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I
International Journal of Basic

and Applied Biology (IJBAB)
Print ISSN: 2349 5820
Online ISSN: 2349 5839
Editor-in-Chief:
John Zhang, Ph. D.
Greenhouse Branch / Crop Research and Extension Division
Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development
Horticultural Station Road East, Brooks, Government of Alberta
Alberta T1R 1E6, Canada
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Yong Fu, MD/Ph.D.
Department of Molecular Pharmacology
Beckman Research Institute
City of Hope
1500 East Duarte Road, Duarte, CA 91010-3000
Farhad Mirzaei, Ph.D.
Livestock Production & Management
Department of Animal Production Management, Animal Science
Research Institute of Iran
Atul Kumar Johri, Ph.D.
School of Life Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Sankar Acharya, Ph.D.
Agro-ecology,
Vidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Vachaspati Mishra, Ph.D.
Molecular Biology & Interface Bioinformatics
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Pubjab, India
Govind Chandra Mishra, Ph.D.
Environmental Science
Department of Civil Engineering,
MVN University, Palwal, Haryana, India
Eklavya Chauhan, Ph.D.
Botany
Deshbandhu College (University of Delhi)
Kalkaji, New Delhi, India
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International Journal of Basic and Applied Biology

Website: http://www.krishisanskriti.org/ijbab.html
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International Journal of Basic and Applied Biology (IJBAB)

Volume 2, Number 4; January-March, 2015
Contents
Frequency of Salmonella Typhimurium in Egg Shell and Determination of Antibiotic Resistance of Isolates
Abbas Doosti, Esmaeil Mahmoudi, Abbas Mokhtari-Farsani and Elham Doosti
186-1889
Management and Engineering in Rural Areas Sustainability Issue and Gap Analysis of Productivity of
Different Crops and Resources
Girish Deshmukh, Minaxi Bariya, Smit Lende and Ramchandra Khileri
190-192
An Adsorption Study of Cr (III) and Fe (II) on Khaya Senegalansis Leaves (Mahogany)

P.C. Verma
193-197
Isolation, Screening and Characterization of Lipase Producing Strain from Oil Contaminated Soil of
Hubballi, Karnataka
Pooja K Mahale, S.V. Desai, V.S. Hombalimath and Sharanappa Achappa
198-201
Indigenous Technological Knowledge in Agriculture in Different Zones of Karnataka for Environmental

Sustainability
K.S. Somashekar, B.S. Lalitha, A. S. Shashikiran AND L. Harish
202-204
Formulation and Evaluation of Preserved Products Using an Under-Exploited Fruit [Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia
Deliciosa)]
D. Kodandaram Reddy, Priyanka Samala and Jyoti Kiran Singh
205-209
Study of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Fish Organs

Momin Shaziya Mohd Irfan
210-212
Antimicrobial Activity of Different Maturity of Lagerstroemia Indica L. on Pathogenic Bacteria

Chandra M
213-216
Simulation of Soil Water Dynamics in the Rice and Mustard Cropped Field using Hydrus 2D for
Sustainable Agriculture in Eastern India
Limbraj Parshuram Pholane, Laxmi Narayan Sethi and Sudhindra Nath Panda
217-222
Learning Tool for Dyslexia Affected Children

Ashwin K., Shubhangi Maheshwari and Abhishek Mundra
223-224
Contents
Saccharification of Wheat Bran and Kitchen Waste for Ethanol Production

Shelja and Rinku Walia
225-227
Indigenous Fish Farming Knowledge in Kutch District of Gujarat

S.R. Lende, S.I. Yusufzai and P.J. Mahida
228-230
Microcellular Bio-nanocomposite Foam as Sustainable Bone Scaffold Material

Sanchita Bandyopadhyay-Ghosh,Vasudha Batraand Subrata Bandhu Ghosh
231-231
Traditional Knowledge of Resource Use in Context to Ethno-Medicinal & Ethno-Veteniary Practices in

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand, India
Archana Sharma and Jayati Rawat
232-232
Some Stochastic Models for Spread of Infectious Diseases

E.S.V. Narayana Rao and P. Tirupathi Rao
233-233

Print ISSN: 2394-5820, Online ISSN: 2349-2539, Volume 2, Number 4; January-March, 2015, pp. 186-189
http://www.krishisanskriti.org/ijbab.html
Frequency of Salmonella Typhimurium in

Egg Shell and Determination of Antibiotic
Resistance of Isolates
Abbas Doosti*1, Esmaeil Mahmoudi2, Abbas Mokhtari-Farsani3 and Elham Doosti4
1,2,3,34
Biotechnology Research Center, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Branch, Shahrekord, Iran
Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Branch, Shahrekord166, Iran
E-mail: 1geneticsshki@yahoo.com, 2esmailmahmoodi72@gmail.com,
3amokhtarifarsani@yahoo.com, 4mokhtari.9572@gmail.com
Abstract: Egg products are most often associated with outbreaks of

Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) infection. Salmonella is
the leading cause of foodborne illnesses and several outbreaks have
been reported where eggs were the source of human infection. A total
of 230 samples were randomly collected from various shops in
Chaharmahal Va Bakhtiari province located in southwest of Iran.
Conventional biochemical and serological test methods were used to
identify the suspected salmonella. All the isolates were indicated the
zoonotic potential of S. typhimurium. An antimicrobial susceptibility
test was performed by using disk diffusion method. S. typhimurium
was detected in the egg contents of 21 samples (9.13 %) and 19
samples (8.26%) out of 230 samples by PCR and culture methods
respectively. The overall of isolated samples strains to antimicrobial
agents was 86.1% for Ampicillin, 86.1% for Cephalexin and 45% for
Kanamycin, have more resistant, respectively. The findings of the
present study indicate pandemic multiple drug resistant S.
typhimurium in egg shell samples; there is an urgent need to improve
the hygienic level of consumed eggs.
1. INTRODUCTION
Salmonella spp. is a major food-borne bacterial pathogen, with
poultry and poultry products being a primary source of
infection to humans. It has most often been associated with
consumption of contaminated foods of animal origin, such as
poultry, swine, dairy products and eggs [1]. Salmonella is a
rod-shaped, motile, aerobic and facultative anaerobic, nonspore forming and gram-negative organism. It can grow from
5C up to 47C with an optimum at 37C. Salmonella is a
general name used for a group of more than 2000 closely
related bacteria such as Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella
typhimurium, Salmonella Derby, Salmonella Infantis,
Salmonella Stanley and Salmonella Typhi. S. enteritidis (antiserum group D) and S. typhimurium (anti-serum group B) are
the most commonly reported serotypes involving in human
salmonellosis. According to the data provided by the
Department of Health (DH), S. typhimurium was the
commonest serotype isolated from human clinical specimens.
S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis are the most frequently

isolated serovar from foodborne outbreaks throughout the
world and are responsible for half of human infections. In
chicken it has been shown that both S. typhimurium and S.
enteritidis infect the reproductive tract and contaminate
forming eggs and thus can be present within the contents of
intact egg shells [2].
S. typhimurium infection of mice provides a wellcharacterized model for the pathogenesis of human typhoid
fever. Orally ingested bacteria penetrate the intestinal mucosa
and migrate via the lymph nodes to the spleen and liver to
cause systemic disease. The administration of antimicrobial
agents in chickens creates selection pressure that favors the
survival of antibiotic resistant pathogens. Multidrug-resistant
phenotypes have been increasingly described among
Salmonella species worldwide. Prevalence of antimicrobial
resistant Salmonella in broiler chicken and foods of animal
origin has been reported from India. Most other reports of
antibiotic resistance among Salmonella are from clinical
isolates such as S. typhimurium [3, 4].
The discovery of a cluster in the S. typhimurium plasmid for
the biosynthesis of fimbriae was the serendipitous result of a
search for genes. The pef (plasmid encoded fimbriae) locus
contains four genes (pefBACDI) named after the homology of
their products with those of other fimbrial operons, and
additional ORFs (orf5, orf6, orf7, orf8, orf9, and orf11) whose
function cannot be deduced from sequence analysis. In S.
typhimurium, pef genes carried on a multicopy plasmid
determine the formation of surface filamentous structures.
Transposon insertions in pefA, pefC, orf5 and orf6, but not in
orf8 (srgA), abolish the formation of fimbriae. The similarity
between the pefA genes of S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium
plasmids is 76% in nucleotide sequence, and 82% in the
deduced amino acid sequence [5, 6].
Freequency of Sallmonella Typhiimurium in Eggg Shell and Deetermination off Antibiotic Reesistance of Isoolates
Thhe aim of this study was to determining the
t prevalencee of
Salmonella on egg shell usin
ng conventionnal microbioloogy
dettection compaared to that deetected using pefA gene off S.
typphimurium by PCR techniqu
ue and in vitroo susceptibilityy of
thee isolates to varrious antibioticcs.
2. MATERIAL
LS AND MET
THODS
2.11. Egg sampless
Ovverall, a total of
o 230 chicken
n eggs samplees were random
mly
colllected from various
v
shops in Chaharmaahal Va Bakhtiiari
proovince locatedd in southwest of Iran over a period of thhree
moonths (August - October 2014
4). Each samplle assessed for the
tottal bacterial viable count and
d coliform couunt by pour pllate
meethod. Also, deetection of Salm
monella was peerformed.
187
sampless was examineed by electropphoretic analyssis through a

2% agarose gel. The plasmid
p
encodeed fimbriae (peef) gene of S.
typhimuurium was successfully ampllified with thee pafA-1 and
pefA-2 primers. Agaarose gel elecctrophoresis of
o the PCR
amplifieed products is shown in Figg. 1. From 2300 Salmonella
sampless which assayyed by PCR in this research, only 21
sampless (9.13%) weree positive (479 bp fragment).
The resuults of the stanndard disc diffuusion tests and antibiogram
of seleccted isolates arre given in Tabble 1. Antibioggram studies
revealedd that S. typhimurium isolatees were totallyy resistant to
Ampicillin, Cephalexxin and Kanam
mycin. Isolates were highly
sensitivve to Norfloxaacin (100%), Chlorampheniicol (87.3%)
and Geentamycin (700.6%). S. typhhimurium isolaates showed
poor susceptibility to Tetracycline, and
a Kanamycinn.
2.22. Conventionaal microbiolog

gy detection
Thhe collected sam
mples were inccubated in sterrile conditions on
Sallmonella Shiggella Agar (SS
SA) environm
ment for 24 h at
37C.
2.33. Antimicrobiial susceptibillity testing
includinng
Thhe
antimicrrobial
drugs,
Ampicillin,
Chhloramphenicoll, Gentamyciin, Kanamyccin, Cephalexxin,
Tettracycline and Norfloxacin were
w
used. Muueller Hinton agar
a
waas used as grow
wth media. Th
he results weree interpreted affter
24 h of incubaation at 37C
C, as sensitivee, intermediattely
sennsitive, and ressistant accordin
ng to the zonee diameter arouund
eacch antibiotic diisk.
2.44. DNA preparration and PC
CR assay
Geenomic DNA was extracteed using DNA
A extraction kit
(Qiagen, Germanny), according
g to manufactuurers instructioons
andd assayed on 2%
2 agarose geel electrophoresis and measuured
at 260 nm opticaal density acco
ording to the method
m
describbed
by Sambrook annd Russell. Salmonella
S
speecific pefA geene
seqquences of Sallmonella 479 bp,
b pefA-1 TTC
C CAT TAT TG
GC
AC
CT GGG TG pefA-2
p
GGC ATC
A
TTT CGC
C TGT GGC TT
weere used as priimers in this study.
s
PCR waas performed inn a
finnal volume of 25 l containiing 25 mM MgCl2,
M
10 mM
M of
dN
NTPs, 1.5 U of
o Taq DNA polymerase
p
, 10
1 pmol of eaach
priimer, 5 L of 10X
1
PCR bufffer and 80 ng of
o DNA templaate.
Thhe mixture wass subjected to 30 cycles of amplification
a
inn a
theermal cycler. The
T first cycle was precededd by denaturattion
forr 2 min at 95C
C. Each cycle consisted
c
of deenaturation forr 30
s at
a 95C, annealling for 30 s at
a 64C, and elongation for 30
3 s
at 72C. The lastt cycle was folllowed by a finnal elongation for
5 min
m at 72C. The
T PCR prod
ducts were anaalysed on a 1.5%
(w
w/v) agarose gell electrophoressis.
3. RESULTS
Fig. 1 :A
Agarose gel elecctrophoresis of the products am
mplified with
PCR using
u
the speciffic primers for S.
S typhimurium in egg shell
sampless. M; DNA ladd
der, Lane 1, 3, 4 and 6; PCR prroducts of the
posiitive samples, Lane
L
2 and 5; neegative sampless, Lane 7;
neegative control sample
Taable 1: Antibioggram studies byy disc diffusion method
m
Antim
microbial
drrugs
Ampicillin (15
g/disc))
Chloram
mphenicol
(30 g/ddisc)
Cephaleexin
(30g/ddisc)
Kanamyycin
(30g/ddisc)
Gentam
mycin
(10g/ddisc)
Tetracyycline
(30g/ddisc)
Norfloxxacin
(10g/ddisc)
Complete Interm
mediate Suscep
ptible Total
resistance
resisstance
(%
%)
(%
%)
(%)
86.1
133.9
0
100
0
422.7
87..3
100
86.1
133.9
100
45
277.5
27..5
100
299.4
70..6
100
13.5
422.6
43..9
100
100
100
4. DIS
SCUSSION
Perrforming micrrobiological teests showed thhat the egg shhell

conntents of 230 samples 19 (8
8.26%) samplees were suspeccted
Salmonella genuus. The quality
y of the extraacted DNA frrom
Salmonella is a genuus of the famiily Enterobacteeriaceae [7].

Before 1983, the existtence of multipple Salmonellaa species was
Internaational Journall of Basic and Applied

A
Biologgy
Print ISSN: 23
394-5820, Onlline ISSN: 2349-2539, Volum
me 2, Number 4;
4 January-Marrch, 2015
188
Abbas Doosti, Esmaeil Mahmoudi, Abbas Mokhtari-Farsani and Elham Doosti
taxonomically accepted. Since then, as a result of experiments

indicating a high degree of DNA similarity, all Salmonella
isolates were classified in a single species, Salmonella
Choleraesuis. This species was subsequently sub classified
into seven subgroups based on DNA similarity and host range.
Subgroup I contains almost all the serotypes pathogenic for
humans .In 1999, Euzeby proposed to designate Salmonella
enteric as a neotype species and replace type species of the
genus Salmonella from S. choleraesuis to S. enterica [8].
There are more than 2435 known serotypes of Salmonella and
many of these serotypes are well documented human
pathogens [9]. S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis are the most
frequently isolated serovar from foodborne outbreaks
throughout the world and are responsible for half of human
infections [10]. In chicken it has been shown that both S.
typhimurium and S. enteritidis infect the reproductive tract and
contaminate forming eggs and thus can be present within the
contents of intact egg shells. Persistence of Salmonella in the
environment is an important characteristic in its prevalence.
Organism penetrates inside the egg from the ovary directly or
through contamination of the egg shell [11].
PCR is a sensitive method with a superior ability to detect
Salmonella spp. in the presence of other competing bacteria
[1]. In current study, microbiological tests showed that 19 of
230 the egg shell infection to Salmonella (8.26%) in other
hand PCR test showed that 21of 230 the egg shell infection to
S. typhimurium. In other study, S. enteritidis is the most
frequently isolated serovar from the egg shells and egg
contents in some countries such as Turkey [12]. Although
some authors mentioned that the most frequent isolate from
eggs in Isfahan, Iran was Enterobacter erogenes, E. coli,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Buttiauxella agrestis, Cedecea
lapagei, Cedecea davisae, Erwinia herbicola and Psedumonas
aeruginosa were the most common isolated species [13]. Even
though the original population of S. typhimurium in liquid egg
seems to be low, they have the ability to increase to a disease
causing level. Temperature abuse of the egg product can lead
to higher numbers of organisms that may not be completely
eliminated by current pasteurization protocols; moreover, the
increased resistance of S. typhimurium and in undesirable
circumstances such as salted egg yolk products have been
previously documented [2].
Resistant bacteria are routinely isolated from a variety of
foods, including poultry meat and eggs [12]. Antibiogram
patterns for Salmonella isolates are summarized in Table 1.
Most of the 100 isolates in this study were susceptible and
intermediate resistance. Antimicrobial agents for many
Salmonella isolates exhibited resistance were Ampicillin
86.1%, Cephalexin 86.1% and Kanamycin (45%). In similar
study, Musgrove et al., (2005) demonstrated the susceptibility
of various salmonella to several antimicrobial drugs and
reported high resistance to Nalidixic acid 63%, Tetracycline
63%, Streptomycin 63%, Ampicillin 61% and Kanamycin
61% [12]. In our assay no samples were resistance to
Norfloxacin. Although, pan et al studiy on resistance antibiotic

isolates salmonella of shell egg showed that 17.5% of samples
were resistance to Norfloxacin [14].
According to our results, it seems that S. typhimurium is the
most prevalent serotype of sell egg content contaminant in the
Southwest area of Iran and the PCR method could be used as a
reliable method of identifying Salmonella serovars; in
addition, this study confirmed that the shell egg is a significant
reservoir of foodborne pathogens such as S. typhimurium.
In summary, the results of standard disc diffusion method
indicate the limited therapeutic value of Ampicillin,
Cephalexin, and Kanamycin against S. typhimurium.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank all the staff at the
Biotechnology Research Center of the Islamic Azad
University of Shahrekord for their important technical and
clinical support.
REFERENCES
[1] Loongyai, W., Promphet, K., Kangsukul, N., and Noppha, R.,
"Detection of Salmonella in Egg Shell and Egg Content from
Different Housing Systems for Laying Hens", World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology, 41, 2010, pp. 121-123.
[2] Jebelli Javan, A., Staji, H., Ghazvinian, K., Javaheri Vayeghan,
A., Salimi, M. R., and Mahdavi, A., "Prevalence of Salmonella
spp. in the quail egg interior contents: Aprovincial study",
Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 6, 2012, pp. 191-196.
[3] Harsha, H. T., Reshmi, R., Varghese, R., Divya, P. S., Mujeeb
Rahiman, K. M., and Mohamed Hatha, A. A., "Prevalence and
antibiotic resistance of Salmonella from the eggs of commercial
samples", Journal of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 3,
2011, pp. 93-100.
[4] Jones, B. D., and Falkow, S., "Salmonellosis: host immune
responses and bacterial virulence determinants" Annual Review
of Immunology, 14, 1996, pp. 529-533.
[5] Rotger, R., and Casadess, J., "The virulence plasmids of
Salmonella", International Microbiology, 2, 1999, pp. 177184.
[6] Rioux, C. R., Friedrich, M. J., and Kadner, R. J., "Genes on the
90-kilobase plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium confer lowaffinity cobalamin transport: Relationship to fimbria
biosynthesis genes", Journal of Bacteriology, 172, 1990, pp.
62176222.
[7] Farmer, J. J., "Enterobacteriaceae: introduction and
identification. PP. In P.R. Murray, E.J. Baron, M.A. Pfaller.
Manual of clinical microbiology, 6th ed. American Society for
Microbiology, 1995,pp. 438449.
[8] Cheng-Hsun, C., Lin-Hui, S., and Chishih, C., "Salmonella
enterica Serotype Choleraesuis: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis,
Clinical Disease, and Treatment", Clinical Microbiology
Reviews, 17, 2004, pp. 311322.
[9] Rahman, H., "Some aspects of molecular epidemiology and
characteristics of Salmonella typhimurium isolated from man

Print ISSN: 2394-5820, Online ISSN: 2349-2539, Volume 2, Number 4; January-March, 2015
Frequency of Salmonella Typhimurium in Egg Shell and Determination of Antibiotic Resistance of Isolates
and animals" Indian Journal of Medical Research, 115, 2002,
pp. 108-112.
[10] Herikstad, H., Motarjemi, Y., and Tauxe, R. V., "Salmonella
surveillance: a global survey of public health serotyping.
Epidemiology & Infection, 2002, 129, pp. 1-8.
[11] Nazer, A. H. K. and Safari GH., "Bacterial flora from dead-inshell chicken embryos and their drug resistance in Fars Province
of Iran", Indian Journal of Animimal Sciences, 64, 1994, pp.
1006-1009.
[12] Musgrove, M. T., Jones, D. R., Northcutt, J. K., Harrison, M. A.,
and Cox, K. D., "Ingram. Recovery of Salmonella from
189
commercial shell eggs by shell rinse and shell crush

methodologies", Poultry Science, 84, 2005, pp. 1955-1958.
[13] Mahdavi, M., Jalali, M., Ghasemian Safaei, H., and Shamloo,
E., "Microbial quality and prevalence of Salmonella and Listeria
in eggs. International Journal of Environmental Health
Engineering, 1, 2012, pp. 16-20.
[14] Pan, Z., Wang, X., Zhang, X., Geng, S., Chen, X., and Pan, W.,
"Changes in antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella enterica
subspecies enterica serovar pullorum isolates in China from
1962 to 2007", Veterinary Microbiology, 136, 2009, pp. 387392.


