VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD)

By
ROSELLE ERICA OLAVARIO

In partial fulfillment
Of requirements in
Linguistics 125

Submitted to:
PROF. JESUS FEDERICO HERNANDEZ
July 2015

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Abstract
The research was conducted to give an updated study on the verbs of Ilongo. The variety
of Ilongo used is based from an Ilongo speaker from Bacolod City, Philippines. The study
focuses on the focuses and aspects on verbs in Ilongo. It has been analyzed that Ilongo-Bacolod
has its differences on verb usage as compared to other Ilongo varieties in existing studies. In this
study, we will be able to see the uniqueness of verb-affixes usage in the language and see its
differences from verb-affixes in Tagalog.
1.0 Introduction
Ilonggo or, also referred to as Hiligaynon, is one of the 8 (eight) major languages of the
Philippines spoken in Central Philippines. According to natives, Ilongo refers to the people of
Western Visayas and Hiligaynon mainly refers to the language spokenparticularly in the islands
of Panay, Negros and Romblon. But generally, Ilongos may refer to their language as Ilongo or
Hilligaynon. However, for consistency, the reasearcher would like to refer to it is as Ilongo.
Ilongo has approximately 5,770,000 speakers as of 2000 census by ethnologue.com. It is closely
related to Cebuano and Tagalog, and is identified as an Austronesian language.
Being able to ponder on other major Philippine languages other than Tagalog or
Cebuano essentially contributes to the knowledge of the general characteristics of Philippine
languages. By focusing on the verbs in Ilongo, it is possible to trace the properties of the
grammatical structure of a language, because verb roots have inherent features that they bring to
the grammar. Just like the other major Philippine languages, Ilongos verb forms are
distinguished through the inflection to their root words. Through these inflections, the verbs can
be differentiated according to their focus and aspect. Focus refers to the grammatical relation of the
action and which it pertains to as a complement in the sentence. On the other hand, aspect tells
whether an action has begun, has not yet begun, or happens over a period of time.
Using available data from elicited materials, the study aims to analyze on the verb focus
and verb aspect of Ilongo. The grammar is based on the conversational grammar of Bacolod
City in Negros Occidental and all elicited data are from Miss Ghem Cannite Casio. She is 23
(twenty-three) years of age and has been living in Malabon, Metro Manila for roughly 2(two)
years.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 2 -

2.0 Related Literature

Although Ilongo is counted as one of the major languages of the Philippines, it has few
studies or researches conducted. One of these is about the morphophonemic changes in the formation of
verbs in Ilongo (Sucaldito, 1973). Sucaldito identified 8 (eigth) morphophonemic changes that
happen to verbs in Ilongo. Verbs can undergo assimilation, consonant change, vowel change,
loss of phoneme, addition of phoneme, stress shift, metathesis, or reduplication depending on
the affexis attached to it. Sucaldito then identified the affixes depending on their types. Prefixes
composed of mang- which denotes future tense to indicate plurality of action, nang- which
indicates past tense, and pang- which denotes imperative meaning; suffixes composed of -an and
on denoting future tense and imperative meaning, -a and -i denoting imperative meaning, and ay
denoting reciprocal or simultaneous action of the verb; and infix in denoting passive form of
the verb. However the data were limited to the topic given above, and some more affixes were
not included in the discussion.
In a grammar sketch made by Wolfenden (1971) six types of focus affixes were identified
associated with the verbs of Ilongo. The affixes were then divided to two classesaction focuses
and stative focuses. The action focuses gives highlight either the (1) the actor, characterized by
putting um as an infix of the verb, (2) the goal or the receiver, characterized by putting on as
the suffix of the verb, (3) the accessory of the action, characterized by putting i as the suffix of
the verb , and (4) the beneficiary, characterized by using an as suffix of the verb . Meanwhile the
stative focuses gives highlight on (1) to be in reluctant of an action or the stative goal focus,
denoted by suffix ma or or (2) the possibility to perform the action or stative actor focus,
denoted by prefix maka-. Verb aspect, on the other hand, was categorized to (1) unreal aspect or
imperfective aspect, which states an action has not begun yet, and (2) real aspect or perfective
aspect, which states that an action has already begun. Instead of using the usual perfective or
imperfective aspect of verbs as in European languages, Wolfenden chose to consider referring to
time words in the sentence to refer to the aspect of the verb, as to whether it has begun or has not
yet begun. This could be one of the unique characteristics of Ilongo language as some of their
verbs depends on the condition of the speaker and not by the focus or not by the time. Also,
unlike other major Philippine languages, it is evident in their language that syllable repetition is
not used in verbs.

