNOW?
In AUDIs sport differential a superposition
gear comprising two sun gears and an internal
gear was mounted on the left and the right of
a conventional rear differential.It turns 10
percent faster than the drive shaft.

Figure 50
Cut section view of a locking differential

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

3. All Wheel Drive

The transmission - in this case called a transaxle is
attached directly to the engine. The drive axles to the
front wheels are attached directly to the transaxle.
Then, there is an electromagnetically activated
clutch pack called a power transfer unit that is
attached between the transmission and the rear drive
axle. Under normal driving conditions, AWD
operates a lot like a frontwheel- drive vehicle with
much of the power sent to the front wheels.
However, the AWD system continuously monitors
throttle position, steering angle and wheel speed to
determine the vehicle conditions and the drivers
intent. The system then seamlessly determines the

optimal amount of front and rear torque to apply for

the given conditions to reduce wheel-slip and even
to prevent slip from occurring in the first place. In
order to activate the rear wheels, the computerized
AWD
system
electronically
activates
an
electromagnet in the clutch pack to push the clutch
plates together and drive the rear wheels. It does so
when sensors detect wheel slip in the front wheels,
or, as said earlier, will act preemptively to prevent
slip from happening in the first place. The system
reacts within milliseconds to distribute up to 100
percent of the available torque to the rear wheels.

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

6. Electronics in cars
Automobiles have come a long way since their
beginning in the late 19th century. One of the
major things that has helped automobiles to
provide more safety and convenience is
electronics. With the advances in technology and
electronics, car manufacturers have been able to
offer a wide variety of services that many new
automobile owners appreciate. From the creation
of the Electronic Fuel Injection to the popular
Global Positioning System found in many cars
today, the auto industry has revolutionized the way
people travel from place to place.

In a diesel engine:
Fuel injection rate: The purpose of the
fuel injection system is to deliver fuel into
the engine cylinders, while precisely
controlling the injection timing, fuel
atomization, and other parameters.
Emission control, NOx control: Analysis
of exhaust gas to determine combustion
efficiency and pollutants.
Regeneration
of oxidation
catalytic
converter: The electronic controller, based
on a feedback system from the oxygen
sensor, maintains the A/F ratio within a
narrow range around the stoichiometric
point, to assure maximum catalyst
efficiency.

A modern car may have up to 100 ECU's and a

commercial vehicle up to 40.Automotive
electronics or automotive embedded systems are
distributed systems, and according to different
domains in the automotive field, they can be
classified into:

In a petrol engine:
1. Engine electronics
2. Transmission electronics
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Lambda control: It controls the ratio of

air and fuel going into the cylinders after
checking the amount of oxygen coming out
through exhaust.
OBD (On-Board Diagnostics): It is
basically DAQ (Data acquisition) system
which collects data (temperature, air-fuel
ratio etc.) from various sensors and informs
the user about the running status of the car
and any abnormality.
Cooling system control: It monitors the
temperature of various parts of the engine
and maintains the safety level of the
temperature.
Throttle control: After stepping on
accelerator pedal, instead of opening the
throttle a signal is sent to electronic control
unit, which takes inputs into account as
well as outside variables to open the
throttle for optimum efficiency and
performance.

Chassis electronics
Active safety
Driver assistance
Passenger comfort
Entertainment systems

7.1 Engine
One of the most demanding electronic parts of an
automobile is the engine control unit. Engine
controls demand one of the highest real time
deadlines, as the engine itself is a very fast and
complex part of the automobile. Of all the
electronics in any car the computing power of the
engine control unit is the highest, typically a 32-bit
processor.
It controls such things as:

35

aUtOKRITI 7.0

7.2 Transmission
These control the transmission system, mainly the
shifting of the gears for better shift comfort and to
lower torque interrupt while shifting. Automatic
transmissions use controls for their operation, and
also many semi-automatic transmissions having a
fully automatic clutch or a semi-auto clutch
(declutching only). The engine control unit and the
transmission control exchange messages, sensor
signals and control signals for their operation.

7.3 Chassis Electronics

ABS - Anti-lock Braking System: Typically

ABS includes a central electronic control
unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the
brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly
monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if
it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower
than the others, a condition indicative of
impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to
reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the
affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force
on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster.
Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning
significantly faster than the others, brake
hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so
the braking force is reapplied, slowing down
the wheel. This process is repeated
continuously and can be detected by the driver
via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock
systems can apply or release braking pressure
15 times per second.

TCS Traction Control System: When the

traction control computer (often incorporated
into another control unit, such as the ABS
module) detects one or more driven wheels
spinning significantly faster than another, it
invokes the ABS electronic control unit to
apply brake friction to wheels spinning with
lessened traction. Braking action on slipping
wheel(s) will cause power transfer to wheel
axle(s) with traction due to the mechanical
action within the differential. All-wheel
36

drive (AWD) vehicles often have an

electronically controlled coupling system in
the transfer case or transaxle engaged (active
part-time AWD), or locked-up tighter (in a
true full-time set up driving all wheels with
some power all the time) to supply nonslipping wheels with torque.
EBD Electronic Brake Distribution: EBD
may
work
in
conjunction
with
ABS and Electronic Stability Control ("iESC")
to minimize yaw accelerations during turns.
ESC compares the steering wheel angle to
vehicle turning rate using a yaw rate sensor. If
the yaw sensor detects more/less yaw than the
steering wheel angle should create, the car is
understeering or oversteering and ESC
activates one of the front or rear brakes to
rotate the car back onto its intended course.
For example, if a car is making a left turn and
begins to understeer (the car plows forward to
the outside of the turn) ESC activates the left
rear brake, which will help turn the car left.
The sensors are so sensitive, and the actuation
is so quick that the system may correct
direction before the driver reacts.
ESP Electronic Stability Program: ESC
intervenes only when it detects a probable loss
of steering control, i.e. when the vehicle is not
going where the driver is steering. This may
happen, for example, when skidding during
emergency evasive swerves, understeer or
oversteer during poorly judged turns on
slippery roads, or hydroplaning. ESC may also
intervene in an unwanted way during highperformance driving, because steering input
may not always be directly indicative of the
intended
direction
of
travel
(i.e.
controlled drifting). ESC estimates the
direction of the skid, and then applies the
brakes to individual wheels asymmetrically in
order to create torque about the vehicle's
vertical axis, opposing the skid and bringing
the vehicle back in line with the driver's
commanded direction.

aUtOKRITI 7.0

7.4 Active safety :

These systems are always ready to act when there
is a collision in progress or to prevent it when it
senses a dangerous situation:

Air bags
Hill descent control
Emergency brake assist system

7.5 Driver assistance

Lane assist system

Speed assist system

Blind spot detection
Park assist system
Adaptive cruise control system

7.6 Passenger comfort

Automatic climate control

Electronic seat adjustment with memory
Automatic wipers
Automatic headlamps - adjusts beam
automatically
Automatic cooling - temperature adjustment

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

8.SUSPENSION SYSTEM:
INTRODUCTION:-

8.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS:

The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles,

not direct but through some form of springs. This
is done to isolate the vehicles body from the road
shocks which may be in the form of bounce, pitch,
and roll. These tendencies give rise to an
uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress
in the automobile frame and body. All the parts
which perform the function of isolating the vehicle
body from the road shocks collectively called a
suspension system.

