See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/263129370

Organochlorine pesticide in water and

bottom sediment from Aiba Reservoir
(Southwestern Nigeria)
ARTICLE in CHEMISTRY AND ECOLOGY FEBRUARY 2014
Impact Factor: 1.05 DOI: 10.1080/02757540.2013.877002

CITATION

READS

20

3 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Godwin Oladele Olutona
Bowen University
26 PUBLICATIONS 13 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

Available from: Godwin Oladele Olutona

Retrieved on: 19 November 2015

This article was downloaded by: [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin
Oladele Olutona]
On: 24 June 2014, At: 21:25
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Chemistry and Ecology

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gche20

Organochlorine pesticide in water and

bottom sediment from Aiba Reservoir
(Southwestern Nigeria)
a

Godwin Oladele Olutona , Solomon Ayanwuyi Ayano & Oludayo

a

Obayomi-Davies
a

Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Bowen

University, Iwo, Nigeria
Published online: 12 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Godwin Oladele Olutona, Solomon Ayanwuyi Ayano & Oludayo Obayomi-Davies
(2014) Organochlorine pesticide in water and bottom sediment from Aiba Reservoir (Southwestern
Nigeria), Chemistry and Ecology, 30:6, 513-531, DOI: 10.1080/02757540.2013.877002
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2013.877002

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions

Chemistry and Ecology, 2014

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Vol. 30, No. 6, 513531, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2013.877002

Organochlorine pesticide in water and bottom sediment from

Aiba Reservoir (Southwestern Nigeria)
Godwin Oladele Olutona , Solomon Ayanwuyi Ayano and Oludayo Obayomi-Davies
Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria
(Received 7 August 2013; final version received 16 December 2013)
Levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in water and sediment from Aiba reservoir (Southwestern
Nigeria) have been assessed. The aim of the study was to investigate the pollution status of the reservoir
water and the bottom sediment. Analytical measurements were carried out for 20 OCPs using standard
literature methods. The results showed higher levels of OCPs in the bottom sediment than the water.
Significant positive correlations at p < 0.05 level were observed for OCPs compounds in water except
-BHC and endosulfan III, whereas in sediments -chlordane, dieldrin, endosulfan II, pp-DDT, endrin
ketone and methoxychlor did not show any correlation, and aldrin was negatively correlated with pp-DDD.
The mean levels of OCPs in both water and sediments were higher, in most cases, than recommended
levels for drinking water. Owing to possible toxicity and bioaccumulation tendency of OCPs by the aquatic
habitats, the levels of OCPs detected in water and sediment samples could be a source of future health
problems. Environmental monitoring of the reservoir is highly recommended.
Keywords: organochlorine pesticides; persistent organic pollutant; tropical reservoir; Iwo

1.

Introduction

The increasing needs of the food production have resulted in overuse of fertilisers and pesticides,
which enter aquatic systems, following aerial application or runoff inputs and reduce quality of
water.[1] As pesticides runoff constitute a significant contribution to aquatic pollution, their use
in agriculture is under constant screening to ensure non-target animals welfare, leading to the
ban and restriction of a large number of products.[2]
In water bodies, many of the persistent organic pollutants such as organochlorine pesticides
(OCPs) and trace metals have been predominantly transported in association with suspended
particulate matter. The suspended particles and the semi-bound pollutants accumulate in the
region of low turbulence, such as groyne fields, harbours and river reservoir.[3] This has resulted
in pollution of bottom sediment.
Within the sediments, usually with anoxic conditions, many contaminants are strongly bound to
the solid phase. Therefore, pore water concentrations, mobility and bioavailability except through
particle ingestion of most pollutants are rather low.[3] However, the possible erosion during
flood events leads to the transfer of contaminated sediments to the oxidised water column, which
generally enhances bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants.[4,5]
Corresponding

author. Email: delog2@gmail.com

2014 Taylor & Francis

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

514

G.O. Olutona et al.

Residues of OCPs in sediments and aquatic biota have been an environmental concern since
the 1960s.[6] Owing to their toxicity, persistence, tendency to accumulate in biota, and adverse
impacts on wildlife, the majority of OCP were banned in the US during the 1970s.[7] Yet more
than 20 years later, residue of DDT and other OCP continue to be detected in water sediments
and aquatic biota throughout the world.[8] The mechanism underlying the toxicity of organochlorine involves the induction of enzyme activity through free radicals, ultimately affecting the
immune response, the reproductive and neurological systems, lipid metabolism, and the transport
of vitamins and glucose. In addition, some of these compounds are mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic not only in humans, but also in biotic communities with different levels of sensitivity.[9]
The persistent nature of OCPs in the environment may pose the problem of toxicity to animals
and human through air, water and food intake.[10] Furthermore, because of their chemical stability, long-range atmospheric, lipophilicity and persistence, these chemicals tend to bioaccumulate
and biomagnify in the food chains and persist in the environment for many years, representing
a definite health hazard for both wildlife and human.[11,12] Owing to the hydrophobic nature
of OCPs, these persistent organic pollutant (POP) present in aquatic system have high affinity to
bind to suspended particles and tendency of long-term vertical transport of organic contaminant
from surface waters to the deep sea floor.[13,14] OCPs have the potential to affect development,
reproduction and behaviour of fish and wildlife.[15]
Long-term chronic exposure to OCPs and poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has been correlated with severe injury to the nervous, endocrine, reproductive and immune systems in birds, fish
and mammals.[16] Ecological effects of OCPs include interference with reproductive success of
organisms high on food chain especially fish eating birds such as osprey, pelicans, falcons and
eagles.[17] DDT has been reported to have esterogenic and enzymes inducing properties.[17]
The adverse effects of DDT demonstrated in experimental animals include infertility,[18] a
decrease in the number of planted ova,[19] intrauterine growth retardation,[20] neurological
developmental disorders [21] and mortality.[22] Isomers of DDT (ortho and para) compete with
estradiol for binding to oestrogen receptors in uterine cytostol therefore causing changes in steroid
metabolism and thereby alter the ability of birds to mobilise calcium to produce strong egg
shell.[23]
Generally, the greatest source of human exposure to OCP is daily intake via food
consumption,[24] in particular, the consumption of sea food from contaminated areas.[25] Moreover, several studies have recently demonstrated a clear correlation between the frequency of fish
consumption and the levels of organochlorine in human tissues, serum and milk.[26,27] Over
90% of the body burden of DDT in the general population is derived from food, particularly fish
and other fatty foods of animal origin.[28] In Nigeria, it has been reported that 116 students of
a school in Doma, Gombe state fell ill and were hospitalised after eating cowpea contaminated
by pesticide.[29] Shaibu [30] reported that two children and 112 people were hospitalised after
eating cowpea treated with pesticide in Cross River state, Nigeria. In 2010, it was reported that
20 fast food outlets were closed in Nigeria because of fatalities traced to pesticide residue in their
products.[31]
Aiba reservoir, the second oldest impoundment of Osun River Basin came into full operation
in 1957 and was created primarily for the provision of portable water with fisheries development as an ancillary benefit to Iwo town and the surrounding communities.[32,33] Recently,
there has been a sharp rise in the development of Iwo as evidenced by the establishment of a
private University and Polytechnic, proliferation of banking industry as well as establishment of
telecommunication industry. This has led to an increase in the population of Iwo. Construction of
residential houses is encroaching into the north-eastern part of the reservoir. Anthropogenic practices in and around the reservoir include intense fishing activity, agricultural practices, washing
of domestic wares and automobiles, bathing and fetching of water for construction and domestic
purposes.[34]

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Chemistry and Ecology

515

Organochlorine pesticide levels in water, sediment and soil have been studied by various authors.
In Iwo however, no published work has been reported in this regard. Hence, the objective of this
paper is to give a pilot screening of OCP levels in water and sediment of Aiba reservoir and to
provide a preliminary insight into the accumulation pattern based on the matrices considered in
this study.