Management and Engineering in Rural Areas

Sustainability Issue and Gap Analysis of
Productivity of Different Crops and Resources
Girish Deshmukh1*, Minaxi Bariya2, Smit Lende3 and Ramchandra Khileri4
1
PG Scholar, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat

2
SMS Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat
3,4
PG Scholar, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat
E-mail: *251girish@gmail.com
AbstractA sustainable farming system is a system in which natural

resources are managed so that potential yield and the stock of
natural resources do not decline over time. However, each of the
components of sustainable agriculture is complex and some
quantifiable measures are needed to check whether a farming system
is sustainable or not. The sustainability issue of the crop productivity
is fast emerging. The agricultural productivity attained during the
1980s will not been sustained during the 2020s and has posed a
challenge for the researchers to shift the production function upward
by improving the technology index. The yield gap analysis of major
field crops and enterprises was compiled by KVK (Krishi Vigyan
Kendra) team by identifying different farming situations with respect
to personal interact with progressive farmers. This study was carried
out with following objectives To reduce the yield gap in important
crops and increase production and productivity in agriculture and
allied sectors through focused and holistic initiatives and To
maximize income of farmers in agriculture and allied sectors. It calls
for an examination of issues related to the trends in the agricultural
productivity, particularly with reference to individual crops grown in
the Gujarat states of Amreli district under the Junagadh Agricultural
University, Junagadh, Gujarat. KVK have adopted total fifteen no. of
villages from which nine villages selected for the study, in which
popular one crop is demonstrated with improved practices in each
village.
agriculture and allied sectors through forcused and holistic

initiatives. To maximize income of farmers in agriculture and
allied sectors.
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Researcher is working in the KVK (Krishi Vigyan Kendra) at
Amreli district under the Junagadh Agricultural University,
Junagadh, Gujarat. KVK have adopted total 15 no. of villages
from which nine villages selected for the study, in which
popular one crop is demonstrated with improved practices in
each village.
Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Keywords: Sustainability, gap analysis, productivity, resources
1. INTRODUCTION
A sustainable farming system is a system in which natural
resources are managed so that potential yield and the stock of
natural resources do not decline over time. However, each of
the components of sustainable agriculture is complex and
some quantifiable measures are needed to check whether a
farming system is sustainable or not. he yield gap analysis of
major field crops and enterprises was compiled by
KVK(Krishi Vigyan Kendra)s team by identifying different
farming situations with respect to personal interact with
progressive farmers in the district. This study was carried out
with these following objectives :1. To reduce the yield gap in
important crops and increase production and productivity in
Table 1: Selected villages with crop demonstrated

Village
Taluka
Crop
(Block)
Mota bhandariya
Amreli
Groundnut
Sanosara
Amreli
Cotton
Ponjapadar
Liliya
Gram
Godhavadar
Liliya
Sorghum
Boradi
Dhari
Maize
Kathrota
Dhari
Green Gram
Gigasan
Dhari
Sesame
Mota agariya
Rajula
Pearl millet
Pipavav
Rajula
Wheat
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2: Sustainability issue and gap analysis productivity of
different crops and resources
N
o
1
a
Factors/
Constraints
Leading to
gap
Groundnut
Imbalance use
of
fertilizer
due to lack of
knowledge
Strategies
Approach and
methodology
Performance
indicators/
output
To popularize
the integrated
nutrient
management
practices
Creating
awareness
and
adoption of INM
through
demonstration,tra
ining,etc.
Improvement
in soil health,
productivity,
enhancement
(8-10%)
Management and Engineering in Rural Areas Sustainability Issue and Gap Analysis of Productivity of
Different Crops and Resources
2
a
Weed problem
due to lack of
knowledge
about
scientific weed
management
To popularize
integrated
weed
management
Creating
awareness
and
adoption of IWM
through
demonstration,tra
ining,shibir,literat
ure etc.
Non
Establishment Creating
availability of of
seed awareness
for
improved
selling
quality seeds
varieties
of centers
seeds
Cotton
Imbalance use To popularize Creating
of
fertilizer the integrated awareness
and
due to lack of nutrient
adoption of INM
knowledge
management through
practices
demonstration,tra
ure etc.
Weed problem To popularize Creating
due to lack of integrated
awareness
and
knowledge
weed
adoption of INM
about
management through
scientific weed
demonstration,tra
management
ure etc.
Insect
pest Integrated
Creating
problem due pest
awareness
and
to lack of Management adoption of INM
knowledge of
through
insect
and
demonstration,tra
their
management
ure etc
problem
Reddening of Spraying of Creating
cotton due to potassium
awareness
and
micronutrient nitrate
and adoption of INM
deficiency
other
through
micronutrient demonstration,tra
s
ure etc
Non
Establishment Creating
availability of of
seed awareness
for
seed
selling selling
quality seeds and
center
of counters by establishment of
Gujarat seed Gujarat State seed
selling
corporation
seed
counters
certificate
Agency
at
taluka level
or
strengthening
co-operative
structures
Reduction in
weed menance,
labour, saving,
increase
in
productivity
(15-20%)
3
a
Gram
Use
of
inferior
quality seeds
of
local
variety due to
lack
of
awareness
low SRR
Less adoption
of
seed
treatment due
to lack of
awareness
and
nonavailability of
seed
treatment
material
leading
to
wilt problem
Sorghum
Use
of
inferior
quality seeds
of
local
variety due to
lack
of
awareness
Timely
sowing, quality
seeds
and
better harvest
(10-15%)
Improvement
in soil health,
productivity,
enhancement
(9-12%)
Reduction in
weed menace
and increase in
productivity
(10-15%)
Management
of insect pests
leads
to
increased yield
(5-7%)
4
a
Increase
in
productivity
(10-15%)
Timely sowing
of
quality
seeds leads to
better harvest
(3-5%)
5
a
Maize
Use
of
inferior
quality seeds
of
local
variety due to
lack
of
awareness
Green gram
Problem of
viral diseases
due to use of
susceptible
local seeds,
poor
management
practices
191
Increase seed
replacement
ratio
and
quality seed
productivity
through seed
village.
Create
awareness
for
proper
storage
of
seed
Popularize
the
importance
of
seed
treatment
with
fungicides/bi
opresticides
for managing
wilt diseases
Create
awareness
about the importance
of improved variety
as worthiness of
variety
through
demonstration.
Supplying seeds as
mini kits. Innovates
for seed production at
village level
Increased
area
under
improved
variety
Educating
and
motivating farmers
about importance of
seed treatment and
adoption
through
demonstrations,
training,shibirs and
field days,
Reductio
n in seed
borne
diseases.
Increase seed
replacement
ratio
and
quality seed
production
through seed
village.
Create
awareness
for
proper
storage
of
seeds
Create
awareness
about
improved
variety as worthiness
of variety through
demonstration.
Supplying seed as
mini kits.
Innovate
the
progressive farmers
village level.
Increased
area
under
improved
variety
Increase seed
replacement
ratio
and
quality seed
production
through seed
village.
Create seed
awareness
for
proper
storage
of
seeds
Create
awareness
about
improved
variety as worthiness
of variety through
demonstration.
Supplying seed as
mini kits.
Motivate
the
progressive farmers
village level.
Increased
area
under
improved
variety
Popularize
tolerant
varieties of
green gram
and
management
practices
Creating awareness
and increase adoption
of tolerant varieties
of green gram and
disease management
practices
through
demonstration,trainin
g,
Shibir
Increased
productio
n
of
pulses

Girish Deshmukh, Minaxi Bariya, Smit Lende and Ramchandra Khileri
192
7
a
8
a
Sesame
Low
germination
due
to
improper
placement of
seed and lack
of knowledge
about that of
Low adoption
of improved
package
practices due
to lack of
awareness
Insect
pest
and disease
problem due
to lack of
knowledge of
their
management
options
Maintain
plant
population
and
land
configuration
High
seed
rate
and
sowing in flat
land
Pearl millet
Low adoption
of improved
package
of
practices due
to lack of
awareness
Insect
pest
and disease
problem due
to lack of
knowledge of
their
management
options
Maintain
plant
population
and
land
configuration
high seed rate
and sowing in
flat land
To
Creating awareness Increased
popularize
through
yield (5scientific
demonstration
8%)
package of ,training,shibir,literat
practices
ure etc
To
Creating awareness
popularize
and
adoption
of
scientific
scientific package of
package of practices
through
practices
demonstration,trainin
g,field
days,shibir,lirerature
etc
Integrated
Creating awareness
pest
and and adoption of IPM
disease
through
management demonstration,
training,
Shiber,literature etc.
Increased
in
the
productio
n
(1012%)
Manage
ment of
insect
pest and
disease
lead to
increased
yield ()
Thinning and Creating awareness Increased
sowing on and adoption thinning in yield
ridge
and and
land (2-5%)
furrow
configuration through
demonstration,
training,
shibir,literature etc.
To
Creating awareness
popularize
and
adoption
of
scientific
scientific package of
package of practices by means of
practices
extension of tools
Integrated
pest
and
disease
management
Creating awareness
and adoption of IPM
through
demonstration,
training,
shibir,literature etc.
Increase
in
the
productio
n
Manage
ment of
insect
pest and
disease
leads to
increased
yield
Thinning and creating
awareness Increase
sowing on and adoption and in yield
ridge
and land
configuration
furrow
through
demonstration,
training,
shibir,liturature
9
a
Wheat
Use
of
inferior
quality seed
due to lack of
awareness
Increase seed
replacement
ratio
&
quality seed
production
through seed
village.
Create
awareness
for
proper
storage
of
seeds
Limited
Application
irrigation
of water at
facility due to critical
lack
of stages
knowledge of
critical stages
Weed
To
problem due popularize
to lack of integrated
knowledge
weed
about
management
scientific
weed
management
Create
awareness
about the importance
of improved variety
through
demonstration.
Innovate
the
progressive
farmer
village level
Increased
area
under
improved
variety
(5%)
Create
awareness
about critical stages
through
demonstration
Increase
in yield
(1012%)
Creating awareness
through
demonstration,
training,
shibir,literacture etc.
Reductio
n
in
weed
menace
and
increase
in
productiv
ity
(57%)
4. CONCLUSION
The sustainability issue of the crop productivity is fast
emerging. The productivity attained during the 1980s has not
been sustained during the 1990s and has posed a challenge
before the researchers to shift the production function by
improving the technology index. It has to be done by
appropriate technology interventions, judicious use of natural
resources and harnessing biodiversity. During the Green
Revolution era, large investments were made on research and
development for the irrigated agriculture. The promotion of
HYV seed - fertilizer - irrigation technology had a high payoff and rapid strides of progress were made in food
production.
References
[1]
[2]
Kumar P. and Mittal S., 2006. Agricultural Productivity Trends in India:

Sustainability Issues. Agricultural Economics Research Review Vol. 19
(Conference No.) 2006 pp 71-88.
Comprehensive District Agriculture Plan Amreli District July, 2012.


An Adsorption Study of Cr (III) and Fe (II) on

Khaya Senegalansis Leaves (Mahogany)
P.C. Verma
Department of Chemistry, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria
E-mail: drpcverma51@gmail.com
Abstract: An environmental friendly method for adsorption of Cr

(III) and Fe (II) has been investigated using Khaya senegalensis
leaves. The effect of pH on adsorption of the studied analyte has been
investigated. The result of the study indicated a maximum adsorption
of 81% for Cr (III) at pH6. And maximum adsorption of 80% for Fe
(II) at pH4. The target analytes were determined by wagtech
photometer 7100.
1. INTRODUCTION
Chromium and Iron are continuously released into natural
environment due to industrial activities, weathering of rocks
and soils, combustion of fossil fuels, agricultural activities,
atmospheric emission, and mining activities. Speciation
analysis of trace amounts of chromium ions has become an
important topic in environmental and biological science. It is
well known that the toxicological and biological properties of
most elements depend upon their chemical forms. Therefore,
the knowledge on the speciation of chromium is of particular
necessity. Chromium is widely used in various industries, such
as plating, tanning, paint and pigment production, and
metallurgy, which possibly contaminate the environment.
Chromium (III) compounds are one of the essential trace
nutrients in human bodies and play an important role in the
metabolism of glucose and certain lipids, whereas chromium
(VI) compound are toxic and carcinogenic. The United State
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has regulated the
permissible limit of 0.1 mgl-1 of total Chromium in drinking
water. In Japan, the maximum tolerable concentration of
Chromium in waste water is 0.5 and 0.05 mgl-1for total
chromium. The element Chromium occurs in natural samples
in two relatively stable valence states, i.e. in the form of
Cr(III) and Cr(VI) species, which exert quit different effects
on biological system. In fact, while Cr (III) is an essential
component having an important role in the glucose, lipid and
protein metabolism, Cr (VI) has a definitely adverse impact on
living organism. Cr (VI) can easily penetrate the cell wall and
exert itself. The importance of Chromium speciation in plants
may be illustrated by the fact that, to maintain good health,
humans require an adequate daily intake of nutrients,
including essential trace elements such as chromium, cobalt,
copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc
and several other micro-elements found mostly in vegetables.

It is therefore essential to ascertain in which form Chromium
is present in plant tissues as well as the extent of their
accumulation, because plant derived Chromium containing
food materials, primarily from vegetable crops, provide a
major portion of the daily Chromium intake. Another example
of the importance of Cr (VI) speciation is connected with the
possibility of its presence in medicinal plants.
Since one of the routes of Chromium incorporation into the
human body is by ingestion, several analytical methods have
been developed in order to separate and determine Cr(III) and
Cr(VI) species in water samples. The concentration of
Chromium in natural water is very low, in order of a few gl-1,
therefore powerful techniques are required but of those
currently available only a few show sufficient detection power.
Despite the fact that iron is the second most abundant metal in
the earth crust, iron deficiency is the worlds common cause of
anemia. When it comes to life, iron is more precious than gold.
The body hoards the element so effectively that over millions
of years of evolution, humans have developed no
physiological means of iron extraction. Iron adsorption is the
sole mechanism by which iron stores are physiologically
manipulated. The average adult stores about 1 to 3 grams of
iron in his or her body. An exquisite balance between dietary
uptake and loss maintains this balance. About 1 mg of iron is
lost each day through sloughing of cell from skin and mucosal
surfaces, including the lining of the gastrointestinal tract [1].
In northern Nigeria the Hausa and the Fulani tribes utilize
Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany) ethnomedicinally as a
remedy for several human and animals ailments [2].The plants
Khaya senegalensis is given different names by different
tribes. Hausa people called Khaya Senegalensis as Mahogany,
Yoruba people said Oganwa and Igbo people said Ono. Khaya
senegalensis is a savanna tree, easily recognized by its round
evergreen crown dark shinning foliage capsules. A tree of
Khaya senegalensis is 30m high and 3m width with dance
crown and short bole covered with dark scaly bark. The leaves
with 3-4 (exceptionally 5) pairs of leaflets, 5-10cm long by
2.55cm broad, more or less elliptic, round obtuse or shortly
P.C. Verma
194
acuminate at apex, stalk of leaf let 4mm long. It has attracted

worldwide attention for its high quality timber production.
The leaves and stem-back of Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany)
has been used in Adamawa state in Northern Nigeria in the
form of decoction and concoctions for the cure of mucous,
diarrhea, sypHilis pyrexia, Malaria fever [3]. The application
of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non
industrialized societies. This might be because pharmaceutical
drugs are expensive to be bought. In fact, world Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of the world
population presently use herbal medicine for some aspects of
primary health care. Among those of few herbal remedies
demonstrated positive effect on humans, many refer to animal
model experiments or invitro assays. Because of this strong
dependent on plants, a large number of studies have been
concluded on traditional medicine usage of plants and some
often showed scientific rationale or resulted in the isolation of
bioactive compounds for direct use in medicine. However,
stills very little are known about African traditional medicine
when compared to European and Asian system [4]. The
majority of works have been focused on laboratory studies
using plants extracts prepared by scientists after collecting
plant materials themselves.
Khaya senegalensis is a multipurpose African timber species.
The development of clonal propagation could improve
plantation establishment, which is currently impeded
mahogany shoot borer. To examine its potential for clonal
propagation, the effect of cutting length, leaf area, stock plant
maturation, auxin and smoke solution treatment were
investigated. Leafy cutting rooted well (up to 80%) compare
to leafless cutting (0%). Cutting taken from seedling rooted
well (at least 95%) but cuttings obtained from older trees
rooted poorly (5% maximum). The rooting ability of cuttings
collected from older trees was improved (16% maximum) by
pollarding. Auxin application enhanced root length and the
number of roots while smoker solution did not improved
cuttings rooting ability. These results medicate that juvenile
khaya senegalensis is enable to clonal propagation, but further
work is required to improve the root cuttings from mature
trees [5].
These metals are needed in every small quantity for the proper
functioning of the system for both plants and animals. But if
released into the biosphere in large quantity, they undergo a
cyclical process through biotic and abiotic means, and are
converted into toxic substances that can affect the ecosystem.
In view of the above, the qualification of trace metals at very
low concentrations is becoming the requirement of
environmental assessment studies.
The commonly used analytical technique for trace metal
analysis in environmental samples includes:- FAAS;
coprecipitation of heavy metals with erbium hydroxide for
their flame atomic absorption spectrometric determinations in
environmental samples, use of chelating resins and inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry for simultaneous

determinations of trace and major elements in small volumes
of saline water samples.
Nowadays, the potentialities of biological materials including
algae, plant leaves and root tissues, bacteria, fungi and yeast as
adsorbents of metals in aqueous solution have been
extensively explored. Basically the accumulation of metals by
biological materials is called biosorption. Biosorption can be
broadly categorized into two parts: (a)biosorptive (passive)
uptake by the use of non living biomass, and (b) bio
accumulation by applying living cells [6].
The mechanisms of cell surface sorption are independent of
cell metabolism; they are based upon physicochemical
interactions between metal functional (polysacchandes, lipids
and proteins) of the cell wall [ 7] speciation of Cr (III) and Cr
(VI) in waters using immobilized mass and determination by
ICP-MS and FAAS. But, on the contrary bioaccumulation is
an intracellular metal accumulation process which involves
metal binding on intercellular compounds, intercellular
precipitation and methylation depends on the cell metabolism;
it can be inhibited by metabolic Inhibitors such as low
temperature and lack of energy sources.
In this study, the possibility of using KhayaSenegalensis
leaves as a biosorbent was explored. From literature scanning
we were made to believe that no studies have in the past been
conducted on adsorption of Fe (II) and Cr (III) on Khaya
Senegalensis leaves.
The Botanical description of Khaya senegalensis is given as
follows:
Common name: African mahogany, Benin mahogany,