8.2.1 Unsprung weight : The unsprung weight of

a vehicle is the fraction of the total weight that is
not supported by the suspension springs and will
usually consist of the wheels, tires, hubs, hub
carriers, brakes and lastly, roughly 50% of the
weight due to drive shafts, springs and shocks as
well as the suspension links.
8.2.2 Sprung weight: Sprung weight is the
portion of total car weight which is supported by
the suspension springs. This weight is much larger
than the unsprung weight as it consists of weight
from the majority of car components which would
include the chassis, engine, driver, fuel, gearbox
and other components housed in the chassis.

8.1 OBJECTIVE OF SUSPENSION

SYSTEM:The function of a suspension system for a road
vehicle is quite simple. That is to reduce the shock
and vibration experienced by occupants due to
irregularities on the driving surface and to ensure
all wheels maintain contact with the driving
surface to promote stability and control of the
vehicle. In other words the suspension links the
wheels of car to the chassis and aims to give the
car the best possible handling qualities.
The key components of these systems are
numbered and listed below.
1. Coil over shock absorber 7. Rocker
2. Tyre
8. Push rod
3. Wheel
9. Suspension arm
4. Steering arm
10. Upright
5. Tie rod
11. Toe link
6. Rack and pinion

8.2.3 Centre of gravity (CG): The definition of

centre of gravity for a car is no different than that
of a simple object such as a cube. Essentially, it is
a 3 dimensional balance point where if the car was
suspended by, it would be able to balance with no
rotational movement. Recognising this concept, it
is clear that the centre of gravity of the car will be
located at where mass is most highly concentrated,
which for a race car is typically around the engine
and associated drive components. It is also
expected that all accelerative forces experienced
by a vehicle will act through its centre of gravity.
8.2.4 Roll centre: When a car experiences
centrifugal cornering forces the sprung mass
between both the front and rear axles will tend to
rotate around a centre which is also located in a
transverse plane to the axles. These points are
called the roll centres.First, lines corresponding
with the angle of the upper and lower linkages are
extended until they meet at a point which is called
the instantaneous centre. From this instantaneous
centre a straight line is then drawn back to a point
defined by the middle of the tyres contact patch.
Where this line meets the centreline of the vehicle
is the roll centre.

Fig.51 Suspension components

Fig.52 Roll centre

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8.2.5 Roll axis: The roll axis is the line that would
connect the roll centre at the front axle to roll
centre at the rear axle.

a left hand corner and from the left to the right in a

right hand corner.
8.2.10 Dive and squat
Dive and squat are fundamentally the same
concept except reversed. Dive is where the front
end of the dips down under braking due to the
longitudinal weight transfer from the back of the
car to the front acting on the front springs. Squat is
where the back springs are compressed due to
longitudinal weight transfer from the front of the
car to the back which in effect causes the end of
the vehicle to depress towards the ground plane.

8.2.6 Anti-roll bar :The anti-roll bar or anti-sway

bar is a type of spring which is often incorporated
into a suspension design where higher roll stiffness
is required than is able to be supplied by the
existing springs that act on each individual wheel.
It can only be applied to independent suspension
systems and mounts to both ends of the lower
suspension arms. The bar is also constrained by
mounts featured on the chassis which allow
rotation of the bar as the car wheels oscillate up
and down. As a vehicle navigates a corner the car
will tilt toward the outside of the turn as the
suspension on that side of the car experiences the
largest forces.

8.2.11 Bump and droop

Bump and droop are positions of independent
suspension under certain scenarios. Bump occurs
when the wheels hit a bump on the track surface
whereas droop occurs when the wheels drop into a
depression in the track surface. Bump and droop
movements also associate with the suspension
travel terms, rebound and jounce where jounce
describes the upwards movement of the wheel or
movement in bump while rebound describes the
downwards travel of the wheel or droop
movement. These principles are best seen on the
figure below with the bump condition on the left
and the droop on the right.

Fig.53 Anti-Roll bar

8.2.7 Dynamic load transfer
Dynamic load transfer is the load transferred from one
wheel to another due to the moments about the
vehicles centre of gravity or its roll centres as the
vehicle is accelerated in one sense or another.

Fig.54 Bump and Droop

8.2.8 Longitudinal load transfer

Longitudinal load transfer is the result of the cars
mass accelerating from the front of the vehicle to
the back or the back to the front under accelerating
or braking respectively. It is important to mention
that The total weight of the vehicle does not
change; load is merely transferred from the wheels
at one end of the car to the wheels at the other
end

8.2.12 Springs and dampers

Dampers and springs go hand in hand; the springs
absorb shocks whereas the dampers dampen the
energy stored in the springs as they absorb these
shocks. Without dampers the vehicle body would
continue to oscillate up and down at its natural
frequency after travelling over a disturbance in the
road, as when compressed the springs store large
amounts of kinetic energy which when released,
forces the springs to extend back to their full
length. This force is sometimes strong enough to
put the vehicles wheels in full droop. Where
dampers come in is then to stop this post bump
extension of the springs such that the cars body
stays at a roughly constant height. The damper

8.2.9 Lateral load transfer

In essence the lateral load transfer experienced by
a vehicle is the same principle as the longitudinal
transfer only just rotated 90 degrees such that load
is either transferred from the right to the left under
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aUtOKRITI 7.0

achieves its function through the use of oil or gas

which is forced (as the spring compresses or
extends) through a small valve which is often
adjustable to alter how stiff the suspension
performs.

2. If the scrub radius is zero the wheel keeps

its straight position, without any tendency to
toe-in or toe-out.
3. If the scrub radius is positive the wheel
tends to toe-out.

Fig.55 Spring and Dampers

8.2.13 Track width & tire scrub
The track width is a measure of the distance
between the centre of the tire contact patches at the
front and rear of the vehicle. The track width will
change as the suspension travel and this change is
known as tire scrub.