2.

Materials and methods

2.1. Description of the study area

The Aiba reservoir is a small tropical man-made lake located in Iwo city in the southwestern Nigeria. The reservoir lies between longitude 4 11 to 413 East and latitude 7 38 to 7 39 North. The
average monthly rainfall ranges from about 254 mm in July to 25.4 mm in December-January.[35]
The reservoir has a catchment area of 54.39 km2 and a surface area of about 0.32 km2 (32 ha).
The dam is 11.58 m high and 455.2 m long, and the reservoir has a capacity of approximately
1.91 billion m3 with a mean depth of 0.75 m and a maximum depth of 7.5 m.[36] The mean Secchi
disc transparency ranges from 0.90 m during the dry season to 0.97 m during the wet season.[32]
The reservoir is regarded as being eutrophic.[36]
2.2. Apparatus and reagent used
All glassware and bottles used for trace organics were thoroughly washed with hot liquid detergent
solution, rinsed with acetone (99.5%) and n-hexane (99.0%) mixture (1:1 v/v) and then heated
in an oven at a temperature of 120 C for 12 h prior to use.[37] The entire reagent used, viz.
dichloromethane and n-hexane (GFS chemicals, Inc Colombus); acetone (Park Scientific Ltd.
Northamptom, United Kingdom); Silical gel (silica gel 60, particle size 0.06300.200 mm, 7
230 mesh from Lab Tech Chemicals); and Sodium sulfate (BDH, England). Standard mixture
containing 22 OCPs (22 compounds specified in EPA method 8081B) was purchased from Sigma
Aldrich, South Africa.
2.3. Purification of solvents and chemicals
The solvents (dichloromethane and n-hexane) for trace organics were triply distilled to obtain
pure solvent that precluded all trace organic contaminants. Other materials such as glass wool,
anhydrous sodium sulfate and silica gel were all heated in a muffle furnace model ECF 3 at 450 C
for 4 h. The Whatman filter papers were oven dried to constant weights at 105 C and cooled in a
desiccator.
2.4. Collection of bottom sediment and surface water
Four sampling locations in the reservoir were selected for this study (Figure 1). Location 1 was the
entry point which receives water from Osun stream in the middle region of the reservoir. This area
is also an agricultural area. Location 2 is located at the upper region, the source of the reservoir. This
area is also close to the agricultural area and cattle rearing are predominant in this area. Location
3 is the agricultural area and receives agro-allied chemicals from the surrounding farm land. This
location is the north- eastern region, close to the main road characterised with mechanic workshops
and also receive domestic sewage from the encroaching residential buildings. Location 4 is the

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

516

G.O. Olutona et al.

Figure 1.

Map of Aiba reservoir showing sampling locations.

spillway area, the lower reaches of the reservoir. In this area, spiritual bath, domestic washing as
well as washing of motor cycle by cyclists are very common features of this area.
Sampling took place in November and December 2012. Samples of bottom sediment for each
four locations were collected in triplicates with grab sampler at a depth of 0 to 10 cm. The samples
collected were stored in clean aluminium foils and preserved in a refrigerator at about 4 C prior
analysis. The samples were air-dried at ambient temperature in an inert surface in a ventilated
cupboard to minimise cross contamination of samples with the atmospheric particulate. Sediment
samples from each location were made into composite representative samples sieved through a
stainless steel 2 mm pore size to get rid of pebbles and large particles.
The water sample was collected in a sterilised 2.5 L Winchester bottles for each of the four
locations. Water collected from each spot was used to rinse the bottles three times before sampling
was done. Alteration of the organics due to microbial activities was prevented by acidification of
the samples to pH 2 by adding concentrated HNO3 immediately after collection.

2.5.

Extraction procedure

Liquid-liquid extraction was used to extract OCP from the water samples. About 500 mL of
the water sample was measured and poured into a 1 L separatory funnel then extracted with
10 mL (three portions) of dichloromethane by shaking vigorously for 30 min for each of the
triplicate extraction. The extracts were then combined, dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate and
concentrated to about 2 mL under a stream of nitrogen gas of 99.99% purity.
The sediment samples were extracted by soxhlet extraction method (USEPA method 3540).
A dried, sieved sediment sample (20 g) was weighed into extraction thimble and placed in a
soxhlet extractor. Extraction was done for about 10 h using triply distilled dichloromethane at
a temperature of about 40 C. The extract was concentrated by distilling off part of the solvent.
The concentrated extract was cooled to room temperature and then concentrated further to about
2 mL under a stream of nitrogen gas of 99.99% purity. The reduced extract was preserved for
chromatographic clean-up prior to GC-ECD analysis.

Chemistry and Ecology

517

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

2.6. Clean-up experiment

Clean-up method (USEPA Method 3630C) was used in this research work. A column of about
15 cm 1 cm (internal diameter) was packed with about 5 g activated silica gel prepared in a
slurry form in n-hexane. About 0.5 cm3 of anhydrous sodium sulfate was placed at the top of the
column to absorb any water in the sample or the solvent. The column was pre-eluted with 15 mL
of n-hexane without the exposure of sodium sulfate layer to air. The reduced extract was placed in
the column and allowed to sink below the sodium sulfate layer. Elution was done with 2 10 mL
portion of the extracting solvent. The eluate was collected, dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate
and then evaporated to dryness under a stream of analytical grade nitrogen gas.
2.7.

GC-ECD analysis

Gas chromatography from Institute of Oceanography, Victoria Island Lagos was used in determining the presence and levels of organochlorine in both the surface water and bottom sediment
of Aiba reservoir. The dried eluate above was reconstituted with 1 mL n-hexane and 0.5 mL of
20 ppm of the internal standard. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the OCPs were carried
out with the aid of HP GC 5890 series 11 coupled with detector (ECD). The levels of OCP were
calculated from the relationship given by Harris (1999) as:
Ax
=F
[x]

As
[s]

where Ax = area of analytical signal; As = area of internal standard signal; F = response factor;
[x] = concentration of analyte and [s] = concentration of internal standard. The GC was under
the following conditions: injector temperature of 250 C; detector temperature, 300 C; (held for
5 min); capillary column, Zebron ZB-1701. 30 m 0.25 mmi.d 0.25 m film thickness; oven
temperature programme, 280 C starting from 50 C for 1 min and continued at 20 C/150 C and
at 5 C/min to 280 C held for 4 min; injected sample volume 1 L; splitless mode; carrier gas N2
at 30 mL/min; and splitless flow rate, 19.6 mL/min. identification of OCP was by comparison of
retention times of the peaks with those of standard OCP compounds.
2.8. Quality control measure
Since no standard pesticide reference materials were available to us during the course of this study,
recovery analysis was performed in order to ascertain the efficiency of the analytical procedures
using standard methods. 500 mL aliquot of ultra-pure water was measured into 1000 mL separatory
funnel and acidified with concentrated HNO3 to pH 2. This was spiked with 10 mL of 1000 ppm
standard mixture consisting 20 different organochlorine pesticides. The mixture was extracted
and clean-up following the procedure outlined above.
Two 20 g portions each of dried sediment samples were pulverised. One portion was spiked with
10 mL of 1000 mg/L standard mixture consisting 20 different organochlorine pesticides, whereas
the other that served as control was left unspiked. The two portions were extracted separately and
taken through the same procedure earlier outlined. Moreover, 10 mL of the standard 1000 mg/L
mixture of the organochlorine in spectra grade n-hexane was put into a clean oven dried sample
bottle and dried at ambient temperature followed by purging with high purity nitrogen gas, whereas
the residue was redissolved in 1 mL n-hexane. To both the spiked and the control standard mixture,
1 L was separately injected into the column of the GC-ECD and analysed sequentially. The
recoveries of the OCPs were determined by comparing the peak areas of the OCPs after spiking