Dry zone mahogany, Senegal mahogany
Botanical name: khaya senegalensis
Family: melieceace (Neem family)
Synonyms: swieteria senegalensis
Significance Of The Study

The research work is important in several reasons:
Firstly, the research work is important in terms of determining
the level of Chromium and Iron on Mahogany leaves (Khaya
Senegalensis)
Secondly, it will provide comprehensive information to
students who might wish to further the research process.
Thirdly, this research work will lead to further in-depth
research on the determination of levels of chromium and Iron
on mahogany leaves.
Lastly, the research work will serve as a contribution to
knowledge in the area of determining Chromium & Iron on

An Adsorption Study Of Cr (III) and Fe (II) on Khaya Senegalansis Leaves (Mahogany)
Mahogany leaves (Khaya Senegalensis), in this regard it will

be useful for other researchers who might want to carryout
research in related areas.
Aim and Objectives
This research is aimed at investigating the adsorption of
Chromium (III) and Iron (II) on leaves powder of Mahogany
(Khaya Senegalensis).
The main objective of the study is to explore the possibility of
Chromium (III) and Iron (II) adsorption on Khaya
Senegalensis leaves (Mahogany).
Botany, Description And Distribution Of Khaya Senegalensis
Khaya senegalensis is a large and study tree of meliaceae
family. Also named Senegal mahogany, it is a forestry species
well known and exploited by Africans. It pinnate leaves,
glabrous with 6 and 12 alternate or opposite ellipticcaloblong
leaflets. At the flowering, Khaya senegalensis twigs curry at
their end panicles of small while flowers consisting of
successive whorls of four floral parts. Its fruits are capsules
with thick and woody seed coat. These capsules are dehiscent
and have four valves that allow to sell the flat seeds closely
applied against each other.
Chemical Composition of Khaya Senegalensisomposition
of Khaya S
The determination of chemical composition of Khaya
senegalensis has a long history that began on 19th century with
convention who revealed in a macerated bark, nonnitrogenous pieroresin which hecailcedrin, some coloring
substances, sulphate of lime, chloride of lime, phosphate of
lime, gum, starch, wax and very small amount of full. A
century later, [8] found in the leave of khaya seneganelensis,
2% sucrose, saponin and better principle obtained with
varying yields 0.90% in the bark of the trunk [4].
Biochemical And Tissue Effect Of Khaya Senegalensis
Extracts
Studies from various backgrounds have shown that organs
extracts of Khaya senegalensis induce signification changes in
blood biochemical parameters [3] after a physiochemical
study, indicated that the extracted oil from the seeds of this
plant is rich in bioactive substances that induce prophylactic
and therapeutic effects.
Toxicological Risks
According to [9] the aqueous extract of leaves of Khaya
senegalensis is not toxic. Indeed at the end of a study
conducted by them on rate in Nigeria; these authors reported
that the extract is greater than 3000 mg kg-1body weight. Long
treatments also cause elevation of serum creatinine and blood
urea which reflects renal dysfunction.
195
A rick acute toxicity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of

leaves of khaya senegalensis have been suspected in [5]. These
authors assessed the sensitivity of chironomid leaves to
aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the plant in aquatic
environment. The result indicated the aqueous and ethanolic
extracts were 1.39g/l and 1.20g/l respectively and a deformity
of mouthpart, change in body coloration, packing of certain
body segments with black particles.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
Wagtech photometer 7100 modal

Centrifuge machine TDL 50B
3505 JENWAY pH Meter
Reagents
Ferrous Chloride (FeCl2)
Chromium Chloride (CrCl3)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
SulpHuric acid (H2SO4)
Ammonia solution (NH3)
Standard stock solutions containing (1.000g/l) of Cr (III) and
Fe(II) were prepared separately by dissolving CrCl3. 6H2O (
LOBA CHEMIE PVT LTD, Mumbai 400005. India) and
FeCl2 (B.D.H. Chemical LTD, Poole England) in 2% HCl and
20% H2SO4.
Preperation of Adsorbent
The fresh leaves of Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany) were
collected from Khaya senegalensis tree. It was dried in room
temperature and grounded into powder by motar and pestle
and then stored for future use as adsorbent.
3. PROCEDURE
(i) Sample solution containing 2g /l of the analytes iron (II)
and chromium (III) were prepared by appropriate of these
stock solution with distilled water and then adjusted to the
desired pH value (1-6) with 1.0 mol/l ammonia solution
or hydrochloric acid before use.
(ii) 0.5g of khayas senegalensis leaves powder was place into
a test tube containing 10ml of the pH adjusted( 1- 6)
sample solution of the analytes.
(iii) The test tube were centrifuged at 500 rpm for 10 minutes
and 5ml of the supernatant was pipette into separate clean
test tubes for determinate respectively.
(iv) One H.R iron tablet was added into each supernatant
obtained from (iii) above and kept to stand for a minute to
allow full colour formation.
(v) An appropriate wavelength of the analytes were selected
on a wagtech photometer and the sample were inserted in
to the photometer separately and the result were recorded
respectively.

P.C. Verma
196
(vi) The above procedure was repeated for blank

determination without the analytes. During the process of
the data analysis, all values obtained were corrected by
subtracting the values of procedural blank.

Results
Table 1: pH and sample solution (supernatant) of Fe(II)
pH
Mean SD gl-1
1
2.02 1.43
2
2.34 1.66
3
2.74 2.08
4
3.21 2.27
5
3.21 2.27
6
2.85 1.96
Table 2: pH and the solution without leaves
powder (Blank) of Fe (II)
pH range
Mean SD gl-1
1
2.71 1.91
2
3.02 2.13
3
3.51 2.48
4
3.61 2.54
5
3.62 2.55
6
3.52 2.48
Table 3: Effect of pH on adsorption of the Fe (II) on
Khaya senegalensis leaves (Mahogany)
pH
Blank solution minus
Adsorption in gl-1
analyte in gl-1
1
2.71-2.02
0.69
2
3.02-2.34
0.68
3
3.51-2.84
0.67
4
3.61-3.21
0.40
5
3.62-3.21
0.41
6
3.52-2.85
0.66
5. CALCULATIONS
The original sample used was 2ppm therefore to calculate %
record after adsorption according to the pH.
0.68
0.69
x 100 35%, pH 2
x 100 34%,
2
2
0.40
0.67
pH 3\
x 100 33%, pH 4
x 100 20%,
2
2
0.66
0.41
pH 5
x 100 21%, pH 6
x 100 33%,
2
2
pH 1
pH
1
2
3
4
Table 4: Adsorption of Fe (II)

Adsorption (%)
(100-35) = 65
(100-34) = 66
(100-33) = 67
(100-20) = 80
5
6
(100-21) = 79
(100-33) = 67
Table 5: Effect of pH on adsorption percentage (%) fo Iron (II)

on khaya Senegalensis leaves (Mahogany).
pH range (x)
Adsorption (%)
1
65
2
66
3
67
4
80
5
79
6
67
Effect of pH on adsorption of iron

Effect of pH on adsorption of Fe (II) on Khaya senegalensis
leaves has been studied. The pH of the sample solution
containing 2g / l of the analyte was adjusted to a pH range of
(1-6) by adding 1.0 mol / l NH3 solution or HCl. Fig.1
represents the effect of pH on adsorption of the target analyte
on khaya senegalensis leaf powder. As could be seen, the
maximum adsorption (80%) was obtained at pH4. Hence pH4
was adopted for all subsequent studies.
Fig. 1: Effect of pH on percentage (%) adsorption of Fe (II)

Table 6: pH and sample solution (supernatant) of chromium (III)
pH range
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean SD gl-1
1.64 1.16
1.94 1.37
2.41 1.70
2.82 1.99
2.81 1.98
2.43 1.55
Table 7: pH and the solution without leaves

powder (Blank) of Cr (III)
pH range
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean SD gl-1
2.11 1.49
2.64 1.88
3.30 2.33
3.33 2.35
3.32 2.34
2.81 3.94

An Adsorption Study Of Cr (III) and Fe (II) on Khaya Senegalansis Leaves (Mahogany)
197
Table 8: Effect of pH on adsorption of Chromium (III) on khaya

senegalensis leaves (Mahogany).
pH range
Blank solution minus

analyte in gl-1
2.11-1.64
2.64-1.94
3.30-2.41
3.33-2.82
3.32-2.81
2.81-2.43
1
2
3
4
5
6
Adsorption in gl-1
0.47
0.70
0.89
0.51
0.51
0.38
6. CALCULATIONS
Fig. 2: The effect of pH on adsorption of Cr(III) on khaya

senegalensis (Mahogany)
7. CONCLUSION
The original sample used was 2ppm therefore to calculate %

record after adsorption according to the pH range.
0.47
0.70
pH 1
x 100 24%, pH 2
x 100 35%,
2
2
0.89
0.51
pH 3\
x 100 45%, pH 4
x 100 26%,
2
2
0.51
0.38
pH 5
x 100 26%, pH 6
x 100 19%,
2
2
An environmental friendly, inexpensive bio-sorbent of khaya

senegalensis leaves (Mahogany) for the adsorption of Cr (III)
and Fe(II) has been developed.
A maximum adsorption of about 81% for Cr (III) at pH6 and a
maximum adsorption of 80% for Fe (II) at pH4 were obtained
respectively. Although the adsorption was quantitative up to
90% but this may be attributed amount of adsorbent.
Table 9: Adsorption of Cr (III)

pH range
1
2
3
4
5
6
Adsorption (%)
(100-24) = 76
(100-35) =65
(100-45) = 55
(100-26) = 74
(100-26) = 74
(100-19) = 81
Table 10: Effect of pH on adsorption percentage (%) of

Chromium (III) on Khaya senegalensis leaves (Mahogany).
pH range (x)
Adsorption (%)
1
76
2
65
3
55
4
74
5
74
6
81
Effect of pH on adsortion of chromium (III)

Based on the experiment conducted, the result indicated that
the maximum adsorption of 81% was obtained at pH6. Hence
the pH for adsorption of Cr III using supernatant is pH6. From
the above table 10, plots a graph of pH range-x (axis) against
adsorption (%)-y (axis).
The effect of pH on adsorption of Cr (III) on khaya
senegalensis leaves has been investigated. The pH of the
sample solution containing 2g/l of the target analyte was
adjusted to a pH range of (1-6) by adding 1.0 mol / l NH3
solution or HCl. Figure 2 represents the effect of pH on
adsorption of Cr(III) on khaya senegalensis leaf powder. As
could be seen, maximum adsorption of (81%) was obtained at
pH6 was selected as the optimum pH6 for all subsequent
studies.
Hence, further studies need to be conducted on the following

parameters:- Amount of sorbent, type of eluent and its
concentration, sample volume co-existing ions etc.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Tchandon, S. D. Karou, K. Bata wila, Angban, A. Ouro
Bangne, K. Anani K.T. Gbeassor, M. and de souza, C. Herbal
remidies and their adverse effects in temtrise traditional
medicine in Togo, A.J. Team, 2011.
[2] Y. Y. Deeniand, N. M. Sadiq, (2012) on ethnomedicinal plant of
Hausa land Northern Nigeria.
[3] R. Ayo, O. T. Audu, and J. O. Amupitan, Physioco chemical
characterization and cytoxicity studies of seed extract of Khaya
senegalensis (Desr.). Afri J. Bistechnol., 2007; 6 (7): 894-896
[4] A. R. Ndhlala, G. I. Stafoord FINNIC (2009), pHarmaceutical,
effects of manufactured herbal concoctions used in KwazuluNatasouth . Africa, J. ethnopHamacol, 122: 117-122.
[5] J.A.Adakole and J.B. Balonu (2011) Acute exotocity of aqueous
and ethnolic extract of leaves of Khaya senealensis on
chiromomid larva. Braz. J. Aquat.
[6] D. Mohan, C.U. Pitman, Arsonic removal from water / waste
water using adsorbents a critical review, J. Hazard. Mater, 2007,
142, 53
[7] M.V. Balerama Krisna, K. Chandrese Karam, S,V. Rad, D.
Karanusagar. J. Aranuchalam, Speciation of Cr (III) and Cr (Vi)
in water using immobilized mass and determination by ICP-MS
and FAAS, Talanta, 2004, 2005, 65, 135
[8] Moyse-Mignon, H. 1942 Recherches Sur Quelques meliacees
africaines of sur Laves prinlciples amers university of paris.
Fracis. Thosis. 112.
[9] C.U. Nwosu, S.W.Hassan, M.G.Abuubakar and A.A. Ebbo anti
diarrhocial and toxicological studies of leaf extracts of Khaya
senegalensis J. PHarm Toxicals 2012; 7 (1): 1-10.


Isolation, Screening and Characterization of Lipase

Producing Strain from Oil Contaminated Soil of
Hubballi, Karnataka
Department of Biotechnology, B.V. Bhoomaraddi College of Engineering and Technology,
Vidyanagar, Hubballi580031, Karnataka
E-mail: mahalepooja25@gmail.com
AbstractThe present paper reports the isolation and identification

of lipase producing bacterial organism from oil contaminated soil.
The production of commercial enzymes, including lipase from
bacteria has always been the industrial choice due to its economical
and commercial feasibility. Three samples of soil were enriched to
isolate lipase producing bacteria and were screened for their
lipolytic activity. The best producer (DOD9) was characterized and
identified as Bacillus sp. and was studied for lipase activity. Maximal
lipase production was detected during the early stationary phase of
growth curve i.e. at 48 h of growth. Maximum enzyme activity was
recorded at a pH of 7.0 and temperature of 370C. For lipase
production, different substrate and nitrogen source were tested and it
was determined that the best substrate was waste groundnut oil and
the best nitrogen source was soya peptone. The study provides a good
mesophilic bacterial candidate for potential industrial production of
lipase.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lipase is an enzyme of considerable commercial and
industrial importance. Lipase(triacylglycerol acyl hydrolases
(E.C.3.1.1.3) belongs to the class of hydrolases which catalyze
the hydrolysis of triglycerides to glycerol and free fatty acids
over an oil-water interface and reverse the reaction in aqueous
and non-aqueous media. Lipases are reported to be monomeric
proteins, having molecular weight in the range of 19-60 kda.
The important properties of lipases are substrate specificity
(Glycerides are the natural substrate for lipases; they possess a
chiral alcohol moiety. It was understood that lipases were
particularly useful for the resolution or asymmetrization of
esters bearing a chiral alcohol moiety), stero-specificity and
the ability to catalyze heterogeneous reactions at the interface
of water soluble and water insoluble systems. The lipase
enzyme even shows stability to extremes of ph, temperature,
region and enantio-selectivity.
Lipases occur widely in nature but only microbial lipases are
significant. Microbial lipases are often more useful than
enzymes derived from plants or animals because of the great
variety of catalytic activities available, the high yields
possible, ease of genetic manipulation, regular supply due to
absence of seasonal fluctuations and rapid growth of
microorganisms on inexpensive media. Genetic and

environmental manipulation to increase the yield of cells, to
increase the enzyme activity of the cells by making the
enzyme of interest constitutive, or by inducing it, or to
produce altered enzymes, may be employed easily using
microbial cells because of their short generation times, their
relatively simple nutritional requirements, and since screening
procedures for the desired characteristic are easier.
Lipase-producing microorganisms have been found in diverse
habitats such as industrial wastes, vegetable oil processing
factories, dairies, soil contaminated with oil, etc many
microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast and fungi are known to
secret lipases. Of all these bacterial lipases are more
economical and stable. (Mukesh Kumar DJ et.al. 2012)
Lipases are used in detergent industry as additive in washing
powder, textile industry to increase fabric absorbency, for
synthesis of biodegradable polymers or compounds and
different trans-esterification reactions. In addition, lipase is
used as catalyst for production of different products used in
cosmetic industry, in pulp and paper industry, in synthesis of
biodiesel, degreasing of leather and in pharmaceutical
industry. Bacterial lipases are used extensively in food and
dairy industry for the hydrolysis of milk fat, cheese ripening,
flavor enhancement and lipolysis of butter fat. (E. Sirisha et.
al. 2010).
Bacterial lipases are mostly extracellular and are greatly
influenced by nutritional and physico-chemical factors, such
as temperature, ph, nitrogen and carbon sources, inorganic
salts, agitation and dissolved oxygen concentration. Since soil
is a reservoir of a large and diverse microbial population, we
investigated the ability of these microorganisms to produce
lipases. (Mobarak-Qamsari E, et. al. 2011)
Isolation, Screening and Characterization of Lipase Producing Strain from Oil Contaminated Soil of Hubballi, Karnataka
199
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.6.Lipase Enzyme production:
2.1 Collection of soil sample

A soil auger was used in collecting soil sample for analysis.
The soil sample for physiological analysis was collected with
unused plastic bag sealed with heavy-duty rubber bounds. All
samples were labeled with a permanent waterproof maker.
(Ajit kumar, et.al.2012)
The composition of production medium used in this study

was1.5g molasses, 1g soya peptone or yeast extract, 2.2ml
waste groundnut oil, 100ml d/w, 0.5g KH2PO4, 0.1g CaCo3,
0.1g (NH4)2SO4, 0.1g MgSO4.7H2O.Overnight cultures were
used as the inoculums. Submerged microbial cultures were
incubated in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 ml of
liquid medium on a rotary shaker (150 rpm) and incubated at
37C. After 24 hours of incubation, the culture was
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min at 4C and the cell free
culture supernatant fluid was used as the sources of
extracellular enzyme. The lipase activity in the supernatant
was determined by the titrimetric method. (M.Veeragapa, et.al)
2.2. Isolation of lipase producers

The soil samples were collected from different oil mills
located at Dharwar and Tarihal also from railway mechanical
workshop was enriched by periodic sub-culturing of samples
in Nutrient Broth (NB) media. They were aseptically subjected
to serial dilutions and plated on Nutrient Agar (NA) and
incubated at 37C for 24, 48 and 72 h. After incubation, 50
predominant bacterial colonies were isolated and screened for
lipase activity and then subjected to morphological, cultural
and biochemical examinations. (Ajit Kumar, et.al.2012)
2.3 Screening for lipase activity by Tributyrin Clearing
Zone (TCZ)
The predominant bacteria in the nutrient agar plate were
isolated and screened for lipolytic activity. Lipolysis is
observed directly by changes in the appearance of the
substrate such as tributyrin which are emulsified mechanically
in various growth media and poured into a petri dish. The
bacterial isolates were screened for lipolytic activity on agar
plates containing tributyrin (1%, w/v), agar (2%, w/v),
peptone(0.5g), beef extract(0.3g).Lipase production is
indicated by the formation of clear halo zone around the
colonies grown on tributyrin-containing agar plates.(Kalpana
Sagar, et.al.2013)
2.4 Characterization of Bacterial lipase producer
Halos around the colonies on tributyrin agar plates are
considered as positive colonies for lipase enzyme production.
Such colonies are isolated and identified by phenotypic
characterization based on morphological, biochemical and
physiological characters according to Bergeys Manual of
Systematic Bacteriology.(Kalpana Sagar, et.al.2013)
2.5.Optimization of media components protocol:

Effect of nitrogen sources Effect of nitrogen sources on the
lipase production was studied with organic nitrogen sources
Beef extract, casein, peptone; yeast extract, soya peptone, and
inorganic nitrogen sources urea at a final concentration of 1 %
(w/v) were added to the medium and incubated at 37C for 24
hrs in a rotary shaker (150 rpm).(M.Veeragapa,et.al) Effect of
substrate (oil) Effect of different waste oils (substrate) on
lipase production was studied using gingelly oil, olive oil,
sunflower oil, palm oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil at a
concentration of 2.2 ml were added to the medium and
incubated at 37C for 24 hrs in a rotary shaker (150 rpm).
(M.Veeragapa, et.al)
2.7.Lipase assay: Titrimetric method

Lipases can be viewed both as lipolytic and esterolytic
enzymes, being catalysts for a large number of esters. The
activity of lipases can thus be assayed by monitoring the
release of either fatty acids or glycerol from triacylglycerol or
fatty acid esters. Further, since lipases act at the oil water
interface, change in the properties of the interface is an
important criterion for measuring lipolysis. The 1ml crude
enzyme is mixed well with 9.9ml of distilled water and 0.1ml
of oil. Incubate at room temperature for 15 minutes and then
titrate against 0.05N NaOH using phenolphthalein indicator.