8.3 TYPES OF SUSPENSION:8.3.1 Dependent suspension system:

Wheels are mounted on a rigid beam, applying any
movement of one wheel to be transmitted to the
other and producing roll or bump steer and camber
change. It is commonly used in rear suspension of
cars and trucks.
A. Hotchkiss Drive

Axle is mounted on longitudinal leaf

springs,
which are compliant vertically and
stiff horizontally.

The springs are pin connected to the

chassis at one end and to a pivoted link at the
other.

Used widely in rear axles of passenger

cars, still used in light and heavy tricks.

8.2.14 Scrub Radius

The scrub radius is the distance in front view
between the king pin axis and the centre of the
contact patch of the wheel, where both would
theoretically touch the road. The kingpin axis is
the line between the upper and lower ball joints of
hub. Scrub radius is positive when the tyre centre
line inside the steering axis. It is measured in mm.
The amount of scrub radius depends upon the
steering axis inclination, the wheel offset and
suspension height.

Fig.57 Hotchkiss drive

8.3.2. Independent suspension system:

In this type of suspension system motion of wheel
pair is independent, so that a disturbance at one
wheel is not directly transmitted to the other
wheel, it provides better ride and handling. Easy
control over the roll centre height by changing the
geometry of control arms, larger deflection and

Fig.56 Scrub Radius

1.If the scrub radius is negative the wheel
tends to toe-in.

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

greater roll stiffness for given suspension vertical

rate.

wishbone linkages are made the same length and

thus form a parallelogram. As the wheels move up
and down there is no wheel camber change but
there is notable track width change. Further still,
when the vehicles sprung mass rolls a certain
amount, the camber will change by the exact same
amount with the outside wheel cambering in the
positive direction. This condition is not to be
desired as the contact patch of the tire becomes
reduced, diminishing the amount of grip available
to the vehicle.

a. Wishbone type suspension:

This wishbone type is the most popular

independent suspension system. It consists of
upper and lower wishbone arms pivoted to the
frame member. These arms resemble letter A of
the Roman alphabet due to which these are also
referred to as A-arms. These arms transmit the
vehicle load to springs, but these also resist
acceleration, braking and cornering forces. The
ends of the two wishbone arms and top end of the
shock absorber will mount to the chassis. Here it is
seen that as the wheel moves up, the shock
absorber is compressed thus reducing the effect of
forces induced by the ground surface that are felt
by the chassis. To allow the wheels to be steered,
the wishbone arms feature ball joints on the top
and bottom so that the upright can pivot and rotate
as needed. This design has a number of benefits
including the fact that it provides a large amount of
room for adjustment, allows decent tyre camber
control
resulting
in
enhanced
handling
characteristics, has high strength and rigidity. On
the other hand, the double wishbone also holds a
number of disadvantages which comprise of
relatively higher build and installation costs, large
lateral space requirements and the fact that they
can sometimes be quite heavy which adds to the
sprung weight of the car.

Unequal length and Parallel arms: As the

name denotes, this design is where the arms are of
unequal length but still remain parallel. The upper
link is typically the shorter one in order to induce a
negative camber angle when the car hits a bump
and either a negative or positive camber when the
linkages go into droop. The amount of camber
change will be governed by the relative lengths of
the upper and lower linkages. Like before, the
wheels are forced into camber angles defined by
the roll direction of the car however this time the
positive camber of the outside wheel is reduced
and the negative camber of the inside wheel
increased.
b. Macpherson Strut:
It is most widely used layout. Only lower
wishbone are used. A strut containing shock
absorber and the spring carries also the stub axles
on which the wheel is mounted. This system is
simple than wishbone type arrangement also
camber does not change when the wheels moves
up and down.

Fig .58 Double wishbone

Under the double wishbone configuration there are
also a number of geometry variations that can be
used to alter the vehicles handling properties.
These variations include:

Fig.59 Macpherson strut

c. Swinging half axle suspension:
A swing axle is a simple type of independent
suspension designed. In this wheels are mounted

Equal length and parallel arms: This

geometry is created when the upper and lower
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aUtOKRITI 7.0

rigidly on the half axles, which are pivoted on their

ends to the chassis member at the middle of the
car. The main disadvantage of this system is up
and down movement of the wheel, because the
camber change to vary, besides cornering the car is
lifted due to a so called jacking effect which
produces positive camber on the outer wheel. This
results in sudden loss in traction.

when in use on the rear of a car is the fact that it

does not affect the path of the tyre in the lateral
direction as the suspension linkages are parallel to
the length of the vehicle and thus the front or rear
of the car, the rear wheels will only appear to
move up and down and have no apparent rotation.
However, it is important to realise that from a side
view it is apparent that the wheelbase will alter as
the suspension moves up and down.

Fig.60 Swinging half-axle suspension

d. Push and Pull Rod suspension:

Currently there are two main approaches to

designing the inboard suspension system which are
the push and pull variations. These may be viewed
on the following figure and as seen, will operate
using the same fundamental principles whereby up
and down wheel movement is transmitted to the
shock absorber by means of a rocker arm. What
type of mechanism is used will depend on the
layout of the vehicle and the desired loading paths
for the suspension design; one method may
integrate better much better than the other. It is
therefore not uncommon to see a vehicle utilising a
push system at one end of the car and a pull at the
other.

PUSH

Fig. 61

Fig.62 Trailing arm

f. Semi trailing arm:

The semi trailing arm suspension mechanism
pictured in the following figure is a transformation
of the trailing arm design. This change from the
normal trailing arm has been to improve the
adjustability of the kinematic characteristics
particularly in rear wheel applications.

Fig.63 Semi-Trailing Arm

PULL

g. Multi-link suspension:

Multi-link suspension configurations are in no way

as developed as the double wishbone or
trailing/semi trailing arm configurations that are
used today however their implementation in
modern vehicles has seen some very good
performance. These systems take the basic double

e. Trailing Link suspension:

The trailing arm suspension design uses the same

fundamental concepts as the double wishbone
setup although rotated 90 degrees so that the axle
position is behind the holding points for the
suspension linkages. One benefit the system has
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aUtOKRITI 7.0

wishbone set up and add arms, modify mounting

locations and in some cases, add extra pivot points
in the linkage system itself. As there is no set
standard for these multi-link mechanisms it is
quite hard to explain how they function. One of
these systems which is produced by Mercedes
Benz on the SL500 model is shown over the page
on figure.

8.5 Hydro pneumatic suspension:

In this system a displacer unit is fitted at each of
the four wheels. The displacer units are all
interconnected by means of fluid. In the displacer
unit, rubber is used as a spring whereas fluid under
pressure acts as damping medium. It was also used
on Berlient trucks and has more recently been used
on Mercedes Benz cars. The purpose of this
system is to provide a sensitive, dynamic and highcapacity suspension that offers superior ride
quality on a variety of surfaces.