518

G.O. Olutona et al.

with those obtained from the evaporated standard residue. Calculation of the % recoveries was
performed as follows:

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

%R =

Peak area of A Peak area of A

100
Peak area of OCP in standard

Where A = OCP in spiked sediment sample; and

A = OCP in unspiked sediment sample
2.9. Evaluation of response factor
The response factor of the standard was estimated by analysing 1.0 L of 1000 ppm stock solution
of the standard mixture containing the internal standard on the GC-ECD.[22] The response factors
were obtained using the expression below:
RF =

Peak area of OCPs

Peak area of internal standard

2.10. Evaluation of limit of detection

The limit of detection was evaluated based on the mathematical relationship described by Miller
and Miller [38] as expressed below:
yc = yn + 3sB
where yc = analyte signal equivalent to detection limit; yn = blank signal; and SB standard deviation of the blank. From the values yc, the analyte concentration corresponding to the detection
limit was evaluated.
2.11.

Statistical analyses

The mean standard deviation for the organochlorine pesticide congeners from duplicate measurements was determined using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software,
15.0 for window evaluation version. Duncans multiple range test [39] was used to determine
significant differences between means. The linear correlation coefficient of the OCP congeners
was determined using the Pearson correlation coefficient.

3.

Results

The reliability and reproducibility of the analytical procedures used based on the recoveries
work of the individual OCP congeners obtained during the spiking experiment gave the values
of 82.54 to 98.35% in water samples and 87.65 to 110.78% in sediment samples with relative
standard deviation of less than 10%. Hence, these values are adjudged reliable and efficient.
The retention time (min) ranges from 6.908 in -BHC to 11.046 in water and 6.965 in -BHC
to 10.687 in sediment, whereas the range of response factors of 0.657 to 1.885 indicated the
separation efficiency of the programmed method for GC-ECD identification and the quantification
of the OCPs was efficient. The LOD values for the OCPs ranged from 0.055 to 2.105 g/L
(Table 1).
The results of the levels of OCPs studied in all the matrices fell into three categories: dichlorodiphenylethanes (pp-DDD, pp-DDE and pp-DDT), cyclodiens (heptachlor,

Chemistry and Ecology

Table 1.

Response factor, retention time, limit of detection and % recovery for OCPs.
Retention Time

OCP

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

519

-BHC
-BHC
BHC
- BHC
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Heptachlor-epoxide
- Chlordane
Endosulfan I
- Chlordane
Dieldrin
pp- DDE
Endrin
Endosulfan II
pp- DDD
Endrin- CHO
Endosulfan III
pp- DDT
Endrin CO
Methoxychlor

% Recovery

Response
factor

Water

Sediment

Water

Sediment

Limit of
Detection (ppb)

1.77 0.01
0.68 0.01
1.16 0.02
1.46 0.02
1.29 0.15
1.34 0.02
1.45 0.01
0.55 0.02
0.56 0.02
0.60 0.01
0.95 0.05
0.89 0.01
1.08 0.02
0.66 0.06
1.88 0.03
1.58 0.01
0.89 0.03
0.95 0.02
1.25 0.02
1.67 0.03

6.91 0.25
7.27 0.12
7.73 0.42
7.89 0.26
8.23 0.34
8.67 0.39
8.95 0.45
9.02 0.15
9.27 0.37
9.52 0.22
9.68 0.17
9.85 0.48
9.91 0.52
10.06 0.44
10.29 0.25
10.40 0.37
10.74 0.51
11.05 0.45
11.33 0.49
11.57 0.53

6.97 0.33
8.18 0.24
8.52 0.45
8.92 0.21
9.04 0.28
9.24 0.18
9.49 0.41
9.65 0.26
9.81 0.29
9.94 0.43
10.06 0.22
10.33 0.35
10.41 0.49
10.59 0.45
10.62 0.52
10.63 0.55
11.09 0.44
11.23 0.57
11.37 0.55
11.48 0.48

84.56 4.58
88.75 6.84
95.06 4.68
90.34 5.75
90.23 5.44
88.52 5.62
91.99 1.45
90.22 4.78
84.23 4.88
92.23 3.75
83.88 4.27
93.55 3.34
82.69 5.25
81.22 3.77
95.82 5.66
92.31 5.80
86.78 4.03
90.32 6.01
84.76 4.67
85.79 5.08

88.91 8.25
95.21 7.70
89.54 5.44
92.38 4.32
89.78 8.77
91.67 4.88
89.43 7.89
93.55 6.88
88.89 3.49
94.15 5.48
89.45 2.38
98.11 4.65
92.34 6.21
86.78 3.99
89.78 2.22
88.89 4.08
89.74 5.12
92.78 4.44
88.65 3.66
90.55 5.64

1.086
0.101
0.095
0.067
1.090
2.105
0.041
0.479
0.076
0.481
0.894
0.182
0.305
0.065
2.001
0.051
0.044
0.055
0.055
0.046

heptachlor-epoxy, aldrin, - chlordane, -chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, endrin

ketone, endosulfan I, endosulfan II, endosulfan III, and methoxychlor); and chlorinated
benzenes/cyclohexane (-BHC, -BHC, -BHC and -BHC). The distribution of OCPs (mg/L)
in water samples for all the four locations are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The presence of all the
three categories of OCPs (chlorinated benzene/cyclohexane, dichlorodiphenylethane and cyclodienes) was evident in all the locations. Analyses shows the presence endosulfan I, endosulfan
III, and methoxychlor in 62.5% of the samples; - BHC, heptachlor and endrin ketone in 50%
of the samples; -BHC, - BHC, pp-DDT, aldrin, endosulfan II, dieldrin and endrin aldehyde in
37.5% of the samples; and pp-DDE, pp-DDD, heptachlor-epox, endrin and -Chlordane in 25%
of the samples. -BHC was not detected in all the locations.
Tables 4 and 5 present the distribution of OCPs in bottom sediment for all the four locations.
Despite the evidence of presence of all the three categories of OCPs in all the locations, endosulfan
III was not detected in all locations. Analyses show the presence of -BHC, -BHC, -BHC,
-BHC and heptachlor in 100% of the samples; -Chlordane in 87.5% of the samples; endrin
ketone in 75% of the samples; pp-DDD, endosulfan I and endrin in 62.5% of the samples; pp-DDE,
pp-DDT, heptachlor-epox and aldrin in 50% of the samples; -Chlodane, dieldrin, endosulfan II
and methoxychlor in 25% of the samples; and endrin aldehyde in 12.5% of the samples.
The levels (mean sd, mg/L) of OCPs in water samples (Tables 6 and 7) in all the
three categories of OCPs were as follows: -BHC (0.09 0.14), -BHC (0.09 0.11), BHC (ND), -BHC (0.09 0.12); pp-DDD (0.03 0.06), pp-DDE (0.04 0.07), pp-DDT
(0.05 0.08), heptachlor (0.09 0.11), aldrin (0.06 0.08), heptachlor-epox (0.05 0.09),Chlordane (0.03 0.06), -Chlordane (0.04 0.07), endosulfan I (0.19 0.19), endosulfan II
(0.05 0.06), endosulfan III (0.23 0.28), dieldrin (0.06 0.08), endrin (0.04 0.06), endrin
aldehyde (0.09 0.14), endrin ketone (0.09 0.09) and methoxychlor (0.11 0.10).
The levels (mean sd, g/g) of OCPs in sediment samples (Tables 6 and 7) were as follows:
-BHC (0.36 0.63), -BHC (0.19 0.21), -BHC (0.02 0.05), -BHC (0.12 0.12), ppDDE (0.38 0.51), pp-DDD (2.69 3.02), pp-DDT (0.54 1.17), heptachlor (0.17 0.16),

Location
A
B
C
D

Levels (mg/L) of organochlorine pesticide in surface water of Aiba reservoir.