DOD9 isolated from Doddawad oil refineries was sub-cultured
on nutrient agar slants and used for further experimentatation.
This lipase producing micro-organism was characterized as
gram positive, spore forming, halophillic, mesophilic, motile,
aerobic and showed positive results to catalase test, casein
hydrolysis and starch hydrolysis. According to the observation
it was classified as Bacillus sp. The isolate produced
maximum lipase using waste groundnut oil and soya peptone
having activity 3.5U after 48 hours of incubation at 37C pH 7
and 150rpm this was concluded after optimization using
different waste oils and nitrogen sources.
a
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table 1: Isolation and Screening

Isolate
Diameter of the halo zone (cm)
HSW1
1
HSW2
0.9
HSW3
1.2
HSW4
1.1
HSW5
0.8
HSW6
0.7
TTH7
2.8
TTH8
2.2
TTH9
1.8
DOD9 (V9)
2.9

200
Table 2: Morphological, Cultural, Biochemical characterization

of DOD9 Isolate
Test
Result
Grams staining
+
Endospore staining
+
7% NaCl
+
Temperature 5C
Temperature 37C
+
Temperature 50C
Motility
Motile
Catalase
+
Casein hydrolysis
+
Starch hydrolysis
+
Casein hydrolysis test
Starch hydrolysis test
Fig. 1: Isolate DOD9
Fig. 3: Effect of substrate (waste oils) on enzyme activity. Enzyme

activity(U)
Fig. 2: Morphological, Cultural, Biochemical Characterization of
DOD9 Isolate
Gram positive short rod chain type and Endospore

Catalase test
Fig. 4: Effect of nitrogen source on enzyme activity. Enzyme

activity(U)

Isolation, Screening and Characterization of Lipase Producing Strain from Oil Contaminated Soil of Hubballi, Karnataka
201
4. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The bacterial strain Bacillus sp. strain DOD9 has been shown
to exhibit lipase activities on the basis of the results of
qualitative and quantitative analysis. High chemo-, regio- and
stereo selectivity have made lipase most important enzyme for
pharmaceutical application like resolution of drugs.
Experimental results suggest that various media compositions
influenced enzyme (lipase) production by indigenously
isolated bacterial strains DOD9. Optimization of growth
parameters viz., waste oil and nitrogen source etc. had
significant effect on lipase activity.
[1] Ajit Kumar, Surendra S. Parihar and Nisha Batra, Enrichment,

Isolation and Optimization of Lipase-Producing Staphylococcus
Sp. From Oil Mill Waste (Oil Cake) Journal of Experimental
Sciences 2012, 3(8)Issn: 2218-1768 pp.26-31.
[2] Kalpana Sagar, Yasir Bashir, Mayur M Phukan, B. K. Konwa,
Isolation Of Lipolytic Bacteria From Waste Contaminated Soil:
A Study With Regard To Process Optimization For Lipase
International Journal Of Scientific & Technology Research
Volume 2, Issue 10, October 2013 Issn 2277-8616.
[3] Kalyana Chakravrthy Bonala and Lakshmi Narasumangamoori,
Screening, Isolation and Identification of Extracellular Lipase
Producing Bacteria Bacillus Tequilensis Nrrl B-41771.
[4] M. Prasanna Rajeshkumar , V.S. Mahendran, and V.
Balakrishnan, Isolation And Identification Of Lipase Producing
Isolation And Identification Of Lipase Producing Organisms
From Diverse Soil Samples Of Kolli Hills, International Journal
Of Current Microbiology And Applied Science ,Issn: 23197706 Volume 2 Number 5 (2013) Pp. 205-210 .
[5] M. Veerapagu, Dr. A. Sankara Narayanan, K.Ponmurugan,
K.R.Jeya, Screening Selection Identification Production and
Optimization of Bacterial Lipase from Oil Spilled Soil Asian
Journal of Pharmaceuticals, Vol 6.
[6] Serdar lker, Arzu zel, Ahmet olak, engl Alpay Karaolu,
Isolation, Production, And Characterization Of An Extracellular
Lipase From Trichoderma Harzianum Isolated From Soil.
However, the present study requires greater research capacities

(further purification of the crude enzyme) for comparison with
commercial lipase with regard to specific activity.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work was supported by Dr. S.V. Desai, Prof. V.S.
Hombalimath, Prof. Sharanappa Achappa for their guidance
and Biotechnology department of B.V.Bhoomaraddi College
of Engineering and Technology, Hubballi, Karnataka.


Indigenous Technological Knowledge in Agriculture

in Different Zones of Karnataka for Environmental
Sustainability
K.S. Somashekar1, B.S. Lalitha2, A. S. Shashikiran3 AND L. Harish4
1
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agronomy, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65

2
Dept. of Agronomy, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65
3,4
Ph.D, Department of Agricultural Economics, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65
AbstractIndigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) is local

knowledge- knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It
contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by
universities, research institutions and private firms. ITK is the basis
for local-level decision-making in agriculture, health care, food
preparation, education, natural resource management and a host of
other activities in rural communities. Hence this paper deals with
various ITK practices followed by the farmers in different zones of
Karnataka for achieving environmental sustainability in agriculture.
Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) is important for
development activities to be successful. If it has not been recorded, it
means largely inaccessible to development workers and researchers.
Solutions offered by a development project may fail because they do
not fit with the local knowledge. Indigenous knowledge may suggest
alternatives. Methods used effectively by one society could be used to
solve problems faced by another. A blend of approaches and methods
from various systems may be appropriate for sustainable
development in grassroots.
The school of thought now dubbed ITK, indigenous knowledge
systems, aims to elicit the expert systems of indigenous people-
peasants-who are some-times not thought of as experts. These

knowledge systems are brought back to agricultural research centers
and used to educated agricultural scientists and policy makers so that
they can design better technologies and policies to improve peasants
standards of living.
The documentation of ITKs showed the time richness of the tested
traditional knowledge for agriculture, horticulture, plant protection
and livestock. Though, all ITKs practiced by farmers are effective
but need to be validating scientifically along with identification of
active ingredients present in the materials used. Such studies will
provide the scientific rationality for use of ITKs for future. Since
ITKs are cheaper, locally, less side effects and easily acceptable by
the people. ITKs can be encouraged but while they need to be
modified scientifically to make them scientifically rational. Therefore
this paper concentrated on ITKs that were followed in Agricultural
crops, horticulture, plant protection, post harvest and livestock since
ages in different zones of Karnataka for acheiving environmental
susutainability.
1. INDIGENOUS TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE

Sl.
No.
Description of ITK
Farmers Logic
Probable Scientific Explanation
A. Agricultural production
Pagadi planting: Ragi seedlings are Vigorous growth and Facilitates intercultivation in both directions,
transplanted equidistant at spacing of higher yields
conserves moisture, controls weeds and
22.5 x 22.5 cm under rainfed conditions
enhances tillering leading to higher yields
especially during drought years
Mixed cropping of ragi with jowar, tur, To meet the family a. Efficient use of land and light due to
avare, niger, mustard, milltes, cowpea, requirement
differential growth period.
etc.
b. Insurance against the risk of crop failure.
c. Mustard as a trap crop and reduces pest
incidence.
Puddling paddy field and incorporation Easy transplanting
Keeps soil surface loose for transplanting
green leaf manure 2-3 days prior to
especially in sandy soils.
planting instead of 15 days
Covering the roof top of the rearing Keeps the rearing house Acts as a physical barrier to solar radiation
house with coconut leaves/hay/sugarcane cool
(Insulation)
trash and sprinkling water
Zone where the

practice is in
voge
4, 5 and 6
4,5,6 and 7
4,6,7,9 and 10
Indigenous Technological Knowledge in Agriculture in Different Zones of Karnataka for Environmental Sustainability
5
6
Using Ammonium Sulphate in jaggery

preparation
Along with potato sowing French bean
seeds in potato ros
Application of
tank silt
To increase the fertility
and water holding
capacity of soil
B. Horticultural production
1
Mulching dry leaves in cardamom
Improves quality and

colour of the jaggery
To identify the potato
rows
Sulphur acts as clarifying (oxidizing) agent 4 and 6

improving quality of jaggery
In transitional zone, heavy rains leads to huge Zone -7
weed infestation and unable to identify the
potato rows 15 after sowing
To increase aeration, soil In sandy soils, if tank silt is loamy or clay 4,5,6,7
fertility
and
water type increases water holding capacity and
holding capacity of the soil fertility. In clay soil soil aeration
soil
improves
Reduces button shedding

and rhoincerous insect
incidence
2
Application of 200 ml butter milk to Improves aroma
curry leaf plant every week
3
Cultivation of Mango and Banana Banana plant reduces
together in saline-alkaline soils
salinity
4
Sowing coriander seeds between jower Controls striga-a root
rows
parasite of jowar
C. Seri Culture Production
1
Tying wet gunny clothes to windows of Evaporative cooling effect
the rearing house
inside the house
2
Keeping non-spinning worms in paddy Encourages
spinning
straw or eucalyptus leaves and exposing activity
to sun-light and covering with gunny
cloth
3
Removal of bottom leaves upto 8 Eliminates
above ground before chopping
soil/dust/yellow and over
matured leaves
D. Plant Protection
1
Maize is grown around vegetable Prevents cattle and insect
gardens
damage to main crop
2
Calotropis (Ekka) branches are placed Controls insect pests
at the water inlet in paddy fields
3
Smoking of rat burrows with paddy Cost effective rat control
husk and dry chillies
method
4
Leaf mulching helps in retaining moisture in

soils; Checks weeds and conceals capsule
from vertebrate pests
Ensures availability of enzymes, vitamins
and micronutrients
Banana absorbs soluble salts to bring down
the soil pH
The alkaloids in coriander exudates inhibit
growth of striga
5
4
2,3,4 and 6
Air passing through wet gunny clothes get 5 and 6

cooled
Warm temperature induces spinning
5
Prevents soil borne infection and avoids 5

feeding of over matured leaves
Acts both as a physical barrier to cattle and

trap crop for insects
The alkaloid present in latex acts a insect
repellent
Pungent smoke generated by paddy husk
and chillies causes suffocation and kills rats.
It is cost effective and eco-friendly measure
Ants and other insects attracted by jaggery
destroy pod borer eggs
Acts as pod borer trap
The odour of burn horn act as repellent
Spraying jaggery solution (0.4%) to red Control pod borer

gram
5
Cultivating Marigold with red gram
Controls pod borer
6
Discorded cattle horn filled with To dispel wild bores
kerosene and burnt
E. Post Harvest Technology
1
Horse gram is stored in empty Insect damage is reduced
Salt prevents hatching of storage pests
common salt bags
eggs and also acts as a preservative
2
Coating red earth to overnight soaked Reduces insect damage and Wetting and drying (Thawing) process
redgram and drying in shade
facilities miling
loosens huck from kernel and earth acts
as physical barrier to the storage insect
3
Storing Avare:
Enhances keeping quality and Slight warming destroys insect eggs
Slight warming
facilitates
a.
Storability for long period
4
Putting thick layer of sand on the Controls storage pests
Sand act as physical barrier and also die
properly dried pulses and covered
to due suffocation
with tight lid
5
Putting 10-15 red chillies in one Prevents storage pests
Pungent odour acts as repellent
quintal rice bag
6
A layer of rock salt is spread at the Cost
effective
de-worming Acts as a anti-helminter
base of a storage structure for pulses medicine
and other grains

3 and 4
4 and 6
10
4
5
9
All zones
All zones
4,5 & 6
4,5 & 6
9
5 and 6
203
K.S. Somashekar, B.S. Lalitha, A. S. Shashikiran AND L. Harish
204
Paste made by mixture of cow dung, Used as fuel wood

locally available dried leaf and
chopped straw small round cake and
dried in sunlight for 2-3days
F. Animal Health
1
100g of fresh papaya seeds are crushed Cost
effective
deand administered in 1 liter of water to worming medicine
claves
2
Administering a handful of salt 4 liter Stops diahorea
of water or a handful of mixed in cattle
feed
3
Application of fresh cow dung to Fast healing of wounds
wounds of cattle
4
Tender beetle leaves of paste was For indigestion
prepared by grinding over a rock is fed
to young calves
Burns slowly and when smoke comes 5

acts as repellent for insects
Acts as anti-helminter
4 and 5
Restores electrolyte imbalance
4 and 5
Acts as antiseptic and soften the wound site
4 and 5
Beetle leave act as post meal digestive

stimulant, natural antiseptic, anistrigent,
diuretic and nerve tonic.
2. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
ITK practices were adopted by the farmers in different zones

of Karanataka in order to obtain higher profit from the
agriculture by utilizing indigenous knowledge for efficient use
of resources in crop and soil management and minimizing the
cost on external inputs in agricultural and maintain pollution
free environment.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Agrawal, A. (1995). Dismantling the divide between indigenous and

scientific knowledge. Development and Change. Vol. 26, No 3, 413-439.
Dubey, V.K, Naraina, G.S and Gupta, S.L.(1993). Methodologies for
tapping and documenting indigenous technologies. Paper Presented at
the National Seminar on Indigenous Technologies for Sustainable
Agriculture, New Delhi, March 23- 25.
Mishra, P.K. 2002. Indigeneous technical knowledge on Soil and Water
Conservation in semi- arid India (Eds: P.K. Mishra, G. Sastry, M.
Osman, G.R. Maruthi Sankar and N. Babjee Rao). NATP, CRIDA,
Hyderabd. 151p.


Formulation and Evaluation of Preserved

Products Using an Under-Exploited Fruit
[Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia Deliciosa)]
D. Kodandaram Reddy1, Priyanka Samala2 and Jyoti Kiran Singh3
1
University College of Technology, Osmania University Hyderabad, T.S

M.Tech (Food Technology) University College of Technology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, T.S
3
University College of Technology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, T.S
E-mail: 1dekore20@gmail.com, 2priya.samala25@gmail.com, 3jyotikiran64@yahoo.com
AbstractThe aim of study is to make preserved product using

KIWI FRUIT (ACTINIDIA DELICIOSA). Kiwi fruit is highly
nutritious fruit and it was decided to preserve for human
consumption throughout the year. Kiwifruit is an excellent source of
vitamin C as well as a very good source of dietary fiber. It is also a
good source of the mineral potassium. This study is focused on
preservation of kiwi fruit as a jam using different formulations. Using
the kiwi fruit, jam is prepared for the production of a preserved
product. Here, along with kiwi fruit, another fruit which is rich in
pectin content is utilized i.e., apple. Apple is incorporated in the
preparation of kiwi jam to set the product easily. Hence, the kiwi
apple jam is developed and the quality parameters have been
assessed. Sensory evaluation, nutritive analysis such as iron,
potassium, calcium and vitamin C (ascorbic acid); and
physicochemical properties such as titrable acidity and pH, total
soluble solids, moisture content and ash values are determined
according to the standard methods. The storage stability was good in
jam with respect to flavor and consistency. The microbial load of Jam
was under the limit during storage. Hence, the prepared Jam was
safe and fit for consumption.
1. INTRODUCTION
Food preservation has an important role in the conservation
and better utilization of fruits and vegetables in order to avoid
the glut and utilize the surplus during the off-season. It is
necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for
better distribution and also processing techniques to preserve
them for utilization in the off-season in both large scale and
small scale. Fruit plays an important role in the preparation of
preserves, in cooking and in fermented beverage production.
The kiwifruit, often shortened to kiwi in many parts of the
world, is the edible berry of a woody vine in the genus
Actinidia. The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit is
oval, about the size of a large hen's egg [58 centimeters (2.0
3.1 in) in length and 4.55.5 centimeters (1.82.2 in) in
diameter]. It has a fibrous, dull greenish-brown skin and bright
green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds.
The fruit has a soft texture and a sweet but unique flavor, and
today is a commercial crop in several countries, such as Italy,
New Zealand, Chile, Greece and France. Kiwifruit is native to
southern China where it has been declared a National Fruit of
China. Other species of Actinidia are native to India, Japan,
and South Eastern Siberia. The genus Actinidia contains
around 60 species. Though most kiwifruit are easily
recognized as kiwifruit (due to basic shape) their fruit is quite
variable. The skin of the fruit can vary in size, shape,
hairiness, and color. The flesh can also vary in color, juiciness,
texture, and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable while others
taste considerably better than the majority of the commercial
varieties. The most common kiwifruit is the Fuzzy Kiwifruit
and comes from the species A.deliciosa.
Kiwifruit is a rich source of vitamin C (1.5 times the United
States DRI per 100 grams) and vitamin K, and a good source
of dietary fibre and vitamin E. Kiwifruit seed oil contains on
average 62% alpha - linolenic acid, an omega 3- fatty
acid. Usually a medium size kiwifruit provides about 46
calories, 0.3 g fat, 1 g protein, 11 g carbohydrates, and 2.6 g
dietary fibre found partly in the edible skin. Kiwi fruit stands
number one in nutrient content compared to 27 other fruits. It
is packed with twice the amount of Vitamin C compared to
oranges (per 100 mg) and has twice the amount of nutrients
compared to apples (per 100 mg). Kiwi fruit is an excellent
source of Vitamin E, fibre, potassium, folic acid, carotenoids,
antioxidants and trace minerals. The exotic Kiwi fruit jam,
popular in New Zealand, is gaining popularity elsewhere in
the world. Jam is made from crushed or ground fruit. The end
product is less firm than jam, but still holds its shape.