Fig.64 Multi-Link Suspension

8.4 Magnetic suspension:

Fig.66 Hydro-pneumatic suspension

It is a method by which an object is suspended

with no support other than magnetic field.
Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of
the gravitational and any other accelerations. The
two primary issues involved in magnetic
suspension are lifting forces: providing an upward
force sufficient to counteract gravity, and stability:
ensuring that the system does not spontaneously
slide or flip into a configuration where the lift is
neutralized.
Magnetic
suspension
systems
generally consist of four dampers with magnetorheological (MR) fluid.

8.6 Motion ratio:

Since the coil over is never directly connected to
the wheel itself, the spring acts on the wheel
through the lever arm. This lever arm through
which both spring and damping forces act on the
wheel, can be described as the motion ratio.

Fig.67 Motion Ratio

During suspension travel the motion of the
geometry causes these motion ratios to change.
Ideally, in an off road suspension, this motion ratio
will be progressive allowing the springs and
dampers increasing leverage on the wheel during
compression. Typically packaging issues can limit
the progressiveness of motion ratio dynamics, and

Fig.65 Magnetic Suspension

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

motion ratios that are very high (shock has very

little leverage on wheel) will increase the needed
spring rates, overall shock output force and also
increase the bending stress in the link carrying the
shock absorber load. This high motion ratio will
also require more force to be absorbed by the fluid
damper, increasing damper heat and decreasing
performance.

2. Rear air springs to compensate for loads as on

Lexus LX 570.
3. Adjustable shock absorber damping on Grand
Cherokee.
4. Active antiroll bars on Mercedes and Jeep.

Do you know...? TATA INDICA has Front

Independent, Wishbone Type with
Macpherson Strut, Antiroll bar. And rear Semi
Trailing Arm with Coil Spring. TATA NANO has
front suspension consists of Independent,
Lower Wishbone, McPherson Strut with gas
filled dampers and anti-roll bar type. And rear
suspension consists of Independent, Semi
Trailing arm with coil spring & gas filled shock
absorbers type.

8.8 Modern Suspension Trends:

Active suspension systems, i.e. the ones in which
desired suspension characteristics as per
requirements are achieved during running by
means of computer controlled actuators. Such
systems are usually introduced in premium cars
from where they come to the mainstream models.
Some of such technologies are:
1. Using air springs to vary ride height according to
requirements, e.g., on Land Rover Range Rover
& LR4, Audi Q7, Mercedes-Benz ML550 and
Jeep Grand Cherokee. Audi s air suspension
varies its height by 95 mm between the lifted and
the lowered modes. Besides, a driver-selectable
dynamic driving mode drops the ride height by
15 mm lowering the centre of gravity an
improving handling. For high speed driving on
expressways, Q7 is lowered automatically from
it static height by 34.8 mm, which lowers its
drag coefficient from 0.37 to 0.35. Jeep Gran
Cherokee's Quadra-Life air suspension can vary
the vehicle's height by 104 mm from an off-road'
mode which lifts it 66 run higher than the
normal, to a park mode which lets it down by 38
mm fit in garages. It even lowers 15 mm
automatically at highway speeds to reduce drag
coefficient.

LAMBORGHINI-pushrod-suspension

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9.1.2 Caster angle:

9. STEERING SYSTEM

Caster angle also relates to the kingpin or steering

axis although describes the angle of it when

The primary function of steering system is to

achieve angular motion of the wheels to negotiate
a turn. In this system the rotary motion of steering
wheel is converted into angular motion of road
wheels.
Secondary functions of steering system are:

To provide directional stability while going

straight.

To facilitate straight
completing a turn,

To minimize tire wear.

ahead

viewing the vehicle from side on. As seen in figure, it

is the angle that the kingpin axis makes with the
vertical. It is positive when the kingpin axis meets the
ground ahead of the vertical axis drawn through the
wheel centre .In a vehicle with negative caster angle,
the steering wheels will tend to self-align as the vehicle
moves forward. Another term that is often associated
with the caster angle is the caster offset or mechanical
trail.

recovery after

Steering system consists of following components

Steering wheel

Steering column connect the steering wheel to

track rod

Tie rods, connected to track rod

Steering arm, connected to tie rods

9.1 FUNDAMENTAL
CONCEPTS
Fig.69 Caster angle

9.1.1 Camber angle:

9.1.3 Kingpin inclination:

As shown on the following figure, the camber angle is

the angle that the inclination of the vehicles tyres
makes with the vertical axis. In this case the camber is
negative as the top of the tyre leans in towards the
centre of the car. A positive camber is the opposite of
this. Increasing positive camber will enlarge the slip
angle for a specific cornering force, decrease the largest
possible cornering force possible by the vehicle but will
also slow down the onset of breakaway which is
assumed to mean the car starting to slide. On the other
hand, by increasing negative camber the opposite will
occur with a higher cornering force and less time for
the car to break away.

It is stated that the kingpin inclination is the angle,

viewed in end elevation, between the vertical and the
steering (kingpin) axis. Positive kingpin is when the
kingpin axis angles in towards the centre of the vehicle
whereas negative inclination is the opposite. Another
key parameter that is linked to kingpin inclination is
kingpin offset or scrub radius. It is the lateral
measurement between the meeting point of the centre
of the tyres contact patch and the kingpin axis, with
the ground plane. Convention is that positive offset
will be when the kingpin offset is outboard of the
kingpin axis.

Fig.68 Camber angle

Fig.70 Scrub radius

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8.1.4 Toe angle:

Toe angle is the angle that a wheel makes with a line
drawn parallel to the length of the car, when viewed
from above. This concept is seen below. When the
front wheels point away from each other, the condition
is called toe out whereas when the front wheels point
inwards, the vehicle is said to have toe in. Generally
designers will opt for toe in for the reason being that
when the vehicle experiences an upsetting force such as
a bump or a wind gust, the toe in will promote stability
as the front wheels naturally want to steer into a
location central to the cars body. Toe out on the other
hand will produce some very unstable behaviour under
these conditions when the slip angle of the more
heavily laden wheel increases. In general, toe in will
provide greater straight line stability whereas a
controlled amount of toe out can improve the cars turn
in ability to a corner.
Fig.72 Slip angle
This principle is best demonstrated by observing figure
below which also highlights the lateral forces imposed
on the wheel as it corners.

9.2.4 Over steer & Understeer

When the slip angle of front wheels are greater
than those of the rear wheels , radius of turn is
increased .Understeer is so called because the car
steers less than you want it to. Understeer can be
brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension
and speed issues but essentially it means that the
car is losing grip on the front wheels.

