Centrifugal Pumps

An introduction to Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by accelerating the liquid by
a revolving device - an impeller. The most common type is the volute pump. Fluid enters the pump
through the eye of the impeller which rotates at high speed. The fluid is accelerated radially outward
from the pump chasing. A vacuum is created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid
into the pump.
The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The energy
transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster
the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy
transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the Affinity Laws.

Pressure and Head

If the discharge of a centrifugal pump is pointed straight up into the air the fluid will pumped to a
certain height - or head - called the shut off head. This maximum head is mainly determined by the
outside diameter of the pump's impeller and the speed of the rotating shaft. The head will change as
the capacity of the pump is altered.
The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by creating a resistance in the
flow. The first resistance is created by the pump casing, which catches the liquid and slows it down.
When the liquid slows down the kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy.

it is the resistance to the pump's flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the
discharge line

A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. Pressure is a measurement of the resistance to
flow.
In Newtonian fluids (non-viscous liquids like water or gasoline) the term head is used to measure the
kinetic energy, which a pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the
pump creates from the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid.

the main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is
that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the liquid changes,
but the head will not

The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term head.

Different Types of Pump Head

Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running
Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than the
pump impeller
Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the pump
impeller
Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off
Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on
Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on

The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for pressure as
psi or bar.

it is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if the shaft is
turning at the same rpm

The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to the proper
rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.

Centrifugal Pumps are "constant head machines"

Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of head and
density. The head is constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure) changes.
The head of a pump in metric units can be expressed in metric units as:
h = (p2 - p1)/( g) + v22/(2 g) (1)
where
h = total head developed (m)
p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2)
p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2)
= density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81) m/s2
v2 = velocity at the outlet (m/s)
Head described in simple terms

a pump's vertical discharge "pressure-head" is the vertical lift in height - usually measured in
feet or m of water - at which a pump can no longer exert enough pressure to move water. At this
point, the pump may be said to have reached its "shut-off" head pressure. In the flow curve chart
for a pump the "shut-off head" is the point on the graph where the flow rate is zero

Bernoulli Equation
A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for solving
problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in

steady flow, the sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per
unit volume is constant at any point
A special form of the Eulers equation derived along a fluid flow streamline is often called the Bernoulli
Equation
Liquid flows from a tank through a orifice close to the bottom. The Bernoulli equation can be adapted
to a streamline from the surface (1) to the orifice (2) as (e1):

For steady state incompressible flow the Euler equation becomes (1). If we integrate (1) along the
streamline it becomes (2). (2) can further be modified to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow
Equation (3) is often referred to the head because all elements has the unit of length.

Dynamic Pressure
(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for steady state incompressible flow. If we assume
that the gravitational body force is negligible, (3) can be written as (4). Both elements in the equation
have the unit of pressure and it's common to refer the flow velocity component as the dynamic
pressure of the fluid flow (5).
Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4) can be expressed as (6). Using the equation we
see that increasing the velocity of the flow will reduce the pressure, decreasing the velocity will
increase the pressure.
This phenomena can be observed in a venturi meter where the pressure is reduced in the constriction
area and regained after. It can also be observed in a pitot tube where the stagnation pressure is
measured. The stagnation pressure is where the velocity component is zero.

Example - Bernoulli Equation and Flow from a Tank through a small Orifice
Liquid flows from a tank through a orifice close to the bottom. The Bernoulli equation can be adapted
to a streamline from the surface (1) to the orifice (2) as (e1):

Since (1) and (2)'s heights from a common reference is related as (e2), and the equation of continuity
can be expressed as (e3), it's possible to transform (e1) to (e4).

Vented tank

A special case of interest for equation (e4) is when the orifice area is much lesser than the surface
area and when the pressure inside and outside the tank is the same - when the tank has an open
surface or "vented" to the atmosphere. At this situation the (e4) can be transformed to (e5).
"The velocity out from the tank is equal to speed of a freely body falling the distance h." - also known
as Torricelli's Theorem.

Example - outlet velocity from a vented tank

The outlet velocity on a tank were
h = 10 m
can be calculated as
V2 = [2 x 9.81 x 10]1/2 = 14 m/s

Pressurized Tank
If the tanks is pressurized so that product of gravity and height (g h) is much lesser than the pressure
difference divided by the density, (e4) can be transformed to (e6).
The velocity out from the tank depends mostly on the pressure difference.