Selection of the Method of Preservation:
Food Preservation has an important role in the conservation
and better utilization of fruits and vegetables. In order to avoid
206
glut and utilize the surplus during the season, it is necessary to

employ methods to extend storage life, for better distribution,
to preserve them for utilization in the off-season both in large
scale and home scale. Jam is more or less a concentrated fruit
processing which has fairly thick consistency and body. It is
also rich in flavour, because ripe fruits which have developed
full flavour are used in its preparation. A great advantage in its
preparation is that it can be prepared in a single operation. For
the preparation of good quality jam, the fruit should contain
adequate amounts of pectin.
because of their strong flavor and varying degree of

sweetness.
Pre-Preparation of the selected kiwi fruit:

Sorting and grading is essential to get suitable quality of fruit
which was done by hand. The fruits were first washed to
remove the dirt. Grading of fruit was done based on
soundness, firmness, cleanliness, size, maturity, weight,
colour, shape and freedom from foreign matters, insect
damage and mechanical injury.
Formulation of different jam samples:

Different jam samples were prepared by varying the
percentage (%) composition of kiwi pulp and apple pulp in
that order. T1(90-10%), T2 (75-25%) and T3 (50-50%).
Preparation of Jam:
Fruits are preserved in the form of jam, jelly, preserves and
candies by relying upon the high solids-high acid principle.
Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient
quantity of sugar to a reasonably thick consistency, firm
enough to hold fruit issues in position.
Selection and preparation of fruit
Pulp was weighed

Fruit furnishes the flavor and part of the needed pectin and
acid. Some irregular and imperfect fruit can be used. Do not
use spoiled, mouldy or stale fruit.
Addition of sugar
Cooking the pulp (slow cooking with occasional stirring

for 15min)
Addition of citric acid (1tsp) + salt (1pinch)
Judging the end point (TSS-68.5% using refractometer

Pectin (apple) is the actual gelling substance. The amount of
pectin found naturally in fruits depends upon the kind of fruit
and degree of ripeness. Underripe fruits have more pectin; as
fruit ripens the pectin changes to a non-gelling form. Usually
using 14 underripe fruit to 34 fully-ripe fruit makes the best
product. Cooking brings out the pectin, but cooking too long
destroys it. High pectin fruits are apples, crab-apples, quinces,
red currants, gooseberries, Eastern Concord grapes, plums and
cranberries. Fruits lower in natural pectin include blueberries,
peaches, apricots, pears, raspberries, blackberries and figs.
Here, kiwi fruit, which is low in pectin content, is combined
with apple having high pectin. Through apple pectin is
produced. Pectin acts as a carbohydrate that causes fruit to gel.
Acid is needed for gel formation and flavor. The amount of
acid in fruits also varies with the fruit and degree of ripeness.
When using low-acid fruits in recipes without commercial
pectin, add 1 tablespoon lemon juice or 1/8 teaspoon citric
acid for each cup of fruit.
Sugar helps form the gel, serves as a preserving agent, firms
the fruit and adds flavor. Beet or cane sugar can be used.
Brown sugar, sorghum and molasses are not recommended
ABBE)
Packing (fill the hot jam into clean, dry sterilized glass
container)
Cooling
Stored in refrigerator
Test for doneness:
A big challenge in making jam is to know when it is done.
Spoon or Sheet Test:
Dip a cool metal spoon in the boiling jam mixture. Lift the
spoon above the kettle out of the steam. Turn the spoon so
syrup runs off the side. If the syrup forms two drops that flow
together and fall off the spoon as one sheet, the jam should be
done.

Formulation and Evaluation of Preserved Products Using an Under-Exploited Fruit [Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia Deliciosa)]
3. PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF JAM

Knowledge of the physicochemical properties of the food is
fundamental in analyzing the characteristics of food during its
processing. The study of these food properties and their
responses to process conditions is necessary because they
influence the treatment received during the processing and
also because they are good indicators of other properties and
qualities of food.
In the present investigation, certain physicochemical
characteristics of the prepared kiwi apple jam such as total
solids and soluble solids, acidity and pH value, moisture, and
ash value are to be analyzed according to the standard
methods to ensure the quality of the products.
PFA specifies that jam is a product obtained by processing
fresh fruits, canned, dried, fruit pulp with water, sugar,
dextrose, invert or liquid glucose either singly or in
combination by boiling to a suitable consistency.
The analysis of jam for various properties was done using an
aqueous solution of the sample. This was prepared by
weighing 25gm of sample and dissolving it in 200ml of water.
The aqueous solution was kept on boiling water bath for one
hour. The solution was cooled and diluted to 250ml with
distilled water, filtered and used for analysis.
For the prepared jam, total solids and soluble solids are to
be determined. The figure for soluble solids help in
determining the fruit content of the jam and also helps to
prevent the growth of mould and yeast.
Acidity value is a measure of stability and shelf life of
jam. It is due to the organic acids in fruits and those
which are added while making the jam. The setting
quality of jam is improved by adequate pH maintenance.
The ash value is mainly due to potassium and
phosphorous and the composition of it. It is the measure
of fruits and fruit juice content. A low value indicates
deficiency of fruit or excess of sugar.
Titrable Acidity and pH Value:
Acidity value is a measure of stability and shelf life of jam and
fruit bar. It is due to the organic acids in fruits and those which
are added while making the jam. The setting quality of jam is
improved by adequate pH maintenance. Take one g blended
jam and dissolve it in 20 ml distilled water, add two to three
drops of phenoptheline indicator then titrate it with 0.1 N
NaOH till pink colour appears. Titrable acidity can be
calculated as in Equation.
Ta = B x 0.1 x 0.064 x 100
W
Where Ta is titrable acidity; B is reading burette; W is weight
of sample.
The pH value of the sample was measured with a digital glass
electrode pH meter (CD 175 E) at room temperature, which
207
was calibrated prior to sample pH measurement using buffer

solutions of pH value 4.0 and 7.0.
Ash Value:
The ash value is mainly due to potassium and phosphorous
and the composition of it. It is the measure of fruits and fruit
juice content. A low value indicates deficiency of fruit or
excess of sugar. About five grams of the sample was weighed
accurately into a porcelain crucible. This was transferred into a
muffle furnace set at 6000C and left for about 4hours. About
this time it had turned into white ash. The crucible and its
content were cooled to about 1000C in air then to room
temperature in desiccators and weighed (A.O.A.C., 1984).The
percentage ash was calculated from the formula below
% Ash content = (weight of Ash / Original weight of
sample)*100
Total sugars and Reducing sugars:
During jam making, sucrose is added. During boiling, the
sucrose partly gets converted into invert sugar which prevents
crystallization. Take 5 g of sample into a beaker and added
100 ml of warm water. The solution was stirred until all the
soluble matters were dissolved and filtered through watt man
filter paper into a 250ml volumetric flask. Pipette 100 ml of
the solution prepared into a conical flask, added 10 ml diluted
HCL and boiled for 5 min. On cooling, neutralize the solution
to phenolphthalein with 10% NaOH and make up to volume in
a 250 ml volumetric flask. This solution was used for titration
against Fehlings solution and readings were calculated using
the following equations:
Tt = (4.95 x 250 x 9.5 x 100) / (T x W x 10)
Rs = (T x W x 10 x 100) / 49.5 x 250
Where, Tt is total sugar %; T is titre value; Rs is reducing
sugar %.
Total Solids and Soluble Solids:
For jam total solids and soluble solids are calculated. The
figure for soluble solids help in accessing the fruit content of
jam and fruit bar and also helps to prevent the growth of
mould and yeast.
4. SENSORY EVALUATION
Sensory evaluation on the basis of 9-point hedonic scale of all
the prepared blended jam was done by taste panel. The tasting
panel was consisting of 10 members. They were asked to
evaluate the colour, flavour, consistency, taste and overall
acceptability by a scoring rate, 9 means like extremely, 8
means like very much, 7 means like moderately, 6 means like
slightly, 5 means neither like nor dislike, 4 means dislike
slightly, 3 means dislike moderately, 2 means dislike very
much and 1 means dislike extremely. The different preferences
as indicated by scores were evaluated by statistical methods.

208
5. NUTRIENT ANALYSIS OF JAM
flavor, glucose crystallization; granular texture and exudation

phenomenon.
Kiwi fruit is rich in vitamins such as vitamin C, and also in

dietary fibre. Some minerals like potassium, calcium and iron.
These different nutrients can be analysed by using the standard
methods available.
Ascorbic acid content:
The ascorbic acid content decreased during storage due to
oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid. Ascorbic
acid was determined by the 2, 6-dichlorophenol indophenol
titration procedure. Ascorbic acid was extracted using an
acetic acid and metaphosphoric acid solution. The extracts
were transferred with distilled water into a 50 ml volumetric
flask and made up to the mark with more water and filtered
rapidly. The filtrate was run from a burette into a test tube
containing one drop of dilute acetic acid and 1ml of the redox
dye, 2, 6- dichlorophenol indophenol solution. The volume of
extract required to decolorize the dye was noted. The titration
was repeated using standard ascorbic acid solution (1 mg pure
vitamin per 100 ml) in place of the jam and fruit extracts.
Ascorbic acid per 100g of jam or pulp is calculated as: %
ascorbic acid = (W x 100) / 100
W is volume of dye.
Table: 1
Parameter
T1(10%
apple)
Moisture (%)
18 0.37
Ash value (%)
0.57 0.03
Acid
insoluble 0.15 0.87
ash (%)
Titrable acidity 0.92 0.02
(%)
pH value
3.25 0.07
T2(25%
apple)
20 0.67
0.61 0.02
0.21 0.56
T3(50%
apple)
25 0.33
0.55 0.02
0.24 0.25
1.19 0.01
0.87 0.02
3.48 0.03
3.40 0.05
Total
soluble 69.5 0.11
solids (0Brix)
Total sugar and
39.13 0.18
reducing
sugar 21.40 0.08
(g/100g)
68 0.71
69 0.54
42.54 0.04
19.33 0.08
36.28 0.11
12.38 0.08
Nutritional Analysis of Different Samples of Kiwi

Fruit Jam:
Iron, potassium, and calcium were recorded as 0.38, 2.98,
and 0.87 for T1, respectively; 0.45, 3.95, and 0.95 for T2,
respectively; 0.56, 4.79, and 1.54 for T3, respectively. Results
are presented in Table 2.
Calcium and Potassium:

Kiwi fruit is rich in potassium, calcium and iron.
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Physicochemical analyses of kiwi apple jam:
The analyses of jams were made 1 day after processing. The
averages of the duplicate measurements of the analyses of
three different samples of jams are shown in table 1. Jams
presented low moisture and had soluble solids mean values of
69.5, 68.00 and 69.00 Brix for sample 1(10% apple), sample
2(25% apple), and sample 3(50% apple), respectively. Sugars
in jams contribute to high content of soluble solids, an effect
that is essential for the physical, chemical and microbiological
stability and make gelation of pectin possible.
Total sugars and reducing sugars contents of jams ranged
between 36.2842.54 g.100 g-1and 12.3821.40 g.100 g-1,
respectively. Total sugars contents ranged between 35.00
54.55 g.100 g-1 and reducing sugars ranged between 10.50
15.50 g.100 g-1for different mixed fruit jams. The total acidity
and the pH of the finished products ranged between 0.87
1.19 g.100 g-1 and 3.25-3.48, respectively. It is known that the
acidity and pH of jams should be controlled. The low acidity
(0.3-0.8 g.100 g-1) and low pH (3.2-3.4) contribute to pectin
gelation and increase the stability of the formulated jams.
However, the pH must not be too low (< 3.0) since it could
induce deterioration of sensory quality: excessive acidic
Table 2:
Nutrient
(mg/100gm)
Iron (Fe)
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Vitamin
C
(ascorbic acid)
T1
(10% apple)
0.38 0.02
2.98 0.01
1.54 0.01
18.950.05
T2
(25% apple)
0.45 0.02
3.95 0.03
0.95 0.01
15.680.15
T3
(50% apple)
0.56 0.04
4.79 0.01
1.54 0.01
13.980.08
Sensory Evaluation of Kiwi Apple Jam:

Mean scores of sensory evaluation are presented in Table 3.
Kiwi apple jam had the highest mean scores for all attributes
being compared. The differences in flavor and spreadability
were not statistically significant at the (P > 0.05) 5% level.
The differences in color, taste and overall acceptability were,
however significant at (P < 0.05) 5% level.
Table 3
Sam Appea Tas Fla
ple rance te
vor
T1
T2
T3
7.0
6.17
7.67
Text Colo Sprea

ure r
dability
8.0 7.67 8.0
7.0
8.0
7.67 7.17 7.35 7.5
8.33
7.0 7.0 6.67 7.17 7.0
After
taste
6.33
8.0
7.5
Overall
Accept
ability
7.0
7.33
7.5
Sensory evaluation indicated that kiwi apple jam with different

formulations (i.e.; change in concentration of apple) was
acceptable to consumers. The kiwi apple jam, however, had

Formulation and Evaluation of Preserved Products Using an Under-Exploited Fruit [Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia Deliciosa)]
the highest mean scores for all attributes being compared. The
differences in flavor and spreadability were not statistically
significant at the (P>0.05) 5% level. The differences in color,
taste and overall acceptability were, however, significant at (P
< 0.05) 5% level. Some assessors scored kiwi apple jam (T1)
higher for flavor, texture and spreadability. The texture of kiwi
apple jam (T2) had the lowest scores than other parameters or
sensory attributes. Sufficient pectin content contributes to the
spreadability of the kiwi apple jam (T2). The color of the
product has been improved with the change in concentration
of apple.
209
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
7. CONCLUSIONS
[5]
Actinidia deliciosa can be used in making jam. The low gel

strength of the jam can be improved by the addition of pectin
during processing to attain the commercially acceptable gel
strength or a combination of fruits rich in pectin (apple) can be
used to make up for the deficiency. Optimum gel formation is
reported at pH 3.4 and satisfactory gel formation in tropical
fruits is achieved at lower pH range. The combination with
other fruits could serve to improve the flavor and the color.
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
[10]
I take immense pleasure in thanking DR.JYOTI KIRAN

SINGH (Assistant Professor), Food Technology, University
College of Technology, for her guidance and cooperation
extended to me to enable the completion of this project work. I
would also like to thank the entire Faculty of Food
Technology at University College of Technology and my
Parents (my Family) for their continuous support, which
helped me in this endeavor.
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Handbook of analysis and quality control for Fruit and Vegetable

products, second edition, by S.Ranganna.
Grivetti LE Nutritional Success in a Semi-arid Land: Examination of the
Eastern Kalahari, Botswana. Am. J. of Clinical Nutr. 1978; 31: 1204
1220.
Ogle BM and LE Grivetti Legacy of the Chameleon: Edible and Wild
Plants in the Kingdom of Swaziland, Southern Africa. A Cultural,
Ecological and Nutritional Study. Part IV Nutritional Analysis and
Conclusions. J. Ecol. Food Nutr. 1985; 17: 41 -64.
Humphrey CM, Clegg MS, Keen CL and LE Grivetti Food Diversity
and Drought Survival. The Hausa Example. Int. J. of Food Sci. & Nutr.
1993; 44: 1 16.
Smith GC and LE Grivetti Cultural Use of Edible Wild Plants in
Burkina Faso, West Africa. FASEB J. 1994; 8: A183.
Aina JO and AA Adesina Suitability of Frozen Indigenous Tropical
Fruits for Jam Processing. Advances in Food Sciences 1999; 2: 15 18.
Herzorg F, Farah Z and R Amado Composition and Consumption of
Gathered Wild Fruits in the V-Baoule, Cote D Ivoire. J. Ecol. Food and
Nutr. 1994; 32 (3-4): 181 196.
Aina, J.O. and Adesina, A.A. 1991. Quality attributes of jams from lowusage tropical fruits. Food Chemistry 40 (3): 345-351. A.O.A.C. 1984.
Association of official Analytical chemists official methods, 13th ed,
Washington D.C.
Kirk, R.S. and Sawyer, R. 1991. Pearson`s composition and analysis of
food, 9th Ed. Longman, Singapore 221-225.
Larmound, E. 1977. Methods for sensory evaluation of foods. Food
Research Central Experimental farm Ottawa Canada.
Moyls, A.W., Shroclien, C.C. and Atkinson, F.E. 1962. Making jam
commercially. Pub 44, Canada Deprt Agric Pub Ottawa 3-10.
Ruck, J.A. 1969. Chemical methods for analysis of fruits and vegetables
products. Station summerland Canadian Research Board, Department of
Agriculture Canada. Woodroof, J.G. and Luh, B.S. 1986.
Commercial fruit processing by the AVI Pub Co Inc Westport,
Connecticut 2nd Edition 427-429.
Bhattacharyya, B.K. and D. Bhattacharjee, 2007. Bactriocin: A
biological food preservative, J. Food Science and Technology, 44(5):
459-464.
Agarwal, G. and S. Mangaraj, 2005. Studies on physico-chemical
changes in selected fruits during storage, Beverage and Food World,
32(11): 72-75.


Study of Heavy Metal Accumulation in

Fish Organs
JJT University,Chudela, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India
E-mail: shaziyamomin79@gmail.com
AbstractHeavy metal assessment is an important exercise to

evaluate the nature and extent of pollution in order to take
appropriate control measures.Idol immersion activities during
certain festive occasions are adding pollution load to the waterbodies. Non-biodegradable materials and synthetic paints used for
making these idols are posing serious threat to aquatic life and
environment. The present work is concern about the heavy
metalevaluation in fish organs (Liver , Kidney, Gills and Abdominal
Muscles)Pre-immersion, during immersion and post-immersion .Fish
sample were collected from lake and analyzed for concentration of
Cadmium by spectroscopic technique. Different organs show
different level of exposure to Cadmium. It was observed that the
concentration of Cadmium metal significantly increased during and
post immersion period.
Keywords: Heavy Metal, Fish, Festival Period,Spectrophtometry
1. INTRODUCTION
The aquatic environment with its water quality is considered
the main factor controlling the state of health and disease in
both cultured and wild fishes. Pollution of the aquatic
environment by inorganic and organic chemicals is a major
factors posing serious threat to the survival of aquatic
organisms including fish.
Varal Devi lake situated at Dhamankarnaka,Bhiwandi city ,
District Thane, Maharashtra, India is selected for this research
problem. The water from this lake is used for the purpose of
drinking and domestic uses and for fishing.This lake water is
also a source of edible fishes. The impact of idol immersion
activity on the Oreochromis Niloticus fish which is mainly
dominating and consumed fish species in Bhiwandi city is
studied.
Heavy metal pollution is one of the major types of common
toxic pollutants in surface water. These metals are among the
major contributors to the pollution of natural aquatic
ecosystems [2].Because of their chemical stability, heavy
metals tend to accumulate into the tissues of different
organisms.Unfortunately,aquatic organisms can be exposed to
extremely high levels of these heavy metals. Significant
changes in external features and behavioral activities can be
observed as a result of heavy metal pollution. The liver is one

of the most susceptible organs to the harmful effects of heavy
metals, because it is a detoxification organ and is essential for
the metabolism and the excretion of toxic substances [2].
Cadmium is one of the most deleterious heavy-metal
pollutants in aquatic systems, and exposure leads to severe
consequences, such as anemia and emphysema .Various
evidence indicates that the toxicity of cadmium may be
associated with oxidative damage from the production of
reactive oxygen species [2].
The levels of cadmium in fish are of considerable interest,
because fish consumption is a major source of cadmium intake
for the general population. It was found that most of the
cadmium in fish tissues is highly absorbable, accounting for
approximately 38% of the ingested cadmium load in the
gastrointestinal tract of humans.Cadmium exposure induced
histological changes in kidney and liver of lake water fish
(oreochromis Niloticus)[2].
The immersion of idol of Lord Ganesh during month of
August to October is a major source of contamination and
sedimentation to the Varal Devi lake water. The idol are made
up of clay, plaster of paris, cloth, paper wood, thermocol, jute,
adhesive materials and synthetic paints etc. Out of the all
material used in making the idol, thermocol is Nonbiodegradable while paints contain heavy metals such as
Manganese,Chromium, Lead, Cadmium ,Copper ,Zinc , Iron
and Mercury. The present study was under taken to evaluate
heavy metals inthe organs of one of the mainly dominating
and highly consumed species of Oreochromis Niloticus fish
commonly known as Tilapia..The level of heavy metal
Cadmium was determined in the Kidney, Gills, Abdominal
Muscle and Liver of fish collected from the lake .The fish was
dissected using clean equipments and digested by acid
treatment using double distilled water [1, 3].
Cadmium is known as chalocophite element that is found in
sulphide deposits like mercury and lead. Igneous rocks contain
on an average about 0.14ppm of Cadmium. Much higher level
Study of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Fish Organs