Fig.71Toe in and Toe out

9.2 STEERING BEHAVIOURS

9.2.1 Bump Steer
Bump steer is the phenomenon that occurs when the
front wheels of a vehicle vary their toe angles as the
suspension moves up and down, potentially causing the
car to dart around even under no steering input
resulting in highly unwanted driver uncertainty and
poor handling feel. Bump steer can be used to the
designers benefit by altering the response of the vehicle
while cornering.

Fig.73 Understeer

9.2.2 Roll Steer

Roll steer is The self-steering action of any
automobile in response to lateral acceleration and
consists of slip angle changes due to camber change,
toe change and the inertias of the sprung mass. This
effect will be present in all double wishbone set ups
although can be limited by reducing the gross weight of
the car, centre of gravity height, eliminating deflection
in the suspension and associated chassis mounting
components, and lastly, by adjusting bump steer.

At this point the mechanical grip of the front tyres

can simply be overpowered and they start to lose
grip (for example on a wet or greasy road surface).
The end result is that the car will start to take the
corner very wide. In normal you-and-me driving, it
means crashing at the outside of the corner. When
the slip angle of the front wheels are less than
those of the rear, radius of turn is decreased. It
means your car turn more sharply than it should
for a given rotation of steering wheel. Over steer is
the opposite of understeer. With over steer, the car
goes where it's pointed far too efficiently and you
end up diving into the corner much more quickly
than you had expected. Overseer is brought on by
the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight

9.2.3 Slip Angle

Slip angle is the angle made by the direction of the tyre
contact patch with the direction of overall velocity of
vehicle.

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

is transferred off them under braking, resulting in

the rear kicking out in the corner. Without countersteering the end result in racing is that the car will
spin and end up going off the inside of the corner
backwards.

steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack.

The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the
steering arm on the spindle. Rack and pinion systems
give a much better feel for the driver.

The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the

steering wheel into the linear motion
needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it

easier to turn the wheels.

Fig.74 Oversteer

9.3 TYPES OF STEERING

SYSTEM
9.3.1 Pitman arm steering system:
A pitman arm consists of steering system involves
the use of a steering gear box that is connected to
the steering wheel by the steering column at its
one end and at its other end it is connected to the
tie rods. The track rod is supported in its place but
idler arms .this type of steering system is generally
used in heavy duty trucks, buses.

Fig.76 Rack and Pinion

9.4 STEERING GEOMETRY

There are three type of steering geometry
Ackermann geometry

Anti-Ackermann geometry

Parallel geometry

9.4.1 Ackermann geometry:

When we turn the steering of a car then as
expected by a layman both the tyre turn by same
angle but in reality there is difference in the angle
turn by both of the tyres. For example if we turn
the steering wheel of the car to a left turn then the
inner tyre turn by a larger angle than the outer tyre,
this geometry is simply called Ackermann
geometry, difference between the angle is depends
on the percentage of Ackermann. It prevents
slipping of tyres because in this geometry all the
tyres turn about a common point. It is a trapezoidal
geometry. A simple approximation to perfect
Ackermann geometry be generated by moving the
steering pivot points inward so as to lie on alien
drawn between the steering arm and the centre of
the rear axle. Perfect Ackermann geometry can
only be achieved at static condition and at full lock

Fig.75 Pitman Arm

9.3.2 Rack and pinion type steering

system:
Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the
most common type of steering on cars, small
trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple
mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gear set is enclosed
in a metal tube, with each end of the rack
protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod,
connects to each end of the rack. The pinion gear
is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the
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aUtOKRITI 7.0

condition if Ackermann set is 100%. While turning

Ackermann percentage varies, means angle
difference between wheels is vary it is not a
constant quantity.

Fig.78 Parallel Geometry

9.5 Steering ratio:

It is defined as the angle turned by the steering
wheels on the to the angle turn by the wheels on
the ground. For example : if the steering ratio of
any car is 20:1 , it means that if you turn the
steering wheel by 20 degrees then therein wheels
only turn 1 degree. The lock to lock angle of
steering wheel is the twice of the product of the
steering ratio and lock angle of front wheels.

Fig.77 Ackermann Geometry

9.4.2 Anti-Ackermann geometry:

9.6 Power steering:

Negative
Ackermann
is
simply
called
antiackermann. In this geometry turning radius is
small as compared to Ackermann geometry
because in this geometry outer wheel turn more
than the inner one. This geometry is generally used
in formula one racing cars to take sharp turns at
High speed. Disadvantage of this geometry is that
after a limit outer wheel start slipping during
turning. Decrement in turning radius is caused by
slip angle effect, at high speed turn main load
carry by the outer tyres, by enhancing the turning
of outer wheel turning radius can be improved but
as we are talking about slip angle, to set a perfect
negative percentage of antickermann is mainly
depend on the tyre data, first you have to analyse
the tyre data curves and then according to your
requirement a percentage of antiackermann can be
set.

In steering system, reducing turning effort is also a

main motive.as the vehicle become heavier and
switched to front wheel drive, the effort tom turn
the steering wheel manually increased. To alleviate
this, power steering system has developed. There
are two types of power steering system.

9.6.1 Hydraulic power steering (HPS):

Power steering has become a necessary component
in modern cars of all sizes due to high axel weight,
larger tire cross-sections and front wheel drive. In
most medium and larger cars, the reduction of
steering effort is accomplished by using a
hydraulic system, The basic principle of a
hydraulic power steering system is an ordinary
hydro mechanical servo parallel to a pure
mechanical connection. A hydro mechanical servo
is a system that copies an operator applied
movement, normally with the possibility to cope
with higher forces or torque.
It uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine
driven pump to assist the motion of turning the
steering wheel. The hydraulic pressure typically
comes from a gyrator vane pump driven by the
vehicles engine. A double acting hydraulic
cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which
in turn steer the road wheels. The steering wheel
operates valve to control flow to the Cylinder. The
more torque the driver applies to the steering
wheel and column, the more fluid valves allow

9.4.3 Parallel geometry:

Basically the angle turn by the both tyres during
turning is same, if the steering arm angle is 90
degrees, the wheels being used for steering will
always be parallel to each other. In this geometry
both the tyres turn at same angle on steering. This
is the simplest mechanism of steering but turning
radius is quite large in this type according to the
wheelbase of the car.