Example - outlet velocity from a pressurized tank

The outlet velocity of a pressurized tank where
p1 = 0.2 MN/m2, p2 = 0.1 MN/m2 A2/A1 = 0.01, h = 10 m
can be calculated as
V2 = [(2/(1-(0.01)2) ( (0.2 - 0.1)x106 /1x103 + 9.81 x 10)]1/2 = 19.9 m/s

Coefficient of Discharge - Friction Coefficient

Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat lower than this theoretic examples. If we introduce a
friction coefficient c (coefficient of discharge), (e5) can be expressed as (e5b).
The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it may be
as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may bee between 0.95 and 1.

Hydraulic Pump Power

The ideal hydraulic power to drive a pump depends on the mass flow rate, the liquid density and the
differential height

- either it is the static lift from one height to an other, or the friction head loss component of the system
- can be calculated as
Ph = q g h / 3.6 106 (1)
where
Ph = power (kW)
q = flow capacity (m3/h)
= density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravity (9.81 m/s2)
h = differential head (m)

Shaft Pump Power

The shaft power - the power required transferred from the motor to the shaft of the pump - depends on
the efficiency of the pump and can be calculated as
Ps = Ph / (2)
where
Ps = shaft power (kW)
= pump efficiency

Online Pump Calculator - SI-units

The calculator below can used to calculate the hydraulic and shaft power of a pump:
135

1000

9.81

33

0.6

q - flow capacity (m3/h)

- density of fluid (kg/m3)

g - gravity (m/s2)

h - differential head (m)

- pump efficiency

Online Pump Calculator - Imperial units

The calculator below can used to calculate the hydraulic and shaft power of a pump using Imperial
units:
600

62.4

32.174

110

0.6

q - flow capacity (gpm)

- density of fluid (lb/ft3)

g - gravity (ft/s2)

h - differential head (ft)

- pump efficiency

Specific work is the work per unit weight. Specific work in turbo machines as fans, pumps,
compressors or turbines has the SI-units N.m/kg = J/kg = m 2/s2.

Specific Work of a Pump or Fan

Specific work of a pump or fan working with an incompressible fluid can be expressed as:

w = (p2 - p1) / (1)

where
w = specific work (N.m/kg = J/kg = m2/s2)
p = pressure (N/m2)
= density (kg/m3)

Specific Work of a Turbine

Specific work of a turbine with an incompressible fluid can be expressed as:
w = (p1 - p2) / (2)

Specific Work of a Compressor

A compressor works with compressible fluids and the specific work for an isentropic compressor
process can be expressed with the help of:
p1 v1 = p2 v2 (3)
where
v = volume (m3)
= cp / cv - ratio of specific heats (J/kg.K)
Specific work:
w = / ( -1) R T1 [( p2 / p1)((-1)/) - 1] (4)
where
R = individual gas constant (J/kg.K)
T = absolute temperature (K)

Specific Work of a Gas Turbine

A gas turbine expands a compressible fluid and the specific work can be expressed as:
w = / ( -1) R T1 [1 - ( p2 / p1)((-1)/)] (5)

Head in Turbomachines
The specific work can on basis of the energy equation be expressed with the head as:
w = g h (6)
where
h = head (m)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
Transformed to express head:
h = w / g (7)

Example - Specific Work of a Water Pump

A water pump works between 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). The specific work can be
calculated with (1):
w = (p2 - p1) / = ( (10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2) ) / (1000 kg/m3)
= 900 N.m/kg
Dividing by acceleration of gravity the head can be calculated using (7):
hwater = (900 N.m/kg) / (9,81 kg/s2)
= 91,74 (m) water column

Example - Specific Work of an Air Compressor

An air compressor works with air at 20 oC compressing the air from 1 bar absolute (1 105 N/m2) to 10
bar (10 105 N/m2). The specific work can be expressed with (4):
w = / ( -1) R T1 [( p2 / p1)((-1)/) - 1]

= ( (1,4 J/kg.K)/ (1,4 - 1 J/kg.K) ) (286,9 J/kg. K) (273 + 20 K) [( (10 105 N/m2) / (1 105 N/m2) )((1,4 - 1
-1]

J/kg.K)/(1,4 J/kg.K))