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Meanwhile, Howard (1957) also wrote a book about Ilongo grammar where he illustrated
different Ilongo verbal affixes through different sentences. However, the book is useful mainly
for the English speakers who want to learn Ilongo.
3.0 Data Analysis
Using combined data and studies researched, different affixes were gathered and grouped
according to each type. The sample sentences used were gathered from the elicited data by the
researcher and from Howards (1957) A Functional Approach to Hiligaynon Grammar which were all
rechecked by the informant. Each type then represents categories according to their focus and
aspect. Illustrated in the table below the sample of the changes the happens to a verb as it
changes focus and aspect.
Focus

Root

Indefinite

Imperfective

Perfective

Progressive

actor

kaon (to eat)

mag-kaon

maka-kaon

nag-kaon

ga-kaon

object/goal

kaon (to eat)

kaonon

kaonon

gen kaon

gina-kaonon

benefactive

kaon (to eat)

pakaonon

pakaonon

gen pa-kaon

gen pa-kaon

instrument

kaon (to eat)

ipakaon

ipakaon

gen pa-kaon

gen pa-kaon

locative

kadto (to eat)

kadtoan

kadto-an

Genkadto-an

kadto-an

A. Actor Focus
1. Indefinite Aspect
The actor focus prompts the actor of the verb in the sentence. In Ilongo actor-focus verbs
with indefinite aspect are mostly triggered by affix mag-, as in the sentence given below:
(01) Ang bata amo na ang

pisan

mag ta-on

ABS child that-LK OBL ADJ.hard INDF-mag.INT.study

That child is the (one that) studies hard.
Ang batang iyan ang masipag mag-aral.
The mag- affixs characteristic of being intransitive gives the idea of it having the actor as
the focus in the sentence. The verb mag-taon which came from the root word taon meaning to
study gives the cue of the actor bata.

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2. Imperfective Aspect
The imperfective aspect of actor-focus verbs includes affixes maka- and mangin-. Both are
also intransitive that gives the idea of it denoting their actor as the focus of the sentence. Due to
their imperfective aspect, the verbs denotes futuristic action.
(02) Makadasma

ang bata

IPFV-maka.INT. fall ABS child

Th child will fall/stumble.
Madadapa ang bata.
As we can see in sentence (2), the affix maka- indicates the tendency of falling or
stumbling with verb dasma of its actor focus the child. With the same meaning as to ma- and
syllable repetition in tagalog, it shows the close encounter of the action or the event which is
different from the affix mangin-. This affix, on the other hand, indicates the focus or topic of the
sentence becoming the noun which follows.

(03) Manginmanggaran

si

utod

IPFV-mangin.INT.wealthy 3.SG.SPEC brother

Brother will become wealthy.
Magiging mayaman si (kapatid na lalaki).
In sentence (3), we can say then that the change of state that happens to the actor focus
of sentence is what Wolfenden (1971) calls the stative actor. Although the change in the state is the
thought in the sentence, the process still happens to the noun where the change happens.
3. Perfective Aspect
Perfective aspect, on the other hand, shows the completion of an action. In Ilongo, most
completions of action of verbs in actor focus are indicated by the affix nag-. Still in its intransitive
aspect, affix nag- shows the completed action of the actor focus as shown.
(04) Nagpuli

ang

PFV-nag.INT.go home ABS

Adlaw
Sun

sultero
man

pasalop

na

IPFV.INT.set CSM

ang
ABS

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The man went home when the sun set.

Umuwi ang binata nang lumubog ang araw.
In the sentence, nag- triggers the verb puli which means to go home that denotes that the
action has been done by the sultero. Meanwhile there are other actor-focused affixes in perfective
aspect in Ilongo such as naka-, nangin-, nagpa-, pag(05) nakahigda

ang

PERF-naka.INT.fell

dalaga
ABS

lady

The lady (accidentally) fell.

Napahiga ang dalaga.
(06) Nanginmanggaran si

utod

PERF.INT.wealthy 3.SG.SPEC brother

Brother became wealthy.
Naging mayaman si (kapatid na lalaki).
(07) ang

bata

ang

OBL child ERG

nagpakaon

sa

ido

PERF-nag.TR-pa.feed

OBL dog

ko
1SG

The child is (the one) who fed my dog.