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

ppDDE

ppDDD

ppDDT

Heptachlor

Heptaclor Epox

-Chlordane

0.10 0.14a
ND
0.06 0.08a
0.20 0.28a

0.10 0.15a
0.05 0.08a
0.08 0.11a
0.14 0.20a

ND
ND
ND
ND

0.07 0.10a
ND
0.14 0.20a
0.13 0.19a

ND
ND
0.08 0.11a
0.06 0.09a

ND
ND
0.07 0.10a
0.06 0.09a

0.07 0.09a
ND
0.07 0.09a
0.08 0.12a

0.14 0.20a
0.08 0.12a
0.06 0.09a
0.06 0.08a

ND
ND
0.10 0.15a
0.08 0.12a

ND
ND
0.07 0.10a
0.07 0.09a

Mean with different letter of the alphabet for each column are significantly different (p < 0.05) from each other.

Table 3.
Location
A
B
C
D

Levels (mg/L) of organochlorine pesticides in surface water of Aiba reservoir.

-Chlordane

Endosulfan I

Endosulfan II

ND
ND
0.08 0.11a
0.07 0.10a

0.46 0.05b

0.06 0.09a

0.13 0.19ab
0.08 0.11a
0.08 0.11a

ND
0.06 0.09a
0.05 0.08a

Endosulfan III
0.38a

0.50
0.27 0.39a
0.07 0.09a
0.08 0.11a

Aldrin
0.17 0.02b
ND
0.08 0.11ab
ND

Endrin

Endrin Aldehyde

ND
ND
0.07 0.10a
0.07 0.09a

0.18 0.26a
ND
0.69 0.09a
0.12 0.17a

Endrin Ketone

Dieldrin

Methoxychlor

0.10
0.09 1.28a
0.08 0.12a
0.08 0.11a

0.09 0.12a

0.18 0.05a
0.12 0.17a
0.07 0.09a
0.06 0.08a

0.14a

ND
0.09 0.12a
0.05 0.07a

Mean with different letter of the alphabet for each column are significantly different (p < 0.05) from each other.

Table 4.
Location
A
B
C
D

Levels (g/g) of organochlorine pesticides in sediment of Aiba reservoir.

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

ppDDE

ppDDD

ppDDT

Heptachlor

Heptaclor Epox

-Chlordane

0.04 0.00a
0.99 1.24a
0.35 0.01a
0.06 0.07a

0.02 0.00a
0.12 0.02a
0.52 0.03b
0.09 0.11a

ND
0.07 0.11a
ND
0.01 0.01a

0.02 0.00a
0.15 0.10ab
0.28 0.02b
0.03 0.01a

ND
0.40 0.32a
1.14 0.06b
ND

ND
2.04 2.88ab
6.67 0.14b
2.05 2.80ab

0.46 0.02a
1.69 2.39a
ND
ND

0.03 0.00a
0.26 0.16ab
0.36 0.02b
0.05 0.05a

0.06 0.01a
0.47 0.51a
ND
ND

ND
0.19 0.03a
ND
0.38 0.54a

Mean with different letter of the alphabet for each column are significantly different (p < 0.05) from each other.

G.O. Olutona et al.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

520

Table 2.

Levels (g/g) of organochlorine pesticides in sediments of Aiba reservoir.

Location

-Chlordane

Endosulfan I

Endosulfan II

Endosulfan III

Aldrin

Endrin

Endrin Aldehyde

Endrin Ketone

Dieldrin

Methoxychlor

A
B
C
D

0.02 0.00a
0.19 0.00a
1.35 0.02b
0.15 0.22a

0.05 0.01a
0.17 0.01a
ND
0.55 0.77a

1.07 0.01b
ND
ND
ND

ND
ND
ND
ND

0.09 0.00a
0.01 0.01a
ND
0.06 0.09a

ND
0.21 0.04b
0.19 0.01b
0.08 0.11ab

ND
ND
ND
0.03 0.04a

ND
0.43 0.16a
2.78 0.14b
0.46 0.63a

ND
0.09 0.12a
ND
0.38 0.54a

ND
0.32 0.46a
ND
0.51 0.73a

Mean with different letter of the alphabet for each column are significantly different (p < 0.05) from each other.

Mean SD of organochlorine pesticides in water and sediments of Aiba Reservoir.

Table 6.
Medium

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

ppDDE

ppDDD

ppDDT

Heptachlor

Heptaclor Epox

-Chlordane

Water
Sediment

0.09 0.14
0.36 0.63

0.09 0.11
0.19 0.21

Nd
0.02 0.05

0.09 0.12
0.12 0.12

0.04 0.07
0.38 0.51

0.03 0.06
2.69 3.02

0.05 0.08
0.54 1.17

0.09 0.11
0.17 0.16

0.05 0.09
0.13 0.29

0.03 0.06
0.05 0.08

Table 7.

Chemistry and Ecology

Mean SD of organochlorine pesticides in water and sediments of Aiba reservoir.

Medium

-Chlordane

Endosulfan I

Endosulfan II

Endosulfan III

Aldrin

Endrin

Endrin Aldehyde

Endrin Ketone

Dieldrin

Methoxychlor

Water
Sediment

0.04 0.07
0.43 0.58

0.19 0.19
0.19 0.37

0.05 0.06
0.27 0.49

0.23 0.28
ND

0.06 0.08
0.04 0.05

0.04 0.06
0.12 0.10

0.09 0.14
0.01 0.02

0.09 0.09
0.92 1.19

0.06 0.08
0.12 0.27

0.11 0.09
0.21 0.40

521

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Table 5.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

522

G.O. Olutona et al.

heptachlor-epox (0.13 0.29), aldrin (0.04 0.05), -Chlordane (0.05 0.08), -Chlordane
(0.43 0.58), endosulfan I (0.19 0.37), endosulfan II (0.27 0.49), endosulfan III (ND),
dieldrin (0.12 0.27), endrin (0.12 0.10), endrin aldehyde (0.01 0.02), endrin ketone
(0.92 1.19), and methoxychlor (0.21 0.40).
WHO [40] recommended the following values (mg/L) for various OCPs compounds in drinking
water 0.02 (lindane), 0.0002(chlordane), 0.006 (endrin), 0.00003(aldrin and dieldrin), 0.001(DDT
and metabolites), and 0.02 (methoxychlor). The values obtained for various OCPs compounds
both in water and sediment in this study were above the stipulated guideline values to chemicals
from agricultural activities to the area of health significance in drinking water by WHO. No
stipulated value for endosulfan and heptachlor by WHO.

4.