= 274200 N.m/kg
where
air = 1,4 (J/kg.K) - ratio of specific heat air
Rair = 286.9 (J/kg. K) - individual gas constant air
Dividing by acceleration of gravity the head can be calculated using (7):
hair = (274200 N.m/kg) / (9,81 kg/s2)
= 27951 (m) air column
Specific speed is a number characterizing the type of impeller in a unique and coherent manner.
Specific speed are determined independent of pump size and can be useful comparing different pump
designs. The specific speed identifies the geometrically similarity of pumps.
Specific speed is dimensionless and are expressed as
Ns = q1/2 / h3/4 (1)
where
Ns = specific speed
= pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)
q = flow rate (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm) at Best Efficiency Point (BEP)
h = head rise (m, ft)

Online Specific Speed Pump Calculator

The calculator below can used to calculate pump specific speed:
1760

1500

100

- pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)

q - flow rate (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm)

h = head rise (m, ft)

Note! When comparing pumps and their documentation be aware of the units used.
Typical values for specific speed - Ns - for different designs in US units (gpm)

radial flow - 500 < Ns < 4000 - typical for centrifugal impeller
pumps with radial vanes - double and single suction. Francis
vane impellers in the upper range
mixed flow - 2000 < Ns < 8000 - more typical for mixed impeller
single suction pumps
axial flow - 7000 < Ns < 20000 - typical for propellers and axial
fans

Convert between US units (gpm) and Metric units (m3/h)

Ns (US) = 1.63 Ns (metric)

Ns (Metric) = 0.614 Ns (US)
Ns (Metric) = 0.67 Ns (British)

Example - Specific Speed for a Pump

A pump has a capacity of 1500 gal/min at 100 ft of head and is rotating at 1760 rev/min. Specific
speed can be expressed as:
Nsd = (1760 rev/min) (1500 gal/min)1/2 / (100 ft)3/4
= 2156 - a typical centrifugal pump
For a fluid flow process involving a pump or fan the overall efficiency is related to the

hydraulic
mechanical
volumetric

loss in the pump or fan.

Hydraulic Loss and Hydraulic Efficiency

Hydraulic loss relates to the construction of the pump or fan, and is caused by the friction between the
fluid and the walls, acceleration and retardation of the fluid and the change of the fluid flow direction.

The hydraulic efficiency can be expressed as:

h = w / (w + wl) (1)
where
h = hydraulic efficiency
w = specific work from the pump or fan
wl = specific work lost due to hydraulic effects

Mechanical Loss and Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical components - as transmission gear and bearings - generates a mechanical loss that
reduces the power transferred from the motor shaft to the pump or fan impeller.
The mechanical efficiency can be expressed as:
m = (P - Pl) / P (2)
where
m = mechanical efficiency
P = power transferred from the motor to the shaft
Pl = power lost in the transmission

Volumetric Loss and Volumetric Efficiency

Due to leakage of fluid between the back surface of the impeller hub plate and the casing, or through
other pump components - there is a volumetric loss reducing the pump efficiency.
The volumetric efficiency can be expressed as:
v = q / (q + ql) (3)
where
v = volumetric efficiency
q = volume flow out of the pump or fan
ql = leakage volume flow

Total Loss and Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency is the ratio of power actually gained by the fluid to the shaft power supplied. The
overall efficiency can be expressed as:
= h m v (4)
where
= overall efficiency
The losses in the pump or fan converts to heat transferred to the fluid and the surroundings. As a rule
of thumb the temperature increase in a fan transporting air is approximately 1 oC.

Example - Hydraulic Efficiency for a Pump

An inline water pump works between pressure 1 bar (1 10 5 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). Density of
water is 1000 kg/m3. The hydraulic efficiency h = 0,91.
The actual water head (water column) can be calculated as:
h = (p2 - p1) /
= (p2 - p1) / g
= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
= 91.7 m - water column
The pump must be constructed for the specific work:
w c = g h / h
= (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m) / 0.91
= 988.6 m2/s2
The construction or design head is:
h = wc / g
= (988.6 m2/s2) / (9.81 m/s2)
= 100.8 m - water column

Power Gained by Fluid

The power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed as:
P = m w (1)
where
P = power
m = mass flow rate
w = specific work

Specific Work
Specific work - w - can be expressed:
w = g h (2)
where
h = head
g = acceleration of gravity