Ang bata ako nagpakain sa aso ko.
(08) Ga.kaon

sya

PROG-ga.eat.TR- 3SG.ABS

paho

sang

pag.abot

mango

when PERF-pag.arrive.INT

ko
1SG
He/she was eating when I arrive.
Kumakain siya ng mangga nang dumating ako.
The affixes shown above are also of perfective aspect in actor focus, though they all
portray different meaning in Ilongo. The affix naka- portrays an action that is done by the actor
unintentionally. In Tagalog affix na- is usually used as a counterpart in sentence (05) nadapa or fell
down in English. Affix nangin-, on the other hand, shows the perfective counterpart of
imperfective affix mangin- which carries the meaning to become. Prefix nangin- then shows the
meaning of became or the actual complete change, as to sentence (06) the change of the state of
the topic which is utod has completely changed. On the other hand, prefix nagpa- allows the verb

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 6 -

to give emphasis to the focus by stating that it is the child in sentence (07) and no one else did the
action which is pakaon or to feed or pakain in Tagalog. For prefix pag- it is usually used to show
an event that is already finished, however the pag- prefix has the tendency to nominalize the
verbs it is attached to, like its indefinite counterpart mag , as in sentence (08) it shows that at the
moment the actor siya has completed the action when the subject is under the progressive aspect.
4. Progressive Aspect
The most used actor focused affix in progressive aspect is ga- which states an event that
happens without perceptive of its end. In the same sentence (08) ga-kaon which also focuses on
siya the actor of the verb expresses action with no specific ending, it means it does not virtually
say that as soon as the other action in the intransitive form has ended, the verb in transitive it has
ended, too.

B. Objective/Goal Focus
1. Indefinite Aspect
Goal focused verb triggers on the receiver of the action in the sentence. It literally shows
then that most verbs identified are transitive verbs in Ilongo Indefinite aspect for objective focus
verb affixes is on.
(10) kaon.on

mo

to

INDF.Eat.TR-on 2SG.ERG this.ABS

You eat this.
Kainin mo ito.
In sentence (10) the verb kaon attached with on prefix triggers the action to the goal or
the item that will receive the action which is ito. Different from the actor-focus which has
intransitive verb, -on gives the characteristics of transitivity.
2. Imperfective Aspect
Meanwhile, for the imperfective aspect of goal focused verbs, affix on is also used. Affix
on is the most commonly used in this case. In sentence (11) the verb kaon-on triggers the noun
paho as the receiver of action that has a transitive value and has to happen yet.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 7 -

(11) Kaon.on

naton

ang paho

mo

IPFV.Eat.TR-on 1plinclNT ABS mango 2SG.POSS

We will eat your mango.
Kakainin natin ang mangga mo.
(12) makita

kita

IPFV-ma.see.TR- NOM.1DL

bukas
tomorrow

I will see you tomorrow.

Makikita kita bukas.
Meanwhile, as we can see the action in sentence (12), it is attributed to kita which is noun
expecting to have the quality of being seen in the future (time) indicated by bukas. Most maaffixes give the idea of having the ability to happen in verbs as illustrated above.

3. Perfective Aspect
On the perfective aspect, affix gen- is used. In sentence (13) the verb kaon denotes the
noun phrase ang paho which is the receiver of the action in the sentence. In most of the verbs in
Ilongo, gen- is used. As compared to the perfective aspect affixes in goal focus given by Howard
(1957), it is quite different because gen- is probably the mostly used.
(13) Gen.kaon

sang bata ang paho

PFV-gen.eat.TR- ER child ABS mango

The child ate the mango.
Kinain ng bata ang mangga.

In the sentence below, though gen- merely shows the perfective aspect of the verb genkaon, the verb contains its transitivity with null affix.
4. Progressive Aspect
In the progressive aspect, gen- is still used as affix of verbs that triggers the object of the
sentence just like in perfective aspect which is a unique characteristic of verbs in Ilongo. It also
has null affix for its transitiviy.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 8 -

(13) Gen.kaon

sang bata ang paho

PROG-gen.eat.TR- ER child ABS mango

The child ate the mango.
Kinain ng bata ang mangga.