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aUtOKRITI 7.0

through the cylinder, and so the more force is

applied to steer the wheels. Since the hydraulic
pumps are positively displacement type, the flow
rate they deliver is directly proportional to the
speed of the engine. This means that at high engine
speeds the steering would naturally operate faster
than at low speed. Because this would be
undesirable, a restricting orifice and flow control
valve direct some of the pumps engine speeds.
Pressure relief valve prevents a dangerous build-up
of pressure when the hydraulic cylinders piston
reaches the end of its stroke.

9.6.3 Steering Column:

The steering column is a part of steering system
that connect steering wheel to the steering
mechanism or transferring the driver's input torque
from the steering wheel. Generally in commercial
cars universal joint is used to connect steering
wheel and steering mechanism.

9.6.2 Electronic power steering (EPS):

It is more efficient than the hydraulic power
steering, since the electric power steering motor
only needs to provide assistance when the steering
wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must
run constantly. In EPS the assist level is easily turn
able to the vehicle type, road speed, and even
driver preference. An added benefit is the
elimination of environmental hazard posed by
leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering
fluid.

Fig.80 Steering Column

TATA NANO uses a mechanical rack and pinion

gear with steering column. Its steering ratio is
16:1 & TATA INDICA uses Power Assisted Rack
and Pinion Hydraulic/Mechanical and 4-spoke
collapsible steering wheel.

Fig.79 Electronic Power Steering

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10. WHEEL

some desirable properties. It is seen that some of

these properties are conflicting with others, so that
the final tyre design must incorporate an optimum
combination of all these.

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to

rotate on an axial bearing. The wheel is one of the
main component of the wheel and axle which is
one of the six simple machines, wheels, in
conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be
moved
easily
facilitating
movement
or
transportation while supporting a load.

1. Non skidding:
This is one of the most important tyre properties.
The tread pattern on the tyre must be suitably
designed to permit least amount of skidding even
on wet road.

10.1 Tyre type

The material of modern pneumatic tyre are
synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric, wire and
other chemical compounds. The tread provide
traction while the body provide containment for a
quantity of compressed air.

2. Uniform wear:
To maintain the non-skidding property, it is very
essential that the wear on the tyre tread must be
uniform. The ribbed tread patterns help to achieve
this.

10.1.1 Radial tyres:

radial tyres construction utilizes body ply cords
extending from the beads and across the tread so
that the cords are laid at approx. right angles to the
centreline of the tread, the advantage of
construction include longer tread life, better
steering control and lower rolling resistance,
disadvantage of radial tyre includes a harder ride at
low speed on rough roads, decreased self-cleaning
ability and lower grip ability at low speed.

3. Load carrying:
The tyre is subjected to alternating stresses during
each revolution of the wheel. The tyre material and
design must be able to ensure that the tyre is able
to sustain these stresses.
4. Tyre noise:
The tyre noise may be in the form of definite
pattern sing, a sequel or a loud road. In all these
cases, it is desirable that the desirable should be
minimum.
5. Power consumption:
The automotive tyre does absorb some power
which is due to friction between the tread rubber
and road surface and also due to hysteresis loss on
account of the tyre being continuously fixed and
released. This power comes from the engine fuel
and should be the least possible. It is seen that the
synthetic tyres consume more power while rolling
than the ones made out of natural rubber.

Fig.81 Radial tyres

10.1.2 Bias tyres:

Bias tyre construction utilizes body ply cords that
extend diagonally from bead to bead, usually at
angles in range of 30 to 40 degrees, with
successive plies laid at opposing angles forming a
crisscross pattern to which tread is applied , the
design allows the entire body to flex easily.
Disadvantage of bias tyre: increased rolling
resistance and less control and traction at high
speed.

10.2 Tyre properties:

The tyres for automotive use have many tough
functions to perform, for which they must possess
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10.3 Tyre size notations:

When you look at your car and discover that it is shod with a nice, but worn set of 185-65HR13s (from the
tire marking). Any tire mechanic will tell you that he can replace them, and he will. Youll cough up and
drive away safe in the knowledge that hes just put some more rubber on each corner of the car that has the
same shamanic symbols on it as those he took off. So what does it all means?

This is the width in mm of This is the ratio of the height of

the tire from sidewall to
the tire sidewall, (section
This is This tells you that the tire
sidewall when it's
height), expressed as a
the
is a radial construction.
unstressed and you're
percentage of the width. It is speed
Check out tire
looking at it head on (or
known as the aspect ratio. In of the construction if you want
top-down). This is known
this case, 65% of 185mm is
tire. to know what that means.
as the section width.
120.25mm - the section height.

51

This is the
diameter
in inches of the
rim of the wheel
that the tire has
been designed to
fit on.

aUtOKRITI 7.0

WHEEL ASSEMBLY
1. HUB(1)
The hub serves as housing for the wheelss bearing (5) and spacers and is the central support
around which the entire wheel revolves on the axle.

2. ROTOR(2)
The rotor or disk is attached into the hub of the wheel and the first impact of the brake comes
oto it and further stop the wheel.

3. CALIPER(3)
The brake caliper is mounted onto the knickle (6) and thus remain stationary . when the
brakes are applied it clamps onto the rotor/disk(2) and thus slows down the wheel.

4. KNUCKLE(4)
Knuckle is the stationary part and support the suspension and steering system . the knuckle is
attached to one of the edges of a bearing using a sleeve or directly.

Fig.82 Wheel Assembly

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released.

11. BRAKES
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Brakes are essentially a mechanism to change
energy types. When you are travelling at speeds
your vehicle has kinetic energy. When you apply
the brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the
brake drum or rotor convert that energy into
thermal energy via friction.

They should stop the vehicle within minimum

possible distance
To increase the maneuverability by locking
all the 4 wheels together in the least time
possible.

Figure 83 Cut section view of drum brakes

11.3.1a Drum brakes single leading

edge
The "single leading edge" refers to the number of
parts of the brake shoe which actually contact the
spinning drum. Because the brake shoe pivots at
one end, simple geometry means that the entire
brake pad cannot contact the brake drum. The
leading edge is the term given to the part of the
brake pad which does contact the drum, and in the
case of a single leading edge system, it's the part
of the pad closest to the actuator. The shoes are
pressed outwards and the part of the brake pad
which first contacts the drum is the leading edge.

11.2 BRAKE FADE

With continuous use the brake shoes in the drum
brake or brake pads in adisc brake will get heated
and get no time to cool. When the brake is applied
against the component are already so hot that they
cannot absorb more heat. In every brake pad there
is a friction which is held together with resin.
Once this lot starts to get too hot the resin holding
the pad material starts vaporising forming a gas.
This gas forms a thin layer between the two while
trying to escape. The result is very similar to
hydroplaning; hence the pad loose contact with
the rotor thus reducing the amount of friction.