Mass Flow Rate

Mass flow rate - m - can be expressed:
m = Q (3)
where
= density
Q = volume flow rate
Combining (1), (2) and (3) the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed as:
P = Q g h (4)
With specific weight expressed as:
= g (5)
where
= specific weight
equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed
as:
P = Q h (6)

Since head can be expressed as

h = (p2 - p1) / (7)
equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed
as:
P = Q (p2 - p1) (8)

Example - Head Rise of a Inline Pump

An inline water pump works between measured pressure 1 bar (1 10 5 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2).
Density of water is 1,000 kg/m3. The volume flow is measured to 1 10-3 m3/s.
The actual water head (water column) can be calculated using (7):
h = (p2 - p1) /
= (p2 - p1) / g
= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
= 91.7 m - water column
The power gained by the fluid can be calculated using equation (4):
P=Qgh
= (1,000 kg/m3) (1 10-3 m3/s) (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m)
= 899.6 kg.m2/s3 (W)
= 0.9 kW
When a viscous fluid is handled by a centrifugal pump

brake horsepower requirement increases

the head generated is reduced
capacity is reduced
efficiency of pump is reduced and the Best Efficiency Point BEP - is moved

The head, flow and capacity at other viscosities than used in the original documentation can be
modifying with coefficients.

Flow
qv= cq q (1)
where
qv = flow compensated for viscosity (m3/h, gpm)
cq = viscosity flow coefficient
q = original flow according pump curve (m3/h, gpm)

Head
hv= ch h (1)
where
hv = head compensated for viscosity (m, ft)
ch = viscosity head coefficient
h = original head according pump curve (m, ft)

Efficiency
v= c (1)
where
v = effciency compensated for viscosity
c = viscosity efficiency coefficient
= original efficiency according pump curve

Power - SI units
Pv= qv hv v g / (3.6 106 v) (1)
where
Pv = power compensated for viscosity (kW)
v = density of viscous fluid (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

Power - Imperial units

Pv= qv hv SG / (3960 v) (1)
where
Pv = power compensated for viscosity (bhp)
SG = specific gravity of viscous fluid

The System Curve

A fluid flow system can in general be characterized with the System Curve - a graphical presentation
of the Energy Equation.

The system head visualized in the System Curve is a function of the elevation - the static head in the
system, and the major and minor losses and can be expressed as:
h = dh + hl (1)
where
h = system head
dh = h2 - h1 = elevation (static) head - difference between inlet and outlet of the system
hl = head loss
A generic expression of head loss is:
hl = k q2 (2)
where
q = flow rate
k = constant describing the total system characteristics - including all major and minor losses
Increasing the constant - k - by closing some valves, reducing the pipe size or similar - will increase
the head loss and move the system curve upwards. The starting point for the curve - at no flow, will be
the same.

Pump Performance Curve

The pump characteristic is normally described graphically by the manufacturer as a pump performance
curve. The pump curve describes the relation between flowrate and head for the actual pump. Other
important information for proper pump selection is also included - efficiency curves, NPSHr curve,
pump curves for several impeller diameters and different speeds, and power consumption.

Increasing the impeller diameter or speed increases the head and flow rate capacity - and the pump
curve moves upwards.
The head capacity can be increased by connecting two or more pumps in series, or the flow rate
capacity can be increased by connecting two or more pumps in parallel.

Selection of Pump
A pump can be selected by combining the System Curve and the Pump Curve:

The operating point is where the system curve and the actual pump curve intersect.

Best Efficiency Point - BEP

The best operating conditions will in general be close to the best efficiency point - BEP.

Special consideration should be taken for applications where the system conditions change frequently
during operation. This is often the situation for heating and air conditioning system or water supply
systems with variable consumption and modulating valves.

Carry Out
When a pumps operates in the far right of its curve with poor efficiency - the pumps carry out.

Shutoff Head
Shutoff head is the head produced when the pump operates with fluid but with no flow rate.

Churn
A pump is in churn when it operates at shutoff head or no flow.
For a fluid flow process involving a pump or fan the overall efficiency is related to the

hydraulic
mechanical
volumetric

loss in the pump or fan.