As shown in sentence (13), the gen- affix possesses the progressive aspect of the verb
even though it also shows the perfective aspect. it denotes the noun paho as the receiver of the
action and the focus of the sentence.
C. Benefactive Focus
1. Indefinite Aspect
For the benefactive focus, the verb in the indefinite aspect denotes on noun which
receives and carries the effect of the action made.
(15) pakaonon
INDF.TR-pa.feed

mo

ang

ido

2SG.ERG ABS dog

ko
1SG.POSS

Feed my dog.
Pakainin mo ang aso ko.
The affix pa- is what makes the sentence transitive. However pa- is always in the
indefinite aspect and always in the benefactive focus and it usually comes with another affix
when changed in aspect. Therefore in this sentence, as it stands alone it gives the indefinite
action of kaon in a transitive aspect that triggers on the noun phrase ang ido ko.
2. Imperfective Aspect
(16) pakaonon

mo

ang

ido

ko

IPFV.TR -pa.feed 2SG.ERG ABS dog 1SG.POSS

You will feed my dog.
Papakainin mo ang aso ko.

It is the same case as in when used in imperfective aspect. Another unique characteristic
of affix pa- is it carries multi-character as it can be used alone in imperfective aspect in Ilongo,
too. In sentence (16), the kaon in imperfective form triggers thee noun phrase ang ido ko with
affix pa- alone.
3. Perfective Aspect

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 9 -

(17) gen pakaon

ya

ang

ido ko

PFV-gen.TR-pa.feed 3SG.ERG ABS dog

1SG.POSS

He/She fed my dog.

Pinakain niya ang aso ko
Meanwhile, when the verb is used in the perfective aspect, the affix pa- that stands alone
when used in idefinite and imperfective aspect now comes with the affix gen- which gives the
attribute of being in perfective aspect. genpa- is the most common affix used for verbs in
perfective aspect in benefactive focus. As in sentence (17), the affix gen- in a perfective aspect and
pa- in a transitive aspect triggers the noun phrase ang ido ko which give the sense that the dog is
being already fed.
4. Progressive Aspect
(18) Gen pakaon
PROG-gen.TR-pa.feed

ya

ang

ido ko

3SG.ERG ABS dog

1SG.POSS

He/She is feeding my dog.

Pinapakain niya ang ido ko.
Again, in progressive aspect, genpa- is also used. The gen- that was used in imperfective
aspect now carries the attribute of progressive aspect. In sentence (18), affix gen- in progressive
aspect and pa- that carries transitive verb shares attributes as genpa- that triggers the noun phrase
ang ido ko which gives the idea that the dog is being fed.
E. Instrument Focus
1. Indefinite Aspect
In the instrument focus, the verbs that are used trigger the noun that is used as an
instrument or device to do the action. In this section it can be observed that the affix i- is used.
(19) I.pakaon

mo

ang

dulce sa

bata

.INDF-. IMP-i.TRANS-pa.feed 2SG.ERG ABS candy OBL child

Feed the candy to the child.
Ipakain mo ang dulce sa bata
In sentence (19), while the afixx for indefinite attribute is null, we can see that affix icarries the attribute of being imperative and pa- again as for the transitive attribute. When all

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 10 -

three are combined, it comes out as ipa-. Carrying the attributes, we can say that verb ipakon now
triggers the noun phrase ang dulce as it stands as the instrument fed to the child.
2. Imperfective Aspect
(20) Ipakaon

mo

ang

dulce sa

bata

IPFV-.IMP-i.TRANS-pa.feed 2SG.ERG ABS candy OBL child

You will feed the candy to the child.
Ipapakain mo ang dulce sa bata

Just like in benefactive focus, the affix ipa- now carries the attribute of being in
imperfective aspect. In sentence (20), the affix ipa- that carries the imperfective aspect,
imperative form, and transitivity triggers the noun phrase ang dulce. The sentence now carries the
meaning that the child is being fed with candy.
3. Perfective Aspect
(21) Dulce ang gen pakaon

ya

kagina sa

bata

Candy ABS PFV-genx.TR-gen.feed 3SGNT earlier OBL child

He/She fed the child with candy earlier.
Kendi ang pinakain niya kanina sa bata
Meanwhile, in perfective aspect the affix genpa- is being used, too. Other that being used
in benefactive, perfective and progressive, it can also be used in instrumental focus and perective
aspect as shown above. The genpa- affix triggers the noun dulce that gives the clear meaning that it
was the candy that was fed to the child.
4 Progressive Aspect
(22) Dulce ang gen pakaon

ya

Candy ABS PROG-gen.TR-pa.feed 3SGNT

sa

bata adlaw-adlaw

OBL child everyday

He/She feeds the child with candy every day.