Discussion

It was noted that the distribution pattern for the two matrices was not exactly predictable. However,
the mean levels of OCPs in water were generally lower than that of the sediment where similar
findings were reported by Okoya et al.,[41] In water, endosulfan I, II and III, endrin ketone and
endrin aldehyde as well as , and -BHC, heptachlor and methoxychlor were found in significant
concentrations in almost all the sites, indicating their wide use.
The composition of OCPs and its metabolites is a useful tool for better understanding of the origin and transport pathways of these contaminants in the environment.[42] DDT is degraded under
aerobic conditions by micro-organisms to DDE and under anaerobic condition to DDD. DDE
is more stable end-product; resistant to further degradation. DDD is an intermediate metabolite in conversion of DDT to DDE.[42] The result of this study was in agreement of Pandey
et al.,[42] where the percentage distribution of DDD is higher than DDE suggesting fresh input
of DDT rather than historical usage. The concentration of heptachlor both in water and sediment
was higher compared to heptachlor-epoxide. Heptachlor gets mobilised to heptachlor-epoxide in
the aquatic environment.[42] Heptachlor epoxides adsorbed strongly to the soil and very resistant to degradation.[43] The dominance of heptachlor in sediment may be attributed to its slow
degradation due to the low temperature of the bottom sediment.
Residues of BHC isomers in both water and the sediments in significant concentrations
may be attributed to the heavy use of this pesticide both for agricultural and fishing activities
within and around the reservoir. The concentration of the four isomers of BHC reveals a heterogenic nature of distribution. Similarly, the composition of BHC isomers may be relative to
isomerisation of BHC during the process of transport and transformation.[42] It is evident to
assume that vector control programmes are very poor especially in rural area compared to urban
environment.
Agunloye [44] and Tongo [45] studied the occurrence and levels (g/L) of chlorinated hydrocarbons in rivers and lakes in Southern Nigeria and reported the occurrence of lindane (ND - 167),
aldrin (Nd - 190), endosulfan (ND - 750), HCB (ND - 9.2) and heptachlor (ND - 96). Ogunlowo
[46] in his own studies reported the levels of OCPs in nine rivers in Ondo state and obtained a
range of ND - 2150 ng/L for lidane, heptachlor, endrin, aldrin and dieldrin. Nwankwoala and
Osibanjo [47] reported the occurrence of OCPs in surface water in Ibadan the values (ng/L) of
and -BHC (1302), lindane (7297), aldrin (Nd - 19), heptachlor (4202) and total DDT
(Nd-1266). Ogunfowokan et al.,[48] in their studies of OCPs levels in pond water and fish of an
agricultural fish pond in Oke-sun, Osogbo Nigeria reported monthly mean levels (g/L) range
from chlordane (2.65 2.50) in May to pp-DDE (85.12 26.35) in June, the wet season had a
range values between chlordane (12.42 12.75) and o,p -DDD (39.60 36.61); for dry season,
the mean levels ranges between -BHC (0.27 0.90) and dieldrin (17.24 8.71).

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticide residue in water and sediment of some African rivers.

Location/Water Type

pp-DDE

pp-DDD

pp-DDT

Lagos Lagoon
Ero Reservoir
Ero River
Osse River
Owesse River
Apomu River
Ibadan stream
River Ogun
River Imo
Cross River
Awba Dam
Kainji Lake
HartbeepoortReservoir
Voelvlei Reservoir, SA
Mcllwaine Lake
Akure
Ifedore
Idanre

3(Nd-15)
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd

83(Nd-344)
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd

100
< 100
100

100
< 100
< 100

100
< 100
< 100

Ogunpa, Ibadan
13(Nd-32)
Nd
0.1(Nd-5.3)
Ona River
7(Nd-14)
Nd
1(Nd-2)
Oniyere
9(Nd-50)
Nd
Nd
Lekki, Lagoon
263(11-555)
Nd
88(Nd-438)
Ebrie Lagoon,CoteDIvorie 7.4(0.1149) 28.1(0.2803) 15.7(0.2354)
Mallwaine, Zimbabwe

Hartbeespoort Dam, SA
10
18
13
Voelvlei Dam, SA
5
2
6
Lake Nakuru, Kenya
10
10
< 10
Numbaya Mungu,Tanzania
1(Nd-1)
1(Nd-3)
3(27)
Pond, Osogbo

Akure
Ifedore
Idanre

-BHC

Water (ng/L)
2500 (Nd-4000)

Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd

150(1302)

300

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

Reference

Tongo [45]
Ogunlowo [46]

Nwankwoala and Osibanjo [47]

Agunloye [44]
Tongo [45]

Adeniji et al. [50]

Greichus et al. [51]
Greichus et al. [51]
Greichus et al. [52]
Idowu et al. [53]*

2.0
2.0
2.0
6.4
4.8
100(7297)
13.3(1.441.9)
0.2(Nd-0.6)
0.3(Nd-1.1)
61(9167)
0.12(Nd-0.24)

Nd
Nd
Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd

0.037
Nd
Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd

0.5(Nd-1.2)
Nd
0.9(Nd-2.0)
0.4(Nd-3.3)

Sunday [54]

Ojo [55]
Marchand and Martins [56]
Mhlanga and Madziva [57]
Grechus et al. [51]

Greechus et al. [52]

Paasivita et al. [58]
Oyekunle et al. [49]

Sediment (ng/g)

0.7(Nd-2)

0.5(Nd-0.9)

0.1(Nd-0.4)

18.6(Nd-116) 1.1(0.14.9)
17.1(1.1997)

76(32146)
16(242)

45

13

w
23.01w

24.59
57.94d
40.06d

Nd
Nd
Nd
4.865.64
Nd
Nd

22.11w
46.31d
Nd
1.23.73
Nd

Idowu et al. [53]*

Nd-1.93
Nd
523

Author with asterisk reported their result in mg/L and ug/g, w, wet, d, dry.

DDD Total

Chemistry and Ecology

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Table 8.

Concentrations of organochlorne pesticide residue in water and sediment of some African rivers.

Location/Water Type
Ibadan stream
River Ogun
River Imo
Cross River
Awba Dam
Kainji Lake
Ero Dam
Ero River
Osse River
Owesse River
Apomu River
Akure
Ifedore
Idanre
Ogunpa
Ona River
Oniyere
Lekki Lagoon
Mellwaine
Pond, Osogbo
Akure
Ifedore
Idanre

HCB

Heptachlor

Aldrin

17(Nd-92)

72(4202)
0.28(Nd-0.8)
4(Nd-11.4)
2(Nd-8.6)

0.47(Nd-3.48)
3.3
Nd
5.0
1.6
4.6
Nd
Nd
Nd

20(Nd-40)
40(5.149)
13(Nd-40)
36(Nd-143)
18(1229)
0.55(Nd-3.05)
3.1
Nd
Nd
Nd
3.5
Nd
Nd
Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd
64(Nd-1845)

28.30w
44.69d
Nd
Nd
Nd

Nd
Nd
Nd
56(Nd-3471)
1.0(Nd-12)
28.30w
63.32d
Nd
Nd
Nd-0.02

1.0(Nd-5)
0.8(Nd-2.5)

Heptaclor epoxide

Author with asterisk reported their result in mg/L and ug/g; w, wet season, d, dry season.

Endosulfan

Water (ng/L)

98(Nd-430)

116(Nd-260)
1.3(Nd-41)
20(Nd-80)
20(Nd-30)

Nd
Nd
Nd
Nd
nd
Nd
1.913.12
Nd
0.386.49
Nd
3.426.05
Sediment (ng/g)

Nd
Nd
Nd

30(71155)

23.73w
64.99d
0.191.76
Nd-5.93
86.40127.14
Nd
0.398.29

Endosulfan

Dieldrin

Reference

250(17.8652)

Nwankwoala and Osibanjo [47]

Agunloye [44], Tongo [45]

560
740
2150
1120
1380
Nd
0.002
Nd

Adeniji et al. [50]

Ogunlowo [46]

0.9(Nd-1.8)
0.3(Nd-0.5)
2.0(Nd-6)
4560(1908460)
5.0(Nd-16)
30.63w
69.17d
Nd
Nd-0.11
Nd

Sunday [54]

0.005
0.030
0.0260.034

Nd
0.060.68
0..10.05
0.060.99

Idowu et al. [53]*

Ojo [55]
Mhlanga and Madziva [57]
Oyekunle et al. [49]
Idowu et al. [53]*

G.O. Olutona et al.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

524

Table 9.