Hydraulic Loss and Hydraulic Efficiency

Hydraulic loss relates to the construction of the pump or fan, and is caused by the friction between the
fluid and the walls, acceleration and retardation of the fluid and the change of the fluid flow direction.
The hydraulic efficiency can be expressed as:
h = w / (w + wl) (1)
where
h = hydraulic efficiency
w = specific work from the pump or fan
wl = specific work lost due to hydraulic effects

Mechanical Loss and Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical components - as transmission gear and bearings - generates a mechanical loss that
reduces the power transferred from the motor shaft to the pump or fan impeller.
The mechanical efficiency can be expressed as:
m = (P - Pl) / P (2)
where
m = mechanical efficiency

P = power transferred from the motor to the shaft

Pl = power lost in the transmission

Volumetric Loss and Volumetric Efficiency

Due to leakage of fluid between the back surface of the impeller hub plate and the casing, or through
other pump components - there is a volumetric loss reducing the pump efficiency.
The volumetric efficiency can be expressed as:
v = q / (q + ql) (3)
where
v = volumetric efficiency
q = volume flow out of the pump or fan
ql = leakage volume flow

Total Loss and Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency is the ratio of power actually gained by the fluid to the shaft power supplied. The
overall efficiency can be expressed as:
= h m v (4)
where
= overall efficiency
The losses in the pump or fan converts to heat transferred to the fluid and the surroundings. As a rule
of thumb the temperature increase in a fan transporting air is approximately 1 oC.

Example - Hydraulic Efficiency for a Pump

An inline water pump works between pressure 1 bar (1 10 5 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). Density of
water is 1000 kg/m3. The hydraulic efficiency h = 0,91.
The actual water head (water column) can be calculated as:
h = (p2 - p1) /
= (p2 - p1) / g
= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
= 91.7 m - water column
The pump must be constructed for the specific work:

w c = g h / h
= (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m) / 0.91
= 988.6 m2/s2
The construction or design head is:
h = wc / g
= (988.6 m2/s2) / (9.81 m/s2)
= 100.8 m - water column

Pressure and Pressure Loss

According the Energy Equation for a fluid the total energy can be summarized as elevation energy,
velocity energy and pressure energy. The Energy Equation can then be expressed as:
p1 + v12 / 2 + g h1 = p2 + v22 / 2 + g h2 + ploss (1)
where
p = pressure in fluid (Pa (N/m2), psi (lb/ft2))
ploss = pressure loss (Pa (N/m2), psi (lb/ft2))
= density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
v = flow velocity (m/s, ft/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2, ft/s2)
h = elevation (m, ft)
For horizontal steady state flow v1 = v2 and h1 = h2, - (1) can be transformed to:
ploss = p1 - p2 (2)
The pressure loss is divided in

major loss due to friction and

minor loss due to change of velocity in bends, valves and
similar.

The pressure loss in pipes and tubes depends on the flow velocity, pipe or duct length, pipe or duct
diameter, and a friction factor based on the roughness of the pipe or duct, and whether the flow us
turbulent or laminar - the Reynolds Number of the flow. The pressure loss in a tube or duct due to
friction, major loss, can be expressed as:
ploss = (l / dh) ( v2 / 2) (3)
where

ploss = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2)

= friction coefficient
l = length of duct or pipe (m)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m)
(3) is also called the Darcy-Weisbach Equation. (3) is valid for fully developed, steady,
incompressible flow.

Head and Head Loss

The Energy equation can be expressed in terms of head and head loss by dividing each term by the
specific weight of the fluid. The total head in a fluid flow in a tube or a duct can be expressed as the
sum of elevation head, velocity head and pressure head.
p1 / + v12 / 2 g + h1 = p2 / + v22 / 2 g + h2 + hloss (4)
where
hloss = head loss (m, ft)
= g = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)
For horizontal steady state flow v1 = v2 and h1 = h2, - (4) can be transformed to:
hloss = h1 - h2 (5)
where
h = p / = head (m, ft)
The head loss in a tube or duct due to friction, major loss, can be expressed as:
hloss = (l / dh) (v2 / 2 g) (6)
where
hloss = head loss (m, ft)

The Friction Coefficient -

The friction coefficient depends on the flow - if it is

laminar,
transient or
turbulent

and the roughness of the tube or duct.

To determine the friction coefficient we first have to determine if the flow is laminar, transient or
turbulent - then use the proper formula or diagram.