11.3 TYPES OF BRAKES

11.3.1 Drum Brakes
Two semi-circular brake shoes sit inside a spring
drum which is attached to the wheel. When the
brake is applied the shoes are expand outward to
press against the inside of the drum, creating
friction; which create heats. This transfers kinetic
energy that slows you down. When the actuator is
twisted it is forced against a brake shoes and in
turn forces them to expand outwards. The return
spring is what pulls the shoes back away from the
surface of the brake drum when the brakes are

Fig.84 Drum Brakes

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11.1.3b Drum brakes- double leading

edge

11.4 METHODS TO REDUCE

BRAKE FADE

The drawbacks of the single leading edge style of

drum brake can be eliminated by adding a second
return spring and turning the pivot point into a
second actuator. Now when the brakes are
applied, the shoes are pressed outwards at two
points. So each brake pad has now one leading
and one trailing edge. Because there are two brake
shoes, there are two brake pads, which mean there
are two leading edges. Hence the name is double
leading edge.

11.4.1 Drilled Rotors

Drilled rotors are typically used in race cars.
The drilled holes give more bite, but also
allow air currents (eddies) to blow through the
brake disc to assist cooling and ventilating
gas. There are some other types of rotors such
as grooved, grooved-drilled rotors which give
more bite hence more friction as they pass
between the brake pads, and they also allow
the gas to vent from between the pads.

11.3.2 DISC BRAKE

Disc brakes are an order of magnitude better at
stopping vehicles than drum brakes, which is why
you'll find disc brakes on the front of almost every
car and motorbike built today. Sportier vehicles
with higher speeds need better brakes to slow
them
down.

Figure 86 Drilled rotor

11.4.2 MASTER CYLINDER

The master cylinder is a control device that
converts force provided by the driver at the brake
pedal into hydraulic pressure, in order to move
other devices which are located at the other end of
the hydraulic system, such as one or more slave
cylinder. The movement of piston inside master
cylinder is transferred through the hydraulic fluid,
to result in a movement of the slave cylinder. The
hydraulic pressure create by moving a piston
toward the slave cylinder compresses the fluid
evenly, but by varying the comparative surface
area of the master cylinder or each slave cylinder,
one will vary the amount of force and
displacement applied to each slave cylinder.

Figure 85 Disc brake assembly

Disc brakes are again a two-part system. Instead
of the drum, you have a disc or rotor, and instead
of the brake shoes, you now have brake calliper
assemblies. The calliper assemblies contain one or
more hydraulic pistons which push against the
back of the brake pads, clamping them together
around the spinning rotor. The harder they clamp
together, the more friction is generated, which
means more heat, which means more kinetic
energy transfer, which slows you down.
Standard disc brakes have one or two cylinders in
them - also known as one or two-pot callipers.
Where more force is required, three, or more
cylinders can be used.
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autokriti 7.0

Fig.87 Master cylinder

is available. The pedal will need to travel

further than normal to fully engage the rear
brakes. Also, it should be appreciated that
trying to stop quickly with just the rear brakes
is very tricky because the rear tires will easily
reach the point of lock up. As the car is
slowing, weight transfer forward and rear
wheels lose some of their much needed
traction.

11.4.3 TANDEM MASTER CYLINDER

Tandem master cylinder is characterized by two
pistons operating in series within a common
bore.in rear wheel drive applications the piston
thats located closer to the pedal applies the
vehicles front brakes. In normal operation, fluid
displaced and pressurized by first piston also
causes movement of a second piston. Second
piston applies the vehicles rear brakes.

11.5 TYPES OF CALIPERS

The following two illustration show how a

tandem isolates leaks in the front and rear
brakes plumbing respectively .If a leak is
develop in the front brakes system, piston one

11.5.1 FIXED CALIPER

Fixed calipers are rigidly fixed to its mounting
surface. It requires minimum of two piston
one on each side. When the brakes are applied,
each person drives its corresponding brake
pad into contact with the rotor.

11.5.2 FLOATING CALIPER

Floating calipers can slide side to side on its
mounting surface. Thus the piston is required
only on one side. When the brakes are applied,
each piston drives its brake pad into contact
with the rotor. This results in the reaction
force that causes with the rotor. This sliding
motion brings the opposite pad in contact with
the rotor, and the brakes are fully applied.
Most passenger cars use floating because
fewer components are involved than fixed
calipers. On the other hand, most high
performance cars use fixed calipers with multi
positions on either side of calipers to generate
higher application forces that the performance
of vehicle requires.

will move forward until it contacts piston 2.

Force from the brake pedal will be transmitted
mechanically through piston 1 to piston 2.
Although overall braking performance will be
severely compromise, the rear brakes will still
be functional provided sufficient pedal travel

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autokriti 7.0
needed to optimize the braking power, as a car
decelerates, load transfers to the front tires,
which generally improves their grip, while
decreasing their grip at the rear of the car. In
addition, the size of the front and rear brake
rotors, pads and piston area is often different
requiring different amounts of pressure for the
same braking power. The goal is to adjust the
proportion of the braking forces between front
and rear (brake bias) in order to maximize
overall braking efficiency. If the brakes are
still applied as the car turns into the corner,
the brake-bias setting will also have an effect
on the cars turn-in balance.

11.6 HYDRAULIC BRAKES

This type of brakes system is used on most
cars and motorbikes today. Single circuit
hydraulic systems have three basic
components- the master cylinder, the slave
cylinder and the reservoir. They are joined
together with hydraulic hose and filled with
non-compressible hydraulic fluid. When you
press your foot on the brake, or squeeze the
brake lever, you compress a small piston
assembly in the master cylinder. Because the
brake fluid does not compress, that pressure is
instantaneously transferred through the
hydraulic brake line to the slave cylinder
where it acts on another piston assembly,
pushing it out. That slave assembly is either
connected to a lever to activate the brakes, or
more commonly, is the brake caliper itself,
with the slave cylinder being the piston that
acts directly on the brake pads. Because of the
arrangement of the slave cylinder, heat from
the brakes can be transferred back in to the
brake fluid.

The brake bias is indicated as a percentage

which represents the relative amount of brake
pressure applied from the master cylinder(s) to
the front brakes. E.g. 52% would indicate that
the front brakes are receiving 52% of the
brake pressure and the rear brakes would be
receiving 48%.

11.9 PROPORTIONING
VALVE

11.7 INBOARD BRAKES

Proportioning valve reduces the pressure in
the rear brakes lines. Regardless of what type
of brakes a car has, the rear brakes require less
force than the front brakes.