Correlation coefficient in water samples for individual OCPs from Aiba Reservoir.

-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Heptachlor-Epox
-Chlordane
Endo-sulfan I
-Chlodane
Dieldrin
ppDDE
Endrin
Endo-sulfan II
ppDDD
Endrin Aldehyde
Endo-sulfanIII
ppDDT
Endrin Ketone
Methoxychlor

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

-BHC

Hepta-chlor

Aldrin

Heptachlo Epox

-Chlordane

Endo-sulfan I

-Chlodane

1
0.87
0
0.82
0.02
0.05
0.64
0.71
0.22
0.69
0.26
0.65
0.68
0.79
0.67
0.81
0.14
0.91
0.61
0.29

1
0
0.54
0.76
0.23
0.64
0.69
0.28
0.68
0.79
0.65
0.67
0.33
0.66
0.18
0.49
0.46
0.33
0.29

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0.05
0.31
0.91
0.92
0.16
0.92
0.52
0.92
0.92
0.93
0.92
0.73
0.19
0.95
0.68
0.33

1
0.47
0.18
0.18
0.51
0.18
0.74
0.18
0.18
0.08
0.18
0.19
0.89
0.04
0.12
0.52

1
0.18
0.12
0.75
0.13
0.65
0.17
0.14
0.44
0.16
0.37
0.49
0.31
0.21
0.49

1
0.99
0.09
0.99
0.65
1.00
0.99
0.71
0.99
0.39
0.19
0.76
0.49
0.15

1
0.10
1.00
0.62
0.99
0.99
0.71
0.99
0.42
0.19
0.78
0.49
0.15

1
0.10
0.30
0.09
0.10
0.38
0.09
0.52
0.74
0.31
0.50
0.8

1
0.03
0.99
1.00
0.71
0.99
0.41
0.19
0.77
0.49
0.14

Chemistry and Ecology

(Continued)

525

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Table 10.

Continued

-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Heptachlor-Epox
-Chlordane
Endo-sulfan I
-Chlodane
Dieldrin
ppDDE
Endrin
Endo-sulfan II
ppDDD
Endrin Aldehyde
Endo-sulfanIII
ppDDT
Endrin Ketone
Methoxychlor

Dieldrin

ppDDE

Endrin

Endo-sulfan II

ppDDD

Endrin Aldehyde

Endo-sulfan III

ppDDT

Endrin Ketone

Methoxychlor

1
0.64
0.63
0.35
0.64
0.08
0.44
0.36
0.10
0.34

1
0. 99**
0.71
1.00
0.39
0.19
0.76
0.49
0.15

1
0.71
1.00
0.41
0.19
0.77
0.49
0.14

1
0.71
0.91
0.16
0.97
0.75
0.45

1
0.40
0.19
0.77
0.49
0.15

1
0.11
0.89
0.71
0.48

1
0.17
0.16
0.68

1
0.73
0.40

1
0.82

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

G.O. Olutona et al.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

526

Table 10.

Correlation coefficient in sediment samples for individual OCPs from Aiba Reservoir.
-BHC

-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
Hepta-chlor
Aldrin
Hepta chlorEpox
-Chlodane
Endo-sulfan I
-Chlodane
Dieldrin
ppDDE
Endrin
Endo sulfan II
ppDDD
Endrin Aldehyde
Endo sulfanIII
ppDDT
Endrin Ketone
Methoxychlor

1
0.12
0.18
0.53
0.67
0.46
0.9
0.06
0.12
0.71
0.19
0.39
0.60
0.32
0.38
0.23
0
0.22
0.02
0.30

-BHC
1
0.19
0.8
0.79
0.67
0.17
0.9
0.41
0.19
0.07
0.9
0.63
0.49
0.9
0.33
0
0.26
0.9
0.39

-BHC

1
0.15
0.09
0.14
0.04
0.19
0.05
0.54
0.07
0.19
0.23
0.24
0.39
0.06
0
0.9
0.15
0.51

-BHC

1
0.9
0.66
0.28
0.8
0.28
0.19
0.37
0.9
0.74
0.52
0.8
0.27
0
0.23
0.82
0.32

Hepta-chlor

1
0.77
0.45
0.76
0.37
0.37
0.25
0.9
0.8
0.56
0.8
0.39
0
0.17
0.73
0.39

Aldrin

1
0.29
0.62
0.64
0.39
0.35
0.64
0.9
0.59
0.77
0.66
0
0.09
0.65
0.49

Hepta-Chloro Epox

1
0.23
0.04
0.82
0.19
0.13
0.45
0.17
0.09
0.19
0
0.06
0.27
0.18

-Chlodane

1
0.39
0.25
0.12
0.9
0.57
0.44
0.8
0.30
0
0.25
0.9
0.37

Endo-sulfan I

1
0.31
0.22
0.34
0.42
0.24
0.42
0.9
0
0.08
0.40
0.8

-Chlorodane

1
0.09
0.05
0.56
0.33
0.09
0.22
0
0.50
0.26
0.12

Chemistry and Ecology

(Continued)

527

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Table 11.

Continued
Dieldrin

-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
-BHC
Hepta-chlor
Aldrin
Hepta chlorEpox
-Chlodane
Endo-sulfan I
-Chlodane
Dieldrin
ppDDE
Endrin
Endo sulfan II
ppDDD
Endrin Aldehyde
Endo sulfanIII
ppDDT
Endrin Ketone
Methoxychlor

1
0.34
0.19
0.27
0.09
0.18
0
0.03
0.03
0.11

ppDDE

1
0.68
0.46
0.88
0.30
0
0.25
0.89
0.37

Endrin

1
0.73
0.73
0.48
0
0.13
0.59
0.28

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Endo sulfan II

ppDDD

Endrin Aldehyde

Endo sulfanIII

ppDDT

Endrin Ketone

Methoxychlor

G.O. Olutona et al.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

528

Table 11.