The Friction Coefficient for Laminar Flow

For fully developed laminar flow the roughness of the duct or pipe can be neglected. The friction
coefficient depends only the Reynolds Number - Re - and can be expressed as:
= 64 / Re (7)
where
Re = the dimensionless Reynolds number
The flow is

laminar when Re < 2300

transient when 2300 < Re < 4000
turbulent when Re > 4000

The Friction Coefficient for Transient Flow

If the flow is transient - 2300 < Re < 4000 - the flow varies between laminar and turbulent flow and the
friction coefficient is not possible to determine.

The Friction Coefficient for Turbulent Flow

For turbulent flow the friction coefficient depends on the Reynolds Number and the roughness of the
duct or pipe wall. On functional form this can be expressed as:
= f( Re, k / dh ) (8)
where
k = relative roughness of tube or duct wall (mm, ft)
k / dh = the roughness ratio
Relative roughness for materials are determined by experiments. Relative roughness for some
common materials can be found in the table below

Roughness - k
Surface
x 10-3 m

feet

Copper, Lead, Brass, Aluminum (new)

0.001 - 0.002

3.33 - 6.7 10-6

PVC and Plastic Pipes

0.0015 - 0.007

0.5 - 2.33 10-5

Epoxy, Vinyl Ester and Isophthalic pipe

0.005

1.7 10-5

Stainless steel

0.015

5 10-5

Steel commercial pipe

0.045 - 0.09

1.5 - 3 10-4

Stretched steel

0.015

5 10-5

Weld steel

0.045

1.5 10-4

Galvanized steel

0.15

5 10-4

Rusted steel (corrosion)

0.15 - 4

5 - 133 10-4

New cast iron

0.25 - 0.8

8 - 27 10-4

Worn cast iron

0.8 - 1.5

2.7 - 5 10-3

Rusty cast iron

1.5 - 2.5

5 - 8.3 10-3

Sheet or asphalted cast iron

0.01 - 0.015

3.33 - 5 10-5

Smoothed cement

0.3

1 10-3

Ordinary concrete

0.3 - 1

1 - 3.33 10-3

Coarse concrete

0.3 - 5

1 - 16.7 10-3

Well planed wood

0.18 - 0.9

6 - 30 10-4

Ordinary wood

16.7 10-3

The friction coefficient - - can be calculated by the Colebrooke Equation:

1 / 1/2 = -2,0 log10 [ (2,51 / (Re 1/2)) + (k / dh) / 3,72 ] (9)
Since the friction coefficient - - is on both sides of the equation, it must be solved by iteration. If we
know the Reynolds number and the roughness - the friction coefficient - - in the particular flow can be
calculated.
A graphical representation of the Colebrooke Equation is the Moody Diagram:

The Moody Diagram - The Moody diagram in a printable format.

With the Moody diagram we can find the friction coefficient if we know the Reynolds Number - Re and the
Roughness Ratio - k / dh.
In the diagram we can see how the friction coefficient depends on the Reynolds number for laminar
flow - how the friction coefficient is undefined for transient flow - and how the friction coefficient
depends on the roughness ratio for turbulent flow.
For hydraulic smooth pipes - the roughness ratio limits zero - and the friction coefficient depends more
or less on the Reynolds number only.
For a fully developed turbulent flow the friction coefficient depends on the roughness ratio only.

Example - Pressure Loss in Air Ducts

Air at 0 oC is flows in a 10 m galvanized duct - 315 mm diameter - with velocity 15 m/s.
Reynolds number are expressed as:
Re = dh v / (10)
where
Re = Reynolds number
v = velocity
= density
= dynamic or absolute viscosity

Reynolds number calculated:

Re = ( 1.23 kg/m3 15 m/s 315 mm 10-3 m/mm ) / 1.79 10-5 Ns/m2
= 324679 (kgm/s2)/N
= 324679 ~ Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow indicates that Colebrooks equation (9) must be used to determine the friction coefficient
- -.
With roughness - - for galvanized steel 0,15 mm, the roughness ratio can be calculated:
Roughness Ratio = / dh
= 0.15 mm / 315 mm
= 4.76 10-4
Using the graphical representation of the Colebrooks equation - the Moody Diagram - the friction
coefficient - - can be determined to:
= 0.015
The major loss for the 10 m duct can be calculated with the Darcy-Weisbach Equation (3) or (6):
hloss = ( l / dh ) ( v2 / 2 )
= 0,015 (10 m / 0,315 m) ( 1,23 kg/m3 (15 m/s)2 / 2 )
= 65 Pa (N/m2)