is found near Zinc smelter, as cadmium usually occurs with
Zinc.
Discharge of Cadmium into water is mainly from the
electroplating industry which accounts for around 50%.
Another source is nickel-cadmium battery industry. Fertilizers
which contain up to 8ppm of Cadmium are also a source of
pollution. Fungicides contain cadmium. The outbreak of
cadmium poisoning occurred in Japan in the form of itai itai or
ouch ouch disease.Many people suffered from this disease
in which their bones became fragile. At high level cadmium
causes kidney problems, anaemia and bone marrow disorder.
Chronic Cadmium poisoning causes kidney stones and
produces proteinuria. Hypertension in humans is also said to
be associated with high levels of Cadmium / Zinc ratio in the
kidney [5].
Symptomslike rheumatism, neuritis, bone pain etc are due to
Cadmium. Acute poisoning leads to vomiting, abdominal
cramps and general weakness. Cadmium is considered as
highly toxic and non essential element as it forms strong
bonds with sulphur leading to displacement of essential metals
like [zinc] Zn [2+] and [calcium] Ca [2+] from binding sites of
certain enzymes.Its toxicity affects the ecosystem and is a risk
for human health [6].
More severe cadmium damage may also involve the
glomeruli, detected by increased insulin clearance. Other
possible effects include aminoaciduria, glucosuria and
phosphaturia. Disturbances in renal handling of phosphorus
and calcium may cause resorption of minerals from bone,
which can result in the development of kidney stones and
osteomalacia. Many cases of itai-itai disease (osteomalacia
with various grades of osteoporosis accompanied by severe
renal tubular disease) and low-molecular-weight proteinuria
have been reported among people living in contaminated areas
in Japan and exposed to cadmium via food and drinking-water.
The daily intake of cadmium in the most heavily contaminated
areas amounted to 6002000 g/day; in other less heavily
contaminated areas, daily intakes of 100390 g/day have
been found (WHO, 1992). A relationship between chronic
occupational exposure to cadmium or chronic oral exposure to
cadmium via the diet in contaminated areas and hypertension
could not be demonstrated. Epidemiological studies of people
chronically exposed to cadmium via the diet as a result of
environmental contamination have not shown an increased
cancer risk. The results of studies of chromosomal aberrations
in the peripheral lymphocytes of patients with itai-itai disease
exposed chronically to cadmium via the diet were
contradictory. No reliable studies on reproductive, teratogenic
or embryotoxic effects in humans are available.
Epidemiological studies of humans exposed by inhalation to
relatively high cadmium concentrations in the workplace
revealed some evidence of an increased lung cancer risk, but a
definite conclusion could not be reached [7, 9].Because of all
its harmful effect this study was taken in to consideration as
211
fish from Varal Devi lake is consumed by the local inhabitant
of Bhiwandi city .If this heavy metal affected fish eaten by
people then it leads to several disease in human being.
2. METHODOLOGY
The Oreochromis Niloticus fish collected from the lake
pre,during and post Idol immersion activities during morning
hours. The fish sample were collected and dissected to
separate the organs .Acid extract of this separated organs were
prepared and analyzed for heavy metal using analytical
technique (UV Visible Spectrophotometry). Size and Weight
of the fish will be determined which is different for different
species of fish. [1, 2]
Table 1: (Biometry of the Oreochromis Niloticus Tilapia Fish)
Sr. No. Measurement
BI
01
Color
Light pink
02
Wet weight
323.4gm
03
Size
246mm
DI
Black
375.0gm
230mm
PI
Greyish black
300gm
230mm
BI (Before Immersion)
DI (During Immersion)
PI (Post Immersion)
3. OBSERVATION
The extracted cadmium metal from the fish organs reacts with
dithiozone in the basic medium and pinkish orange colour
cadmium dithiozonate complex is formed .This complex get
extracted
in
to
chloroform
and
measured
spectrophotometrically.
Sr.N
o
Period
01
BI
02
DI
03
PI
Table 2: (Amount of Cadmium)

Amount ofCadmium in ppm
Liver
Kidney
Gills
Abdominal
Muscle
7.01
0.000
4.6
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
12.450
12.5
21.0
0.0
0.10
0.01
13.5
13.90
22.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
SD
PI (Post Immersion)
Sr.No
01
02
Table 3: (Amount of Cadmium)

Period Amountof Cadmium in g/g of dry
fish organs
Liver Kidney
Gills Abdomi
nal
Muscle
BI
666.34
0.000
103.60
0.0
DI
696.30
3906.2
411.37

0.0
FAO
(1983)
g/g
0.5
212
03
PI
1001.4
PI (Post Immersion)
3928.57
694.25
0.0
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Liver
Kidney
Gills
Concentration of Cadmium in Micro gram
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Before Immersion
During Immersion
significantly during idol immersion period &is not suitable for

human use.
Concentration of heavy metal or any pollutant in the organism
is the result of past as well as current pollution levels in the
environment in which the organism lives.
From the heavy metal concentrations mentioned above we can
see thatconcentration of Cadmium in fish organs are crossing
the limits as prescribed bythe FAO.It suggests a high risk to
the health of human being on the consumption of
contaminated fish (WHO, 2001).
Therefore it is recommended that the practice of trace element
detection should be continued in order to update whether the
heavy metal concentration is above or below the permissible
limits and if it is above the limit then precautions must be
taken to avoid possible consumption of contaminated fish. It is
also recommended that awareness should be spread among the
people regarding the hazards on consumption of polluted
water and related fish. We will also try to motivate the people
avoid using lake which provide drinking water and edible
fishes for immersion purpose.
Post Immersion
Festival Periods
Fig.1: Graph of Concentration of Cadmium against

Festival Periods
Amount of Cadmium in three organs of Oreochromis Niloticus

fish are greater than the standard prescribed by FAO (0.5 g/g
dry weight of fish organ) [10].Concentration of Cadmium
absorbed by kidney is very high than the liver and gills during
and post Idol immersion activities. Abdominal muscle show
no absorption of cadmium. The concentration of cadmium gets
increased due to immersion activity. Concentration of
Cadmium in kidney before immersion is Zero but during and
after immersion get increased from 3906 g/g to 3928 g/g
dry weight of fish organ. The order of absorption of Cadmium
by fish organs are as follows.
Kidney >Liver > Gills
This indicates that idol immersion activity increases the
concentration of heavy metals in the lake water in which the
fish grows and this metal enters the fish organs. During
immersion activity less amount of heavy metals are released
but after immersion more amount of heavy metals are released
in to the water which is absorbed by the fish growing in this
polluted water.
5. CONCLUSION
From the mythological point of view the water bodies are
related to religious sentiments but from the scientific point of
view, pollution load on water bodies like lakes has increased
REFERENCE
[1]
Kaur.R.,Effect of idol immersion on marine and fresh waterbodies,Pelagia Research Library ,Advances in Applied Science
Research, 3, 4,2012,pp.1905-1909.
[2] J, M.D., A. M., R, M., N, S., Bhat .S. A.,S., S.Palanimuthu,
D.,Histopathology Of The Gill, Liver and Kidney Tissues of the
Freshwater Fish Tilapia Mossambica exposed to Cadmium Sulphate,
International Journal Of Advanced Biological Research, 2, 4, 2012, pp.
572-578.
[3] Kaur R. D. O, Comparison of immersion effects of idols made of
different materials on the water quality parameters, Indian journal of
Fundamental and applied life sciences , l3, 1, 2013, pp.16-23
[4] Turkmen .M., Turkmen .A., Tepe .Y.,Metal Contamination in five fish
species from Black, Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean seas, Turkey,
Journal of Chilean Chemical Society,53, 1, 2008.
[5] Ntiforo .A , Dotse .S.Q. and, Anim-Gyampo .M, Preliminary Studies
on Bioconcentration of Heavy Metals in Nile Tilapia from Tono
Irrigation Facility, Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering
and Technology, 4, 23, 2012, pp.5040-5047.
[6] Pandey G. and M. S., Heavy Metals Causing Toxicity in Animals and
Fishes, Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences
,2, 2, 2014,pp.17-23.
[7] Sani .U. , Determination of some heavy metals concentration in the
tissues of tilapia and catfishes,Nigerian Society for Experimental
Biology, 23, 2, 2011, PP. 73-80.
[8] Singh T. A, Meitei .L. B. and Meetei .N. S, Distribution Pattern of
Enteropathogens in Greater Imphal Area of Imphal River, Manipur,
Current World Environment , 7,2, 2012, pp.259-265.
[9] WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/80/Rev/1,English only,Cadmium in Drinkingwater,Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for
Drinking-water Quality
[10] Nnaji, J. C., Uzairu, A., Harrison, G. F. S. and Balarabe, M. L,
Evaluation Of Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Lead and Zinc
Concentrations in the Fish Head/Viscera of Oreochromis Niloticus and
Synodontis Schall of River Galma, Zaria, NigeriaElectronic journal of
Environmental,agricultural and food chemistry, 6 ,10, 2007,pp.24202426.


Antimicrobial Activity of Different Maturity of

Lagerstroemia Indica L. on Pathogenic Bacteria
Chandra M
Department of Biosciences, Mangalagangothri, Mangalore University, Dakshina Kannada District, Karnataka-574199. India
E-mail: drchandram1@gmail.com
AbstractDifferent maturity (young, medium and coarse) of

methanol extracts of Lagerstroemia indica leaves were subjected to
analyse the antimicrobial activity against some pathogenic bacteria
viz., Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Shigella
dysenteriae. The leaf methanol extracts at their different stages of
maturity, exhibited therapeutic effect on the tested organisms.
However, the coarse leaf extract had inhibitory affinity on the test
organisms with halo ranging between 8mm-12mm in diameter,
different from the medium leaf extract that ranged between 12 mm-18
mm. The young leaf extract of Lagerstroemia indica indeed showed
highest inhibitory effect on test organisms with halo range between
10 mm-20 mm. Bacillus cereus and Shigella dysenteriae were most
inhibited with this extract (20.6 mm) while Escherichia coli was the
least inhibited (10.2 mm). MIC was effective by the young leaf extract
at100-145 mg/mL, the medium leaf at 130-145 mg/mL and the coarse
leaf extract at 130-350 mg/mL on the test organisms. The MBC of the
young leaf extract was effective at 100-145 mg/mL, the medium leaf
extract at 130-160 mg/mL and the coarse leaf extract at 145-300
mg/mL on the test organisms. The antibacterial potency of
Lagsrstroemia indica is determined so that nutritional and medicinal
properties could be exploited judiciously. The results confirm the
effective use of this plant in medicine, food system and pharmacy.
order to find active compounds, a systematic study of

medicinal plants is very important [4]. Antimicrobial agents,
including food preservatives, inhibit food borne bacteria and
preserve the food. Many naturally occurring extract from herb,
medicinal plants are known to possess antimicrobial activities
and can serve as antimicrobial agents against food spoilage
[5]. Extraction of bioactive compounds from medicinal plants
permits the demonstration of their physiological activities. It
also facilitates pharmacology studies, leading to the synthesis
of a more potent drug with reduced toxicity [6].
Key words: Antimicrobial, Lagerstroemia indica, Pathogenic

bacteria
2.1. Preparation of plant sample
1. INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants are the best source to obtain different drug,
about 80% population of industrialized countries traditional
medicines, which are derived from medicinal plants, so, the
properties of plants must be investigated. In developing
countries, more than 40% of the population are subjected to
infection of the microorganism, besides this, infection is also
due to spoilage of food materials and its pathogenecity [1].
The treatment and control of diseases by the use of available
medicinal plants in a locality will continue to play significant
role in medical health care implications in the developing
countries of the world [2]. The antimicrobial activities of plant
oils and extracts have formed the basis of many applications,
including raw
and processed food
preservation,
pharmaceuticals, alternative medicine and natural therapies
[3]. Moreover, the increasing use of plant extracts in the food,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries suggested that in
Lagerstroemia indica (Crepe Myrtle) belongs to the family

Lythraceae. The stem bark is febrifuge, stimulant and styptic.
The bark, flowers and leaves are considered to be hydrogogue
and a drastic purgative. A paste of the flowers is applied
externally to cuts and wounds. The root is astringent,
detoxicant and diuretic. A decoction of the flowers is used in
the treatment of colds.
Apparently fresh and healthy young, matured and coarse

leaves of Lagerstroemia indica was collected in Mangalore
University Campus. Each portion of the leaves stages in
growth were separated washed with running tap water and
rinsed in distilled water. The leaves were dried at room
temperature in the laboratory and homogenized. The obtained
powders were extracted with sterile distilled water by soaking
for 24 h and filtered. The filtrates were evaporated at 450C to
dried pellets using rotary evaporator. The dried extracts were
kept in sterile bottles prior use.
2.2. Tests for microorganisms
Test microorganisms used in this investigation were Bacillus
cereus, staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella typhi and
Shigella dysenteriae. Prior to use the isolates were inoculated
into separate cotton-plugged test tube containing 10ml Muller
Hinton broth which were inoculated at 370 C for 24 h.
Chandra M
214
2.3. Sensitivity Screening Method
The use of well-in-agar diffusion method was adopted. The

bacterial isolates at concentrations of 107 cells/ ml in their log
phase was pour plated with Muller Hinton agar. The plates
were allowed to stand for 2 h for the test organisms to be fully
embedded in the growth medium before a cork borer (No. 4)
was flamed and used to bore wells. The different leaf extracts
in their crude forms were filled in the wells and labelled
appropriately. The plates were incubated at 370 C for 24 h. The
sensitivity of the test organisms to the extracts was evaluated
by measuring the inhibitory halo zones in millimetres (mm).
The young leaf extracts of Lagerstreomia indica showed

highest inhibitory potential than the mature and coarse leaf
extracts. B. cereus and S. dysenteriae were each inhibited a
zone of 20.6 mm. Despite the growth stages of the leaf
inhibited all the test organisms with various degrees of
inhibition, B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhi and S. dysenteriae
were the most inhibited.
2.4. Phytochemical Screening

The phytochemical screening of methanol extract was done to
identify the main groups of chemical constituents in methanol
extracts Lagerstroemia indica and Annona reticulata by their
color reaction (Evans, 1997).
However, it was observed that the inhibitory halo (10.218.5m) displayed by the matured leaf extract were close to the
inhibitory sensitivity (10.2-20.6) displayed by the young leaf
extract. The inhibitory potential observed with the coarse leaf
extract (5-10) was not comparable to the therapeutic effect of
young and matured leaf extracts on the test isolates (Table 1).
Table 1: Inhibitory assay of Lagerstroemia indica leaf
extracts on the test organisms.
2.5. Minimal Inhibitory Concentration

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extracts
was determined by broth dilution method. Decreased
concentrations of the extract were prepared (400-100mg/mL).
The extracts were weighed and reconstituted appropriately in
sterile distilled water. In each test tube containing 8ml of
sterile Muller Hinton broth, 1ml of the different extract
concentration, and 1ml overnight broth culture of the test
organism were introduced. The tubes were rolled between the
palms for even mixed up and incubated at 370 C for 24 h.
Turbid tubes after incubation indicates negative and the least
extract concentrations where clarity in medium is visible to the
naked eyes, determined the MIC of the extracts.
2.6. Minimal Bacterial Concentration
Minimal bacterial concentration (MBC) was determined by
plating 1ml of the MIC positive tubes on nutrient agar to
ascertain its bacteriostatic and bactericidal effect of the leaf
extracts.
2.7. Conventional Antibiotic Disc Assay
The sensitivity disc (Gram ve and Gram +ve) was used to
assay the sensitivity pattern of the test organisms in
comparison to the leaf extracts. The antibiotics and
concentrations impregnated to the disc arms are Augmentin
(AUG) 30g, Amoxylin (AMX) 2g, Ciprofloxaxin (CPX)
10g, Gentamycin (GEN) 10g, Nitrofuration (NIT) 200g,
Oflaxaxin (OFL) 54g, Penfloacin (PFX) 5g.
However, the same method used for the extract assay was also
adopted for this test, except that the discs were picked with a
sterile forceps and positioned at the centre of the seeded
nutrient agar plates.
Test
organisms
Bacillus
cereus
Staphylococc
us aureus
Pseudomona
s aeruginosa
Escherichia
coli
Proteus
mirabilis
Salmonella
typhi
Shigella
dysenteriae
Inhibitory assay of L. Indica extract (mm)

Young leaf
Matured leaf
Coarse leaf
20.0
18.0
12.4
10.2
10.6
18.3
20.6
17.0
16.0
17.2
10.2
9.8
9.4
18.5
7.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
The phytochemicals quantitatively identified are tannins,

saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenol. The quantities of
tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenol in the
young leaf extract were found to be 20.110.1, 3.20.1,
0.250.1, 1.531.2 and 0.340.0, respectively. For matured
leaf extract, the same phytochemical constituents were,
1.60.1, 0.180.1, 19.360.1, 1.361.2 and 0.280.0 and for
coarse leaf extract, 0.180.1, 0.100.1, 10.180.1, 1.031.2
and 0.200.0, respectively. The appreciable quantities of
phytochemicals identified in the leaf extracts were observed.
Their inhibitory potency on the tested isolates was as due to
the crude form which contained the phytochemicals in large
quantities, therefore directional to all kind of infections unlike
purified antibiotics which are directional to the type of
infection because the phytochemicals are separated into single
or double entity for specificity in prevention and curing of
diseases.
The MIC of the leaf extracts pointed out 100-145mg/mL, 130145mg/mL and 200-350mg/mL respectively for the young,

Antimicrobial Activity of Different Maturity of Lagerstroemia Indica L. on Pathogenic Bacteria
matured and coarse leaf extracts as the actual therapy value.