1
0.55
0.22
0
0.39
0.47
0.32

1
0.35
0
0.47
0.88
0.52

1
0
0.19
0.31
0.82

1
0
0
0

1
0.22
0.39

1
0.35

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Chemistry and Ecology

529

Oyekunle et al. [49] studied the levels of organochlorine in pond sediments from a farm settlement in Osogbo Nigeria and reported mean range (g/kg) of 15.45 heptachlor to 45.93 p.p -DDT
in rainy season and 31.88 chlordane to 102.23 p,p -DDE in dry season. Pandey et al.,[26] in their
study of surface sediments of River Yamuna (Delhi, India) reported that total OCPs level ranged
from 157.71 to 307.66 ng/g in June, 195.86577.74 ng/g in August and 306.9844.45 ng/g in
October. Okoya et al.,[25] in their study of OCPs residue in sediments and waters from cocoa
producing area of Ondo state, south-western Nigeria reported mean range of OCPS (g/g)for
sediment as cis-chlordane 0.036.99; -endosulfan 0.036.99; pp-DDE 0.0819.04 and dieldrin
0.017.62.
The organochlorine pesticides residues, their metabolites or conversion from one form to
another are harmful to human and ecologically harmful to aquatic habitats. The toxicity of these
OCPs can result in the death of fish perhaps due to deliberate application or accidental release of
these chemicals to aquatic environment. Contamination of water body and bottom sediment with
these chemicals usually results in bioaccumulation in aquatic habitats.
Comparison with other studies revealed that the concentrations of individual OCPs reported
in this study are consistent with other studies of OCPs reported at the national and international
levels. The values of OCPs observed in this study are comparable to those reported by other
authors. Tables 8 and 9 list different studies together with the individual OCP concentrations
observed in different parts of Africa. Generally, various compartments of the aquatic environment
in Nigeria and other parts of Africa are greatly contaminated by several OCPs. However, the
values recently reported by Okoya et al.,[25] and Idowu et al.,[53] of the cocoa producing area of
Ondo state, Nigeria were exceedingly high compared to this study, which could be attributed to
intensive use of organochlorine pesticides in this area.
Correlation was performed for both water and sediments using bivariate Pearson correlation
coefficient for all pairs of compounds to determine the relationships between individual compounds. Correlation of OCPs in the surface water in Table 10 shows that apart from -BHC
and endosulfan III, which did not significantly correlate with any other compounds, other compounds showed significant positive correlation with at least two other OCPs to a maximum of
nine compounds in -BHC. Table 11 shows the correlation coefficient for bottom sediment where
-chlordane, dieldrin, endosulfan II, pp-DDT, endrin ketone and methoxychlor did not show any
correlation at all; aldrin was negatively correlated with pp-DDD, whereas others showed strong
positive correlation with one another ranging from one to six individuals. The several positive and
significant correlations were an indication that all OCPs were all related derivatives which was
an indication that they were likely to have originated from the same source and similarly affected
by related factors within the same environmental matrix.[26,32]

5.

Conclusion

The preliminary study on the levels of organochlorine pesticide in water and sediments of Aiba
reservoir has been assessed. Three classes of OCPs (chlorinated benzene/cyclohexanes, cyclodienes and dichlorodiphenylethane) were identified and quantified. The study obtained indicated
that both the water and bottom sediments were contaminated with high levels of these chemicals.
The study further indicated that the concentrations of OCPs in water was lower to that of sediments, hence they were hydrophobic and tend to accumulate in the sediments which act as a sink
for these persistent organic pollutants. The levels of OCPs obtained revealed gross anthropogenic
inputs of these chemical species by the farmers, fisher men and domestic sewages. Extensive
research work covering the seasonal evaluation and public enlightenment by the State Government and other appropriate agencies on the adverse health hazards of the use of these chemicals
are highly recommended.

530

G.O. Olutona et al.

Acknowledgement

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

The authors appreciate the two anonymous reviewers for their objective criticisms which helped to improve the quality
of the manuscript.

References
[1] Fernandes MN, Paulino MG, Sakuragui MM, Ramos CA, Pereira CDS, Sadauskas-Henrique H. Organochlorine
and metals induce changes in the mitochondria-rich cells of fish gills: An integrative field study involving chemical,
biochemical and morphological analyses. Aquat Toxicol. 2013;126:180190.
[2] Da Cuna RH, Pandolfi M, Genovese G, Piazza Y, Ansaldo M, Lo Nostro FL. Endocrine disruptive potential of
endosulfan on the reproductive axis of Cichlasoma Dimerus (Perciformes, cichlidae). Aqua Toxicol. 2013;126:299
305.
[3] Haag I, Kern U, Westrich B. Erosion investigation and sediment quality measurements for a comprehensive risk
assessment of contaminated aquatic sediments. Sci Total Env. 2001;266:249257.
[4] Calmano W, Hong J, Forstner U. Binding and mobilization of heavy metals in contaminated sediments affected by
pH and redox potential. Water Sci Technol. 1993;28:223235.
[5] Simpson SL, Apte SC, Batley GE. Effect of short-term resuspension events on trace metal speciation in polluted
anoxic sediments. Environ Sci Technol. 1988;32:620625.
[6] Nowell LH, Capel PD. Dileanis, pesticides in stream, sediment and aquatic biota: Distribution, trends and governing
factors. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publisher; 1999.
[7] Sapozhnikova Y, Bawardi O, Schlenk D. Pesticides and PCBs in sediments and fish from the Salton Sea, Califonia
USA. Chemosphere. 2004;55:797809.
[8] Fox WM, Connor L, Copplestone D, Johnson MS, Leah RT. The organochlorine contamination History of the mercy
estuary, UK, revealed by analysis of sediment cores from salt marshes. Mar Environ Res. 2001;51:213237.
[9] Castilla-Pinedo Y, Alvis EL, Alvis-Guzman N. Estimating exposure to organochlorine compounds from consuming
pasteurised milk in Cartegena, Colombia. Review Salud Publications (Bogota). 2010;12(1):4148.
[10] Loganathan BG. Global contamination trends of persistent organic chemicals: An overview. In: Laganathan BG,
Lam PKS, editor. Global contamination trends of persistent. Chemicals CRC Press; 2012. p. 593628.
[11] Covaci A, Gheorghe A, Hulea O, Schepens P. Levels and distribution of Organochlorine Pesticides, Polychlorinated
Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl ethers in sediments and biota from the Danube Delta, Romania. Environ
Pollut. 2006;140:136149.
[12] Roche H, Vollaire Y, Persie A, Buet A, Oliveira-Ribeiro C, Coulet E, Banas D, Ramade F. Organochlorine in the
vaccares lagoon trophic web (Biosphere Reserve of Camargue, France). Environ Pollut. 2009;157:24932506.
[13] Scheringer M, Stroebe M, Wania F, Wegmann F, Hngerbu hler K. The effect of export to the deep sea on the long-range
transport potential of persistent organic pollutants. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2004;11:4148.
[14] Bouluobassi I, Mejanelle I, Pete R, Fillaux J, Lorre A, Point V. PAH transport by sinking particles in the open
Mediteranean sea: A 1 year sediment trap study. Mar Pollut Bull. 2006;52:560571.
[15] Mckim JM. Physiological and biochemical mechanism that regulate the accumulation and toxicity of environmental
chemicals in fish. In: Hamelink JL, Landrum PF, Bergman HL, Benson WH, editor. Bioavailability: Physical,
chemical and biological interactions. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publisher; 1994. p. 197201.
[16] Toft G, Edwards TM, Baatrup E, Guillette Jr. LJ. Distributed sexual characteristics in male mosquito fish (Gambusia
halbrooki) from a lake contaminated with endocrine disruptors. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:695701.
[17] Ogunfowokan AO, Oyekunle JAO, Torto N, Akanni MS. A study of persistent organochlorine pesticide residue in
fish tissues and water from an agricultural fish pond. Emir J Food Agric. 2010;24(2):165184.
[18] Johnson HT, Keil JE, Gaddy RG, Loadholt CB, Hennigar GR, Walker EM. Prolonged ingestion of commercial
DDT and PCB, effects on progesterone levels and reproduction in the mature female rat. Arch Env Cont Toxicl.
1976;3:470490.
[19] Lundeberg C. Effects of DDT in cytochrome P-450 and oestrogen dependent functions in mice. Env Physiol Biochem.
1974;4:200204.
[20] Fabro S, McLachlan JA, Dames NM. Chemical exposure of embryos during the preimplantation stages of
pregnancy:mortality rate and intrauterine development. Am J Obestrics Gynecol. 1984;148:929938.
[21] Muino MAF, Sancho MT, Gandara JS, Vidal JMC, Huidobro JF, Lozano JS. Organochlorine pesticides residues in
Galician (NW Spain) honeys. Apidologie. 1995;26:3338.
[22] Clement J, Okey A. Reproduction in female rats born to DDT treated parents. Bull Env Contam Toxicol.
1974;12:373377.
[23] OShea TJ, Everette AL, Ellison LE. Cyclodiene, insecticide, DDE, DDT&lt; Arsenic and Mercury contamination of
big brown bats (Eptesicus fucui), foraging at Colorado super fund site, Arch. Environ Contam Toxicol. 2001;40:112
120.
[24] Wang H-S, Chen Z-J, Wa W, Man T-B, Giesy JP, Du J, Zhang G, Wong CH-C, Wong M-H. Concentrations of
organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in human blood plasma from Hong-Kong: markers of exposure and sources from
fish. Environ Int. 2013;54:1825.
[25] Alcock RE, Behnisch PA, Jones KC, Hagenmeaier H. Dioxin-like PCBs in the environment-human exposure and
the significance of sources. Chemosphere. 1998;37:14571472.