It is an automobile technology wherein the

brake disc(s) is mounted on the chassis of the
vehicle, rather than directly on the wheel hubs.
The advantage is a reduction in the unsprung
weight of the wheel hubs, as this no longer
includes the brake discs and calipers.

The amount of brake force that can be applied

to a wheel without locking it depends on the
amount of weight on the wheel. More weight
means more brake force can be applied. For
equal braking force applied at all four wheels
during a stop, the rear wheels would lock up
before the front wheels. The proportioning
valve only lets a certain portion of the
pressure through to the rear wheels so that the
front wheels apply more braking force.

Inboard brakes are fitted to a driven axle of

the car, as they require a drive shaft to link the
wheels to the brakes. Most have thus been
used for rear-wheel drive cars. In practice, it is
normal for inboard brakes to be mounted
rigidly with respect to the body of the vehicle,
often to the differential casing. The wheels
dont enclose the brake mechanism allowing
greater flexibility in wheel offset and
placement of suspension members.

11.10 ANTI LOCK BRAKING

SYSTEM (ABS)
ABS is a form of electronic braking which
was invented to help driver to steer the vehicle
under heavy braking and preventing the
wheels from locking. As during heavy braking
there is a chance that wheel stop rotating
before the car comes to rest this happens
because the braking force on the wheel is not

11.8 BRAKE BIASING

This is an adjustment of the relative amount of
hydraulic pressure applied to the front versus
the rear brake calipers and pads. This is
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autokriti 7.0
transferred efficiently to stop the vehicle due
to fact that tire is sliding On the road, which
leads to greater stopping distance and loss in
control over vehicle.

The main characteristics of this type brake

fluid are as follows:

The electronic control unit constantly

monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if
any wheel rotating slower than the other; it
actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic
pressure to the brake at the affected wheel; the
then turn faster.
If the ECU detects any wheel rotating faster
than the other, brakes hydraulic pressure to the
wheel is increased so the braking force is
reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This
process is repeated continuously at the rate of
16 times per second.

11.11 TYPES OF BRAKE

FLUIDS

Poly-glycol based
Most commonly used
Compatible with one another
Inexpensive
Destroy paints
Ruined by moisture

DOT 5

The main characteristics of DOT 5 type

of brake fluids are: Silicon based
Used only for heavy duty applications
Not compatible with 4 and 5
Very expensive
Does not damage paint

Where DOT department of transportation

DOT 3 AND 4

DO YOU KNOW?
The revolution in formula 1 in 2014 is not just about the engines, or the power units. One of the most
innovative aspects has actually been the integration of braking system with the power unit. Counter
torque provide by this system charges the batteries during braking and provide acceleration of up to
120KW and 2MJ of energy per lap. This system is also known as KERS (kinetic energy recovery system). A
kinetic energy recovery system is an automotive system for recovering a moving vehicle kinetic energy
under braking. The recovered energy is stored in a battery or a reservoir (for example a flywheel or high
voltages batteries) for later use under acceleration.

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autokriti 7.0

COMMON ABBREVIATION
4WD

FOUR WHEEL DRIVE

I-VTEC
DOHC

INTELLIGENT VARIABLE(VALVE) TIMING (AND LIFT)

ELECTRONIC CONTROL
DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

DCT

DUAL CLUTCH TRANSMISSION

AMT

AUTOMATIC MANUAL TRANSMISSION

MPFI

MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION

DTS-I

DIGITAL TWIN SPARK IGNITION

ACC

AUTOMATIC CRUISE CONTROL

CVT

CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSION

EBC

ELECTRONIC BRAKE CONTROL

ECU

ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT

A/T

AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION

ICE

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

LSD

LIMITED SLIP DIFFERENTIAL

LSUV

LUXURY SPORT UTILITY VEHICLE

CC

CENTIMETER CUBIC

TDC

TOP DEAD CENTRE

BDC

BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE

ABS

ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM

RWD

REAR WHEL DRIVE

IRS

INDEPENDENT REAR SUSPENSION

EPS

ELECTRIC POWER STEERING

58

autokriti 7.0
4WD

FOUR WHEEL DRIVE

AWD

ALL WHEEL DRIVE

SUV

SPORT UTILITY VEHICLE

I-VTEC

INTELLIGENT VARIABLE(VALVE) TIMING (AND LIFT) ELECTRONIC CONTROL

OHV

OVERHEAD VALVES

SOHC

SINGLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

DOHC

DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

DCT

DUAL CLUTCH TRANSMISSION

AMT

AUTOMATIC MANUAL TRANSMISSION

MPFI

MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION

DTS-I

DIGITAL TWIN SPARK IGNITION

ACC

AUTOMATIC CRUISE CONTROL

CVT

CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSION

EBC

ELECTRONIC BRAKE CONTROL

ECU

ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT

ICE

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

LSD

LIMITED SLIP DIFFERENTIAL

LSUV

LUXURY SPORT UTILITY VEHICLE

CC

CUBIC CENTIMETER

TDC

TOP DEAD CENTRE

BDC

BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE

ABS

ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM

RWD

REAR WHEL DRIVE

IRS

INDEPENDENT REAR SUSPENSION

EPS

ELECTRIC POWER STEERING

KERS

KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEM

CRDI

COMMON RAIL DIRECT INJECTION

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APPENDIX

TEST YOURSELF
1. What are the advantages of helical gears over spur gears?
2. Why is the unsprung weight kept as low as possible?
3. What is overdrive?
4. What is the function of anti-roll bar ?
5. Why synchromesh device usually not used for reverse gear?
6. What is the function of a stator in torque converter?
7. What is the advantage of using pull rod suspension over push rod?
8. Is six stroke engines possible? If yes then how?
9. What is the function of a differential in cars?
10. What are the effects of scrub radius?
11. Which causes YAW moment in the vehicle?
12. Difference between trailing arm and semi trailing arm?
13. The purpose of wings in formula one cars?
14. Difference between turbocharger and supercharger?
15. How trains turn on the rail tracks without differential?
16. What is octane number and factors for its determination?
17. What is the firing order of a V-8 engine?
18. Why two compression rings in piston are placed in the opposite direction?
19. Why is the unsprung weight kept as low as possible?
20. What is the function of anti-roll bar?
21. Why synchromesh device usually not used for reverse gear?
22. What is the function of a stator in torque converter?
23. What is the advantage of using pull rod suspension over push rod?
24. Is six stroke engine possible? If yes then how?
25. What is a limited slip differential?
26. What are the effects of scrub radius?
27. What cause YAW moment in the vehicle?
28. Difference between trailing arm and semi trailing arm?
29. The purpose of wings in formula one cars?
30. Why mobile oil is added in a two stroke engine but not in four stroke?
60