Comparing the bacterial load of the MIC positive tubes to the
initial load (107cell/mL) of the test organisms, reduction in
load was observed at 100mg/mL concentration. Though clarity
were observed with the rated eyes in the positive MIC tubes,
the MBC assay, revealed the concentrations at which the leaf
extracts were bactericidal on the test organisms. The cidal and
static activities of the leaf was in the trend of its antibacterial
assay (Table 2).
Table 2: Extract concentration at which MIC and MBC are
valuable on the test organisms
Test
organisms
Extract concentrations (mg/mL)

Young leaf
Matured leaf
Coarse leaf
MI MB Acti MI MB Act MI MB Acti
C
C
on
C
C ion C
C
on
S
Bacillus
100 100 C 145 160 S 350 145
S
cereus
100 115
S 130 160 S 300 130
S
Staphylococc 100 145
S 140 130 S 300 130
us aureus
100 100 C 130 130 C 300 300 C
Pseudomona 145 145 C 130 130 C 300 300 C
S 145 145 S 250 130
S
s aeruginosa 100 100
Escherichia 100 100 C 145 145 C 300 300 C
coli
Proteus
mirabilis
Salmonella
typhi
Shigella
dysenteria
Extract concentrations (mg/mL)

MIC = Minimal inhibitory concentration, MBC = Minimal bacterial
concentration, S = Bacteriostatic, C =Bactericidal.
The employed commercial antibiotics (reference drugs),

antibacterial activities in some cases showed higher inhibitory
potency and in other cases showed lower inhibitory potency
than the leaf extracts. NIT, AMX, CRO and CPX were the
most potent on the test organisms. S. aureus was the most
inhibited (10-28 mm) by the reference drugs followed by S.
dysenteriae (13-26 mm) among the test bacterial isolates. All
the test organisms were resistant to augmentin. However, E.
coli was resistant to all the employed reference drugs. S. typhi
was resistant to AUG, NIT, AMX, GRO, GEN and TET. TET
showed the least therapeutic effect (2-5 mm) on the test
bacterial isolates (Table 3).
215
findings in this study, shows that the crude extract of the

different growth stages of L. indica leaves acted significantly
as antimicrobial agent. This was demonstrated by the various
inhibitory halo measured from the in vitro bio-assay.
However, the active substances contained in the leaves made it
possible for the inhibitory measure over the test organisms.
Though, [9, 10] have reported the presence of some
compounds such as saponin, glycosides, steroid, cardiac
glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, phenols. The inhibitory effect
against bacterial pathogens by Terminalia catappa with
different maturity of leaf extracts and identified the
phytochemicals with varying quality and quantities [11].
Since decreased inhibitory halo was observed in the stages of
ageing in L. Indica leaf it implies that the active ingredients in
the leaf decrease alongside advancement in age.
Table 3: Conventional antibiotic disc assay (mm)
Test
organisms
Bacillus
cereus
Staphylococc
us aureus
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Escherichia
coli
Proteus
mirabilis
Salmonella
typhi
Shigella
dysenteri
AU NI
G T
-
6
29
11
7
15
A
M
X
8
20
20
10
18
CR CO CP GE OF PE TE
O T X N L X T
10
15
15
11
26
1
8
2
26
15
28
10
5
1
22
1
10
2
-
3
12
5
10
2
13
5
15
3
-
2
5
AUG: Augmentin, NIT: Nitrofuration, AMX: Amoxicilin, CRO:

Celtridzone, COT: Contrimoxazole, CPX: Ciprofloxacin, GEN:
Gentamycin, OFL: Oflaxacin, PFX: Pefloxacin, TET: Tetracyclin.
4. CONCLUSION
The result of present investigation clearly indicate that the
antimicrobial activity vary with the different maturity of plant
material used. Thus, the study ascertains the value of plants
used in ayurveda, which could be of considerable interest to
the development of new drugs.
REFERENCES
It has been reported that gram negative bacterial are resistant

to antibacterial agents and this was observed in the employed
reference antibiotics. Hence, they are purified agents and the
leaf extracts in this study acted better on both the Gram
positive and negative considered test organism, their
purification will evident a high therapeutic effect on certain
diseases in which they are specifically manufactured for. The
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
M. Merino, C. Bersani, G. Como, Impendence measurement to study

the antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Laminaceae and
Compositae, 2011, Int. J. Food Microbiology. 67:187-195.
F. C. Akharaiyi, B. Boboye, J Nat Prod, 2010, 3, 27-34.
M. Lis-Balchin, S. G. Deans, J Appl Bacteriol , 1997, 82. 759-762.
A. Nostro, M. P. Germano, V. D,Angelo, A. Marino, M. A. Cannatelli,
Lett Appl Microbiol, 2000, 30, 379-384.

Chandra M
216
[5]
C. F. Bogamboula, M. Uyttendale, J. Debevere, Antimicrobial effects

of spices and herbs on Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri, 2003, J
Food Prot, 66: 668-673.
[6] A. Manna, M. E. Abalaka, 2000, Spectrum J, 7, 119-125.
[7] M. J. Ikenebome, P.O. Metitiri, Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 8, 1233.
[8] Yesser Diab, Khaled Atalla, Khaled Elbanna, Antimicrobial screening
of some Egyptian plants and active flavones from Lagerstroemia Indica
L. leaves, 2012, Drug Discoveries and Therapeutics, 6(4):212-217.
[9] Bipul Biswas, Kimberly Rogers, Fredrick McLaughlin, Dwayne Daniels
and Anand Yadav, Antimicrobial activities of leaf extracts of Guava
(Psidium guajava L.) on two Gram Negative and Gram + positive
bacteria, 2013, Int J Microbiology, Vol. 2(13), Article ID. 746165. 7
pages.
[10] F. C. Akharaiyi, R. M. Ilori and J. A. Adesida, Antimicrobial effects of
Terminalia catappa on some selected pathogenic bacteria, 2011, Int J
Pharm Biomed Res, 2(2), 64-67.
[11] P. Neelavathi, Venkatalakshmi and Brindha, Antibacterial activities of
aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Terminalia catappa leaves and bark
against some pathogenic bacteria, Int J Pharm Pharmaceutical
Sci.,2013, Vol.3(1):140-120.


Simulation of Soil Water Dynamics in the Rice and

Mustard Cropped Field using Hydrus 2D for
Limbraj Parshuram Pholane1, Laxmi Narayan Sethi2* and Sudhindra Nath Panda3
1
Ex-Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department,

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Assam University, Silchar-788011
3
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
E-mail: 2lnsethi06@gmail.com
AbstractEastern India is bestowed with an annual rainfall ranging

from 1200 to1700 mm, two-third of which is occurring during
monsoon season spanning from June to September. Where rice
(Oryza sativa L.) followed by mustard (Brassica juncea L.) are the
two predominant crops grown in monsoon and winter seasons,
respectively. The spatial and temporal variability of rainfall create
situation like surface flooding that causes a lot of soil and nutrient
erosion on one hand and at the other, water scarcity at the critical
crop growth stages. Thus, understanding of soil water dynamics
under such monsoon climate is important for developing proper
water management strategy for agricultural production system.
In the present study, water dynamics in the rice and

mustard cropped field was simulated using HYDRUS-2D
model. Simulation for soil water regime for 7 soil layers for
mustard and 3 for rice (15 cm increment) fields was carried
out with respect to observation nodes in the model domain and
field observation points. Calibration and validation of
HYDRUS-2D model was based on three years of field
experiments and resulted high coefficient of determination
(more than 0.72), and low root mean square error (less than
0.032) revealing its suitability to predict soil water dynamics
in the effective root-zone of rainfed rice and mustard under
varying saturated condition. The slope of the regression line is
close to unity, which further indicates good agreement
between the observed and simulated soil water content
indicate that HYDRUS-2D model. In addition to scattered and
regression presentation, the performance of HYDRUS-2D
model was also evaluated using error statistics such as
prediction efficiency (PE) and root mean square error
(RMSE). Thus, the fate of the millions of farmers in the rainfed
ecosystem can be greatly improved by adopting the effective
rainwater conservation and management practices for
sustainable agriculture in eastern India.
1. INTRODUCTION
Eastern India is bestowed with ample rainfall resources with
average annual rainfall of 1500 mm, 80% of which is
concentrated during monsoon season(June-September) but
during winter season (October- January) most of the areas lie
barren due to lack of supplemental irrigation facilities. In
eastern India, rice (Oryza sativa L.) followed by mustard
(Brassica juncea L.) are the two predominant crops grown in
monsoon and winter seasons, respectively [2] and [8].
Conventional water management in the rice cultivation aims at
keeping the fields continuously submerged. But, excess
ponding causes nutrient imbalance and reduction in yield and
also inundation problem of rice and complete damage of
seedlings and matured crop in low lands downstream.
Experiments conducted with different water saving irrigation
(WSI) techniques in various regions demonstrated that
continuous submergence is not essential for increasing rice
yields [6], whereas irrigation to rice at near saturation gives
comparable yield with continuous submergence and saves a
substantial amount of water [3] and [13]. So, understanding of
soil water dynamics is important for developing proper water
management strategy for crop production system.
Simulation modeling for understanding soil water dynamics
and daily water balance is an appropriate alternative to
understand the water use as well as irrigation and drainage
requirements of the crops. The said approach is increasingly
being used as an alternative to develop appropriate strategies
for the efficient management of water resources for
sustainable production and to transfer the results for multilocation trials in farmers field [5] and [9]. Computer models
are becoming increasingly important tools for analyzing
complex problems involving water flow and solute transport
in the vadose zone [1]. However, studies simultaneously
218
estimating water flow and solute transport parameters for

transient variably-saturated media are less common e.g. [4],
especially in a layered soil-profile and for field conditions.
Among the simulation models, HYDRUS-2D is a rather
simple for simulating the water and solute transport under
variable saturated conditions [4], [11] and [7]. Therefore, the
present study was undertaken to assess the water dynamics
under variable soil water regimes in rice and mustard fields
using HYDRUS-2D model for sustainable agriculture.

2.1. Experimental site and farming practices
In order to study the feasibility of the simulation models for
the quantification of water balance parameters in the cropped
field, three years (2002, 2003 and 2004) of field experiments
were undertaken in the experimental farms of Agricultural and
Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT), Kharagpur, West Bengal, India. It is located at latitude
of 22o 19' N, longitude of 87o 19' E with an altitude of 48 m
above the mean sea level.
The experimental plots of upland in nature (without allowing
standing water in the plots) with very close rainwater
harvesting structure to store excess rainwater were selected for
sustainable production of monsoon rice (Oryza sativa L.,
Variety MW-10), and winter mustard (Brassica juncea Coss.
Variety B-54). Rice seeds @100 kg ha-1 were sown on dry
tilled soil in line with 200 mm spacing between the rows at the
onset day of monsoon in all the fields. Pre-treated mustard
seeds @ 5 kg ha-1 were sown in line with 200 mm spacing.
Mustard seeds were sown 15 days after the harvest of rice.
Rice and mustard seeds were sown in line by hand racking.
In the present study, a water-saving irrigation technique was
considered in which, SI from nearby rainwater harvesting
structure to the rice and mustard might be applied during
critical growth stages. The duration of critical growth stage
(CGS) of rice (30 days) was found to start at the 45th day after
germination of seed (booting stage) and continued up to the
end of the milking stage. SI to rice may be provided when the
management-allowable deficit (MAD) during the critical
growth stage was 40% depletion of soil moisture content from
the volumetric saturation moisture content in the 45 cm
effective root-zone depth [14]. SI was applied to rice for
raising the soil moisture content up to field capacity or the
effective depth of available water from nearby rainwater
harvesting structure. The soil water required for seed
germination of mustard is 75% available soil moisture (ASM)
in the seeding zone depth of 15 cm [15]. So, 75% of ASM was
kept as lower limit for PSI/SI to the mustard.
The soil profile of the experimental field could be divided into
three and seven layers considering the effective root-zone of
rice (45 cm) and mustard (105 cm) with each layer of 15 cm.
These layers were decided for in situ measurements of soil

physical properties, soil hydraulic parameters, and soil water
characteristics at different depths in the effective root-zone of
crops. The soil moisture content, matric suction, and
piezometric head, saturated hydraulic conductivity in each
depth was determined by falling head method. The average
soil texture, bulk densities, residual soil moisture content (r),
and saturated soil moisture content (s) measured at different
root-zone depths of the cropped field are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Soil Texture and hydraulic properties of
soil layers in the cropped field.
Bulk
densit K s s
Soil
Sand Silt Clay
r (cm3
y
layers
(cm (cm3 cm(%) (%) (%)
cm-3)
3
(g cm day-1)
(cm)
)
3
)
0-15
66.4 18.6 15.0 1.65 12.24
0.37
0.0306
15-30 62.5 21.5 16.0 1.60
7.01
0.39
0.0364
30-45 63.0 20.6 16.4 1.58
5.94
0.38
0.0386
45-60 64.2 20.0 15.8 1.60
4.01
0.40
0.0405
60-75 62.8 20.5 16.7 1.62
3.19
0.42
0.0407
75-90 62.7 20.8 16.5 1.61
2.14
0.42
0.0428
90-105 62.5 19.5 18.0 1.68
1.01
0.43
0.0470
The meteorological parameters namely rainfall, solar

radiation, wind velocity, air temperature, and relative humidity
were collected for three years (2002-2004) from the
meteorological center as well as Automatic Weather Station of
IIT, Kharagpur, which is located in the close vicinity of the
experimental site. The site is coming under sub-humid and
sub-tropical climate. It receives average annual rainfall of
1525.50 mm of which 1155.50 mm contribute during
monsoon. Total seasonal rainfall during monsoon varies from
787 to 1600 mm. However, the annual rainfall varies from
1034 to 2100 mm. The annual and seasonal rainy days varies
from 46 to 124 and 34 to 83 days, respectively.
Instruments such as aqua-pro soil water sensor and
tensiometer were installed to monitor the soil water content in
different soil layers with 15 cm intervals in the crop effective
root zone depths (45 cm for rice and 105 cm for mustard) on
daily basis. The digital aqua-pro water sensor and tensiometer
were calibrated using the gravimetric measurements and the
soil moisture characteristic curve for each layer were
developed to transfer the readings from the instruments into
soil moisture information.
2.2. Hydrus-2D model simulation
Owing to large-scale variation in climate during monsoon and
post-monsoon seasons, physical measurement of soil water
becomes difficult and in such situation modeling studies are
often adopted to simulate soil water. HYDRUS-2D [12] has
been used for simulating soil water dynamics in the rice and
mustard fields under variable saturated conditions. The model

was calibrated and validated after defining the domain
geometry with finite element mesh (FEM), observation nodes,
initial and boundary conditions of the rice and mustard field
cross sections.
Maximum root-zone depth of crops (45 cm for rice and 105
cm for mustard) was considered as the model domain. Soil
profile of the rice and mustard fields was divided into 3 and 7
layers of 15 cm intervals, respectively. Soil water contents
measured at different layers on the first day of simulation was
specified as initial boundary conditions.
Daily rainfall/supplemental irrigation and potential evapotranspiration for the entire simulation period of 120 days for
monsoon rice including 15 days of turn-in period (period
between harvest of rice to sowing of mustard) and 75 days for
winter mustard were used as a time-variable boundary at the
soil surface. The soil surface was assumed to have
atmospheric boundary condition for the model domain. The
bottom boundary at the root-zone depth was assigned to have
free drainage boundary condition for vertical percolation. The
vertical boundaries were assigned as no-flow boundary
conditions.
The measured values of hydraulic parameters for different soil
layers of the cropped fields were input to different layers of
the model domain. Using inverse modeling approach,
HYDRUS-2D model was calibrated for the simulation of daily
soil water content and to get optimized calibrating parameters
at 95% confidence intervals. The calibrated parameters such as
coefficient () and exponent (n) in soil water retention
function for each soil layer were estimated using neural
network prediction and van Genuchten and Mualem (VGM)
hydraulic model. The optimized calibrated parameters of
HYDRUS-2D for soil layers of cropped field were used for
the simulation of soil water dynamics in different soil layers
for rice and mustard fields under variably saturated condition.
219

Using optimized calibrated parameters, HYDRUS-2D model
was used to simulate soil moisture content for rice and
mustard fields under variably saturated conditions. In addition
to scattered and regression presentation, the performance of
HYDRUS-2D model was also evaluated using error statistics
such as prediction efficiency (PE) and root mean square error
(RMSE) for simulation of SMC in different soil layers of
mustard and rice fields for the year 2002, 2003, and 2004. The
details of the results are presented in the following sections.
3.1. Soil moisture dynamics in the rice field
Daily variation of simulated and observed soil moisture
content for three soil layers of rice field for the three
experimental years are shown in Fig. 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
In rice fields variation of soil water content in different soil
layers of crop root-zone was found to have cyclic experience
due to variation in rainfall. However, during the period when
there was no rainfall or no supplemental irrigation is applied,
soil water content was found to decline gradually because of
uptake of water by the plant roots and vertical percolation
from the root-zone.
The regression analysis of observed and simulated SMC for
different soil layers of mustard field for the experimental year
2002 are shown in Fig. 1. The slope of the regression line is
close to unity, which further indicates good agreement
between the observed and predicted SMC. The clustering of
observed and predicted SMC around the 1:1 line and the high
value of R2 (more than 0.72) indicate that HYDRUS-2D
model is quite efficient in predicting daily variation of SMC in
the crop root-zone in the rainfed ecosystem.
In addition to scattered and regression presentation, the
performance of HYDRUS-2D model was also evaluated using
error statistics such as prediction
The model performance was evaluated using regression

analysis (coefficient of determination), scattered diagram and
error statistics (root mean square error and prediction
efficiency) of simulated and observed daily data.
Table 2: Initial and optimized calibrated parameters for
soil layers of cropped field.
n
Depth
(cm-1)
(cm)
Initial
Optimized
Initial
Optimized
0-15
0.0070
0.0072
1.4634
1.4500
15-30
0.0077
0.0057
1.4893
1.4749
30-45
0.0122
0.0039
1.5000
1.5619
45-60
0.0094
0.0036
1.5000
1.5611
60-75
0.0070
0.0035
1.5000
1.5669
75-90
0.0070
0.0034
1.2000
1.5597
90-105
0.0070
0.0018
1.2000
1.6945

220
Fig. 1. Daily variation of simulated and observed soil moisture

content in soil layers of rice field for 2002
Fig. 3: Daily variation of simulated and observed soil moisture

efficiency (PE) and root mean square error (RMSE) for

simulation of SMC in different soil layers of rice fields for the
year 2002, 2003, and 2004 (Table 3).
Table 3: Error statistics for hydrus-2d simulation of soil moisture
content in soil layers of rice field.
Soil
2002
2003
2004
layer
PE
RMSE
PE
RMSE
PE
RMSE
(cm)
0-15 0.9326 0.0230 0.9132
0.0263
0.9523 0.0207
15-30 0.9475 0.0225 0.9360
0.0209
0.9623 0.0278
30-45 0.9531 0.0221 0.9525
0.0294
0.9709 0.0191
The error statistics revealed that the PE and RMSE values are
2
within the acceptable limit. The high value of R , PE (more
than 0.90), and low value of RMSE (less than 0.032) indicates
that the HYDRUS-2D model is quite efficient in predicting
daily variation of SMC in the cropped field with variably
saturated condition.
3.2. Soil water dynamics in the mustard field
Fig. 2. Daily variation of simulated and observed soil moisture
Daily variation of simulated and observed soil moisture

content for three soil layers of mustard field for the three
experimental years are shown in Fig. 4, 5, and 6, respectively.
During the mustard growing period, soil water content in
different soil layers of crop root-zone depths was found
varying due to supplemental irrigation over a period of time.
The variation in soil water content in upper three layers of
crop root-zone depths (0-45 cm) was found higher than the
lower depths (45-105 cm) during three years of experiment.
The variation in soil water content in upper layers of crop
root-zone depths affects the availability of water and nutrient
to mustard and ultimately affects crop yields.

221

content in soil layers of mustard field for 2003

content in soil layers of mustard field for 2002.

content in soil layers of mustard field for 2004.