Downloaded by [Cape Peninsula University of Technology], [Godwin Oladele Olutona] at 21:25 24 June 2014

Chemistry and Ecology

531

[26] Kiviranta H, Vartianem T, Tuomisto J. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins dibenzo furans, and biphenyls in fishermen
in Finland. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110:355361.
[27] Fitzgerald EF, Hwang SA, Langguth K, Cayo M, Yang BZ, Bush B, Worswick P, Lauzon T. Fish consumption and
other environmental exposures and their associations with serum PCB concentrations among Mohawk women at
Akwesasne. Environ Res. 2004;94:160170.
[28] Wang HS, Sthiannopka S, Du J, Chen ZJ, Kim KW, Mohammed Yasim MS. Daily intake and human risk assessment
of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) based on cambodiam market basket data. J Hazard Mater. 2011;192:14411449.
[29] Adegbola JA, Anugwon HD, Awagu F, Adu EA. The concept of withholding period and pesticide residues in grain
storage. Asian J Agric Rur Dev. 2012;2(4):598603.
[30] Shaibu I. National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) bans 30 agricultural products,
Vanguard, May, 14, 2008, www.allafrica.com
[31] Chikwe A. National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) axes 20 fast food outlets.
Task operators on good hygiene practices, Tuesday, July 6, 2010, www.nigeriabetforum.com
[32] Ayodele HA, Adeniyi IF. The zooplankton of six impoundments of river Osun, Southwest Nigeria. The Zoologist.
2006;1(4):4967.
[33] Atobatele OE, Ugwumba OA. Distribution, abundance and diversity of macrozoobenthos in Aiba reservoir, Iwo,
Nigeria. Afri J of Aqua Sci. 2010;35(3):291297.
[34] Olutona GO, Dawodu MO, Ajaelu JC. Trace metal levels and speciation pattern in the surface water of Aiba reservoir,
after sorption on Amberlite XAD-16 resin. Biorem Biodiv Bioavail. 2013;7(1):8590.
[35] Alamu WAO. The tree has blossomed. Nigeria: Ola Ayediran Prints; 1992.
[36] Atobatele OE, Ugwumba OA. Seasonal variation in the physiochemistry of a small tropical reservoir (Aiba reservoir,
Iwo, Osun, Nigeria). Afri J Biotech. 2008;7:19621971.
[37] Ogunfowokan AO, Asubiojo OI, Fatoki OS. Isolation and determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in
surface runoff and sediment. Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 2003;147:245261.
[38] Miller JN, Miller JC. Statistics and chemometrics for analytical chemistry, 4th ed. Edinburgh, UK: Pearson
Educational Limited; 2000. p. 271.
[39] Duncan DB. Multiple range and multiple F-test. Biometrics. 1955;11:142.
[40] WHO. Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd ed. Geneva: WHO Press; 2008. p. 230.
[41] Okoya AA, Ogunfowokan AO, Asubiojo OI, Torto N. Organochlorine pesticides residues in sediments and waters
from cocoa producing areas of Ondo state southwestern Nigeria, Hindawi Publishing Corporation. ISRN Soil Sci.
2013;2013:12.
[42] Pandey P, Khillare PS, Kumar K. Assessment of organochlorine pesticides residues in the surface sediments of river
Yamuna in Delhi, India. J Env Pro. 2011;2:511524.
[43] Keith LH. Environmental endocrine disrupters: A handbook of property data. New York: Wiley; 1997. p. 621.
[44] Agunloye TO. A survey of chlorinated hydrocarbons in rivers of southern Nigeria. M. Sc Thesis. Department of
Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 1984.
[45] Tongo AA. Baseline study of levels of organochlorine pesticides in Nigeria rivers and their sediments. M. Sc Thesis,
department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 1985.
[46] Ogunlowo SO. Priority chemical pollutants in some rivers along the cocoa growing area of Ondo state. M.Sc Thesis,
Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 1991.
[47] Nwankwoala AU, Osibanjo O. Baseline levels of selected organochlorine pesticides in surface waters in Ibadan
(Nigeria) by electron capture gas chromatography. Sci Total Env. 1992;119:179190.
[48] Ogunfowokan AO, Oyekunle JAO, Torto N, Akanni MS. A study on persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in
fish tissues and water from an agricultural fish pond. Emir J Food Agric. 2012;24(2):165184.
[49] Oyekunle JAO, Ogunfowokan AO, Akanni MS, Torto N. Levels of organochlorine pesticides residues in the pond sediments from Oke-Osun farm settlement, Osogbo, Nigeria. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual International Conference
of Chemical Society of Nigeria, 2024 September; 2010, Abeokuta. p. 418427.
[50] Adeniji HA, Mbagwu IG, Ibikunle F. A review of studies on the assessment of water quality in Nigerian inland
waters: In proceedings of the first national symposium on water quality monitoring and status in Nigeria, 618
October, 1991, Kaduna, Nigeria. Lagos Federal Environmental Protection Agency.
[51] Greichus YA, Greichus A, Ammam BD, Hopcraft J. Insecticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and metals in African
lake ecosystems. Hartbeespoort Dam, Transvaal and Voelvlei Dam, Cape Province, South Africa. Arch Environ
Contam Toxicol. 1977;6:371383.
[52] Greichus YA, Greichus A, Ammam BD, Hopcraft J. Insecticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and metals in African
lake ecosystems. Lake Mcllwaine, Rhodesia. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1978;19:444453.
[53] Idowu GA, Aiyesanmi AF, Owolabi BJ. Organochlorine pesticide residue levels in river and sediment from cocoa
producing areas of Ondo State central district, Nigeria. J Environ Chem Ecotoxicol. 2013;5(9):242249.
[54] Sunday M. Determination of chlorinated pesticide residue and metals in sediments from rivers and streams in Ibadan,
Nigeria. M. Sc. Thesis. Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 1990.
[55] Ojo OO. Bottom sediments as indicators of chemical pollution in Lekki Lagoon. M. Sc. Thesis. Department of
Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; 1991.
[56] Marchand M, Martins JL. determination de la pollution chimique chydrocarbures, organochlores, metaux dans la
lagune dAbidjan (cote dIvoire) par letudes sediments. Oceanogr Trop. 1985;20(1):2529.
[57] Mhlanga AT, Madziva JT. Pesticides residues in Lake Mcllwaine. J Human Environ. 1990;19(8):368372.
[58] Paasivita J, Palm H, Paukku P. Chlorinated insecticide residues in Tanzanian environment Tanzadrin. Chemosphere.
1988;17(100):20552062.