Kendi ang pinapakain niya sa bata araw-araw.

It can be also be used in the progressive aspect of instrumental focus. In sentence (22),
genpa- now carries the progressive attribute and triggers the noun dulce which gives the meaning
that the candy is being fed to the child every day.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 11 -

D. Locative Focus
On the locative focus, on the other hand, it can be observed that there is no change in
the affix being used in all types of aspect. (h)an is being used for indefinite aspect and
imperfective aspect, while gen-verb-(h)an for the perfective and progressive aspect that denote
that the noun triggered comes with the location or place in the sentence.
(23) Kadtoan

ya

ako

Come.INDF-.TR-an 3SGNT 1SG.ERG.

He/She will come (to me).
Puntahan niya ako.
(24) Kadtoan

ya

ako

Go.IPFV-.TR-an 3SGNT 1SG.ERG.

He/She will go (to me).
Pupuntahan niya ako
(25) gen kadtoan ya ako
PFV-gen.go.TR-an 3SGNT 1SG.ERG.
He/She came (to me).
Pinuntahan niya ako.

(26) gen kadtoan

ya

na

ako

PROG-gen.go.TR-an 3SGNT CSM 1SG.ERG.

He/She came (to me).
Pinupuntahan niya na ako.
In sentences (23) and (24), it shows that the verb kadtoan carries the indefinite and
imperfective respectively that triggers the noun ko which give the meaning that it is me where the
actor comes to or will come to. Meanwhile, for sentences (25) and (26), gen-verb-(h)an carries the
perfective and progressive which gives the meaning that it is me that the actor came to or is
coming to.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 12 -

Summary and Conclusion

focus

indefinite

imperfective

perfective

progressive

actor

mag +(r.w.)

maka +(r.w.)

nag +(r.w.)

pag +(r.w.)

mangin +(r.w.)

naka +(r.w.)
nangin +(r.w.)
nagpa +(r.w.)
pag +(r.w.)

object/goal

pa+(r.w.) + (h)on

pa +(r.w.) + (h)on

gen +(r.w.)

gen+(r.w.)

benefactive

pa+(r.w.) + (h)on

pa+(r.w.) + (h)on

gen + pa +(r.w.)

gen + pa +(r.w.)

ma +(r.w.)
instrument

i+pa +(r.w.)

i+pa +(r.w.)

gen + r.w.)

gen + pa +(r.w.)

locative

(r.w.) + (h)an

(r.w.) + (h)an

gen (r.w.) + (h)an

gen (r.w.) + (h)an

The use of affixes in Ilongo-Bacolod can be summarized in the table shown above. It can
be concluded that for the actor focus, mag- is used in the indefinite aspect, maka- and mangin- for
imperfective aspect, nag-, naka-, nagin-, nagpa-, and pag- for the perfective aspect, and pag for
progressive. Also there are many affixes for perfective focus, it can be noted that all carries a
unique meaning as explained above. Affixes for the object/goal focus are pa+(r.w.) + (h)on for
indefinite and perfective, and gen +(r.w.) for perfective and progressive. It can be noted that it is a
unique quality of verbs in Ilongo to carry out different aspects using the same form of affixes.
On the benefactive focus, pa+(r.w.) + (h)on is used for indefinite aspect, pa+(r.w.) + (h)on and ma
+(r.w.) for imperfective aspect, and gen + pa +(r.w.) for perfective and progressive aspect. For the
instrument focus, i+pa +(r.w.) for indefinite and imperfective, gen + r.w.) for perfective, and gen +
pa +(r.w.) for progressive. For locative focus, all uses the form (r.w.) + (h)an.
Moreover, this study can prove that the Ilongo spoken in Bacolod is just a variety of
Ilongo as many differences with the uses of affixes were discovered as compared to the study of
linguists such as Howard (1957) and Wolfenden (1971).

However, further study can be

conducted to research more on the verbs which can support all the studies completed.

VERB ASPECT AND FOCUS IN ILONGO (BACOLOD) - 13 -

References
Howard, J. T. (1957). A Functioal Approach to Hiligaynon Grammar. Uknown.
Sucaldito, P.S. (1973). Morphophonemic changes in the format of Ilongo verbs. Uknown.
Wolfenden, E.P. (1971). Hiligaynon Reference Grammar. United States of America:
University of Hawaii Press.