222
The error statistics such as prediction efficiency (PE) and root

mean square error (RMSE) for simulation of SMC in different
soil layers of mustard fields for the year 2002, 2003, and 2004
(Table 4).
Table 4: Error statistics for hydrus-2d simulation of
soil moisture content in soil layers of mustard field.
Soil
2002
2003
2004
layer
PE
RMSE
PE
RMSE
PE
RMSE
(cm)
0-15
0.9337 0.0317 0.9335 0.0318 0.9620 0.0239
15-30 0.9342 0.0315 0.9345 0.0313 0.9530 0.0266
30-45 0.9432 0.0291 0.9353 0.0311 0.9503 0.0273
45-60 0.9457 0.0283 0.9518 0.0266 0.9588 0.0247
60-75 0.9612 0.0240 0.9525 0.0263 0.9442 0.0289
75-90 0.9700 0.0211 0.9616 0.0236 0.9408 0.0297
90-105 0.9796 0.0174 0.9708 0.0263 0.9357 0.0309
scope for rain water harvesting structure and sustainable

crop production in north east of India.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
The error statistics revealed that the PE and RMSE values are
2
within the acceptable limit. The high value of R , PE (more
than 0.90), and low value of RMSE (less than 0.032) indicates
that the HYDRUS-2D model is quite efficient in predicting
daily variation of SMC in the cropped field with variably
saturated condition.
[6]
[7]
[8]
4. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the simulation of soil water dynamics simulated by
Hydrus-2D model and three years of field experimental
studies, the following conclusions have been drawn:
(i) Simulation of Hydrus-2D model based on three years of
field experiments resulted high coefficient of
determination (more than 0.72), and low root mean square
error (less than 0.032) revealing its suitability to predict
soil water dynamics in the effective root-zone of rainfed
rice and mustard under varying saturated condition.
(ii) In rice fields, soil water content was found cyclic due to
the variation of rainfall. However, no supplemental
irrigation was applied to rice as soil water content was not
depleted 40% below saturation during critical growth
stage while in mustard; the variation in soil water content
in the root-zone affects the availability of water and
nutrient and ultimately impact on crop yields.
(iii) Excess rainwater generated from the cropped field with
water saving irrigation conditions could render better
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Belder, P., B.A.M. Bouman, and J.H.J. Spiertz., Exploring options for
water savings in lowland rice using a modelling approach , Agric. Syst.,
2007, pp. 91-114.
Ghosh, B.C., Pande, H.K., Mittra, B.N., Possibilities of growing a
second crop on residual moisture of aman paddy lands in Midnapore
district , Agronomy News Letter, Agro Science Forum, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur, India, 1978, pp. 7-8.
Hukkeri, S.B., Sharma, A.K., Water use efficiency of transplanted and
direct-sown rice under different water management practices Indian J.
Agric. Sci, 50, 1979, pp. 240-243.
Inoue, M., Simunek, J., Shiozawa, S., Hopmans, J.W., Simultaneous
estimation of soil hydraulic and solute transport parameters from
transient infiltration experiments Adv. Water Resour. 23, 2000., pp.
677-688.
Jones, P.G., Thorton, P.K., A rainfall generator for agricultural
applications in the tropics Agric. For. Meteorol. 63, 1993, pp. 1-19.
Khepar, S.D., Yadav, A.K., Sondhi, S.K., Siag, M., Water balance
model for rice fields under intermittent irrigation practices Irrig. Sci.
19, 2000, pp. 199-208.
Mortensen, A.P., Hopmans, J.W., Mori, Y., Simunek, J., Multi-
functional heat pulse probe measurements of coupled vadose

zone flow and transport Adv. Water Resour. 29, 2006, pp. 250-267.
Panigrahi, B., Panda, S.N., Optimal sizing of on-farm reservoirs for

supplemental irrigation J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg, 129, 2003a, pp 117128.
Panigrahi, B., Panda, S.N., Field test of a soil water balance simulation
model Agric. Water Manage, 58, 2003b, pp. 223-240.
Phillips, I.R., Modelling water and chemical transport in large
undisturbed soil cores using HYDRUS-2D Aus. J. Soil Res. 44, 2006,
pp 2734.
Simunek, J., Jarvis, N.J., van Genuchten, M,T., Gardenas, A., Review
and comparision of models for describing non-equilibrium and
preferential flow and transport in the vadose zone , J. Hydrol. 272,
2003, pp. 14-35.
imnek, J., M. ejna, and M.Th. van Genuchten. The HYDRUS-2D
Software Package for Simulating the Two dimensional Movement of
Water, Heat, and Multiple Solutes in Variably Saturated Media, Version
2.0, IGWMC-TPS-70, International Ground Water Modeling Center,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden Colorado. 1999.
Singh, J.K., Singh, P.M., Determination of different components of
energy balance equation and estimation of evapotranspiration for winter
paddy grown under saturated soil condition J. Agric. Engrg, 26, 1989,
pp. 97-106.
SWIM Mission Report, Water Saving Techniques in Rice Irrigation.
SWIM Mission to Guilin Prefecture, Guangxi Region, China, 1997.
Verma, H.N., Sarma, P.B.S., Criteria for identifying effective monsoon
for sowing in rainfed agriculture J. Irrig. Power, 35, 1990a 177-184.


Learning Tool for Dyslexia Affected Children

Ashwin K.1, Shubhangi Maheshwari2 and Abhishek Mundra3
1
B.tech 20, 2nd Cross St. Venkatraman NGR, Hastinnapuram,Chennai-64

2
B.tech 308, F-Block, SRM Hostels, Kattankulathur, Chennai-03.
3
B.tech C301, Kakkan St., Kattankulathur,Chennai-03
E-mail: 1ashwinstringed@gmail.com, 2shubhangi.mahi19@gmail.com, 3mundra95abhi@gmail.com
AbstractDyslexia is a neurological condition that is characterized

by difficulties that mainly affect the ability of a child to read and
write. In India almost 15% of children are affected by dyslexia .
Children are the society of tomorrow and considering that the
number is alarming . This special case children are children of
normal caliber but due to their limitation to learn and read, due to
difference in perception are thus viewed abnormal . This condition is
completely curable if treated with proper psychological guidance.
The instrument has been engineered to help these special children
and help in their learning process. This instrument uses a imaging
device that records the stroke pattern performed by the user and
verifies with the alphabet or the word that the user pronounces which
will be taken in by the microphone . As the verification is done the
indication device shows us the correctness of the user's word or
spelling. This product can be upgraded with a Bluetooth and
connected to a tablet or a smart phone to analyze the results for
monitoring.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dyslexia is a condition which reduces the grasping power in
children and thus result in inability to read and write. This
condition although is a curable disorder is mostly ignored by
the parents and the children are forced to take the burden of
inefficiency. This also makes children weak in ordering,
sequencing, audio receptive memory, inability to do standards
like indicating time, identifying direction and also motor
skills. Dyslexia is frequently accompanied by dysgraphia, This
makes the child to get hold on writing language and use
written language to express thoughts. Children affected by
dysgraphia often are found with shabby handwriting. Even if
children are diagnosed with dyslexia there are cases of under
perfomace because of lack of constant care.
To help the children with the inability to precept alphabets,
shapes, numbers and direction this product was developed. As
practice makes a man perfect , this embedded tool will help
children to practice anywhere. This is kept in mind and the
product has been proposed. This is a simple looking
instrument which can be carried around .It has the structure of
a pen with all the system arranged.
2. LEARNING TOOL
The Learning Tool consists of four main parts namely the
audio signal detection system, flow detection section ,
analyzing section and the display section. The audio sensor
receives the input from user. The tool is structured like a pen
with a sensor that detects the flow and sends us a feedback.
The text processor encodes the stroke and detects the character
if the entry is proper. The display unit returns us with a signal
corresponding to the correctness of the writing. Now let us
look into the hardware in detail.
1. The audio sensing section
This section uses a (Electet) microphone which is used for
receiving data from the user. The response from this sensor is
an analog value corresponding to the input and that is
converted into Digital signal and observed in the
microcontroller. This is stored as the audio input into the
memory.
The sensor was selected, since it is compact and gives us very

prcice signal for each syllable and is capable of differentiating
similar phonics.
2. The flow detection system
This part of the module has a optical flow sensor which
essentially records the flow of the body it is integrated with.
Its hardware contains a 2-D array arrangement of camera
which has an integrated IC inside which gives us the drift in
each of the pixel group and hence we can record the waving
through the shift in x and y directions which the controller can
record it as an alphabet after processing. The below diagrams
shows us the recording features of various degrees of freedom.
Once these patterns are combined and the corresponding
alphabet is decoded by the controller. This is then sent to the
analyzing section of our tool.
Ashwin K., Shubhangi Maheshwari and Abhishek Mundra
224
4. The display section

The display is an led system that depicts the answer's
correctness. Green and red LEDs are connected on the tool for
this purpose. Also an UART port output is given through a
FTDI chip for serial reading and using it with any IDE. This
modular system due to its independent functioning and low
power functioning can be used at any place with ease.
3. POWER SYSTEM
3. Analyzing section
The analyzing section matches the audio and optical input and
checks for the correctness. The tool uses at mega 2560
microcontroller a 8 bit microcontroller with 256 Kb of
memory. This has been previously stirred with all stroke
pattern and equivalent audio values. Once the inputs are
recorded the values are compared with the database. This
requires loading the EEPROM of the controller with required
data. Since the chip has 256Kb of memory the data can be
stored within the chip and requires no extra memory
component. The audio sensor output being analog can be
directly read from an analog pin on the controller. This value
recorded is again compared with the database data and verified
for correctness.
This system uses N7000 Battery which provides 5v with a

current supply capacity of 1A. Since rechargeable batteries are
used the system can be recharged and can be used for the
entire battery life without replacing.
audio
sensing
device
MCU
Flow
Detection
Device
Display
section
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by a grant from the National
Science Foundation.
REFERENCES
[1] http://dyslexia.org/
[2] http://www.centeye.com/products/current-centeye-vision-chips/
Due to the compact size this controller can be put into small
modular design.


Saccharification of Wheat Bran and Kitchen

Waste for Ethanol Production
Shelja1 and Rinku Walia2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering Baddi University of Emerging Sciences & Technology Baddi, Distt. Solan, Himachal Pradesh
E-mail: 1shelja87@gmail.com, 2waliarinks@rediffmail.com
AbstractBioconversion of lignocellulose biomass to bioethanol

has shown environmental, economic and energetic advantages in
comparison to bioethanol produced from sugar or starch. However,
the pretreatment process for increasing the enzymatic accessibility
and improving the digestibility of cellulose is hindered by many
physical-chemical, structural and compositional factors, which make
these materials difficult to be used as feedstocks for ethanol
production. A wide range of pretreatment methods has been
developed to alter or remove structural and compositional
impediments to (enzymatic) hydrolysis over the last few decades;
however, only a few of them can be used at commercial scale due to
economic feasibility. The objective of the present study is to study the
pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis for bioethanol production
using wheat bran and kitchen waste as substrate. Optimization of
saccharification conditions was studied at different pH (3,4,5,6,7and
8 ) and temperature (20,25,30,35,40 and 45oC) respectively.
Optimum conditions of saccharification were achieved at 5pH and
30oC temperature at 5th day for kitchen waste whereas for wheat
bran, it was observed at 4th day.
Keywords: Bioethanol, Saccharification, Substrate.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the growing human population, the world is facing
tremendous pressure to meet its needs of food, feed,
chemicals, and energy, and also to balance the demand and
supply in keeping with environmental safeguards. Today fossil
fuels take up 80% of the primary energy consumed in the
world, of which 58% alone is consumed by the transport
sector ( Escobar et al, 2009) and transportation sector accounts
for more than 70% of global carbon monooxide (CO)
emissions and 19% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
(Goldemberg et al, 2008). The natural gas and oil fields are
shrinking fast to meet the demands of our progress. Thus, the
increase concern for the security of oil supply and negative
impact of fossil fuel on environment particularly global
warming has put pressure on society to find renewable fuel
alternative (He et al, 2010).
Bioethanol is one of the promising future energy alternatives
contributing to the reduction of negative environmental
impacts generated by the use of fossil fuels (McMillan, 1994).
Ethanol is environmentally beneficial energy source and can
be employed to replace octane enhancers such as

methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) and
aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene or oxygenates such as
methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). For production of
biocommodities from biomass one of the major bottlenecks
has been the lignocellulosic biomass including environmental
wastes and energy crops such as corn, wheat straw, rice husk
and sugar cane are high priority research interests worldwide
which is .most abundant and low- cost biomass over the world
can be used as raw materials for the production of fuel ethanol
and develop bioindustries that could support growth of
international biofuel market and contribute to the reduction of
greenhouse gas emission worldwide (Madhavan et al, 2012).
Lignocelluloses are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose,
lignin, extractives, and several inorganic materials.
Lignocellulosic conversion mainly includes three processes:
pretreatment, hydrolysis of cellulose in the lignocellulosic
material to fermentable reducing sugar and fermentation of
reducing sugar to ethanol by microorganisms i.e. bacteria,
yeast, or filamentous fungi. (Kanafusa-Shinkai et al, 2013).
The complexity of production process depends on the feed
stock and accordingly spectrum of implemented technology
goes from the simple conversion of sugars by fermentation to
the multistage conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to
ethanol. Pretreatment effectiveness and enzymatic hydrolysis
has been correlated with the removal of hemicellulose, lignin
and reduction of cellulose fiber crystallinity (Jagtap et al,
2013).
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Materials & microorganism
Wheat Bran and kitchen waste were used as a substrate. The
kitchen waste was collected from mess of BUEST, Baddi,
Himachal pradesh. It was dried in sunlight and ground to 1mm
particle size which is used for further analysis. The fungal
spore of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium citrinum were used
for the present study All the experiments were performed in
triplicates and the average values were calculated.
Shelja and Rinku Walia
226
2.2.2. Alkali treatment Both waste were treat with 0.5 to 2%

of NaOH, excess of sulfuric acid was added into each flask to
soaked wheat bran and kitchen waste for 10 min at room
temperature and then washed with double distilled water and
autoclaved at 1210C with 15 psi pressure for 1 hour. Then the
treated substrate was washed with double distilled water until
the filterate becomes neutral. The substrates were dried at
500C in hot air oven for subsequently analysis.
2.3. Enzymes Hydrolysis
3.2. Optimization of Culture Conditions for Enzyme

Production
2.3.3. Standardization of Conditions for Saccharification

To determine the optimum saccharification conditions of pH,
temperature and time, the above mention reaction mixture was
incubated from 3 to 8 pH at 20 to 450C temperature for 10
days at 120 rpm. These are the most important parameters
affecting the growth of fungus.
The reducing sugar was analyzed by DNS method for
optimum conditions.
The percentage saccharification was calculated as (Baig et al,
2004)
Glucose (mg/ml) x 100
Saccharification (%) = -----------------------------------Substrate (mg/ml)
0.3
31
0.26
26
21
0.22
16
0.18
11
0.14
0.1
1
1
RS(kw)Incubation
RS(wb)
%s(kw)
period(Days)
10
%S(wb)
Fig. 1: Effect of contact time (Days) on saccharification of wheat

bran and kitchen waste
28
20
18
red u cin g su g ar (m g /m l)
2.3.2. Inoculum Preparation A homogeneous spore

suspension was obtained by adding one crop of colonies into
Erlenmeyer flasks containing broth media and incubating the
flasks in incubator at 30 0C for 5 days till sporulation (Cunha
et al, 2012). An appropriate concentration of 1106-- 1107
spores/ml was obtained (Maeda et al, 2013). 1ml of the spore
was added to the each of both flasks containing Kitchen waste,
Wheat bran substrates and mineral media, under the sterilized
conditions.
R e d u c i n g s u g a r (m g / m l )
2.3.1. Inoculum source A pre - isolated and pre identified

strain of Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus niger as used
for present study.
% s a c c h a r i fi c a ti o n
2.2.1. Acid treatment In this process the wheat bran and

kitchen waste were soaked in 0.5 to 2% of H2SO4 for 10
minutes at room temperature and then washed with double
distilled water and autoclaved at 121oC with 15 psi pressure
for 1 hour (Talebnia et al, 2008).Then the treated substrate was
washed with double distilled water until the filtrate becomes
neutral. The substrates were dried at 50oC in hot air oven for
subsequently analysis.
sodium hydroxide from 0.5 to 2.0% for both the waste. The
effect of sulfuric acid pretreatment on lignin, hemicellulose
and cellulose removal was investigated. Pretreatment with
acid predominantly increases the surface area of
lignocellulosic material, making the polysaccharides more
susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis (Zheng et al, 2014). The
main types of bonds that connect the building molecules
within the lignin polymer are ether bonds and carbon-tocarbon bonds. The use of an alkali causes the degradation of
ester and glycosidic side chains resulting in structural
alteration of lignin, cellulose swelling, partial decrystallization
of cellulose (Cheng et al, 2010; McIntosh and Vancov, 2010
and Ibrahim et al, 2011) and partial solvation of
hemicelluloses (Sills and Gossett, 2011). Sodium hydroxide
has been extensively studied for many years, and it has been
shown to disrupt the lignin structure of the biomass, increasing
the accessibility of enzymes to cellulose and hemicelluloses
(Zhao et al, 2009).
16
21
14
12
14
10
8
6
% sacch arificatio n
2.2. Chemical Pretreatment
rs(KW)
sac (kw)
mean rs (WB)
mean s (WB)

3.1. Chemical pretreatment of kitchen waste
3.1.1. Effect of sulfuric acid and alkali pretreatment The
effect of acidic and alkali pretreatment on lignin,
hemicelluloses and cellulose was investigated by conducting
experiments at different concentrations of sulfuric acid and
0
Minimal Mandlis
CMS
TMS
MSMS
Media
Fig. 2: Effect of media on saccharification of wheat bran and

kitchen waste

20
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
15
10
% sa cc h a rific atio n
red u c in g su g a r (m g /m l)
Saccharification of Wheat Bran and Kitchen Waste for Ethanol Production
rs wb
sac wb
rs kw
s kw
0
3
pH
Fig. 3: Effect of pH on saccharification of wheat bran and kitchen

waste
30
25
0.21
20
0.16
15
0.11
10
0.06
% saccharification
reducing sugar(m g/m l)
0.26
rs3wb
M rs wb
m rs kw
me sac kw
0.01
0
20
25
30
35
40
45
Temperature
Fig. 4: Effect of temperature on saccharification of wheat bran

and kitchen waste
4. CONCLUSION
The investigation of pretreatment and hydrolysis of kitchen
waste and wheat bran for bioethanol production was studied
by P. citrinum and A. niger. The main purpose of pretreatment
is to remove hemicelluloses and lignin, to increase the
accessible surface area for enzymes and to descrystallize
cellulose. Both kitchen waste and Wheat bran is cheap residue
which can be used as a substrate for enzyme production which
reduces the cost of enzyme production and enzymatic
conversion of carbohydrate part of both wastes into
fermentable sugar (Karunanithy et al., 2013).
REFERENCES
[1] Baig, M.M.V.; Baig, M.L.B.; Baig, M.I.A. and Yasmeen, M.,
Saccharification of banana agro-waste by cellulolytic
enzymes, Afr. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 3, 9, 2004, pp. 447-450.
[2] Cheng, Y. S., Zheng, Y., Yu, C. W., X Dooley, C. W.,. Jenkins, B.
M and J. S. VanderGheynst., Evaluation of high solids alkaline
pretreatment of rice straw, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 162, 6,
2010, pp. 17681784.
227
[3] Cunha F.M., Esperanca M.N., Zangirolami T.C., Badino, A.C.,

Farinas, C.S., Sequential solid-state and submerged cultivation
of Aspergillus niger on sugarcane bagasse for the production of
cellulose, Bioresour Technol, 112, 2012, pp.270274.
[4] Escobar, J.C., Lora, E.S., Venturini, O.J., Yanez, E.E., Castillo,
E.F. and Almazan, O., Biofuels: environment technology and
food security Renew. Sustain. Eng., 13, 7, 2009, pp. 1275-87.
[5] Goldemberg, J., Environmental and ecological dimensions of
biofuels In proceeding of the conference on ecological
dimensions of biofuels, Washington, D.C., 2008.
[6] He, Y.; Wang, S. and Lai, K.K., Globaleconomic activity and
crude oil price: a cointegration analysis, Energy, 63, 2010, pp.
12-17.
[7] Ibrahim, M. M., El-Zawawy, W. K., Abdel-Fattah, Y. R.,
Soliman, N. A. and Agblevor, F.A., Comparison of alkaline
pulping with steam explosion for glucose production from rice
straw, Carbohydrate Polymers, 83, 2, 2011,pp. 720726.
[8] Jagtap, S.S., Dhiman, S.S., Kim, T.S., Li, J., Lee, J.K., Kang,
Y.C., Enzymatic hydrolysis of aspen biomass into fermentable
sugars by using lignocellulases from Armillaria gemina,
Bioresour Technol, 133, 2013, pp. 307314.
[9] Kanafusa-Shinkai, S., Wakayama, J., Tsukamoto, K., Hayashi,
N., Miyazaki, Y., Ohmori, H., Tajima, K., Yokoyama, H.,
Degradation of microcrystalline cellulose and non-pretreated
plant biomass by a cell-free extracellular cellulase/hemicellulase
system from the extreme thermophilic bacterium, J Biosci
Bioeng, 115, 2013, pp.6470.
[10] Karunanithy, C.; Muthukumarappan, K.; Gibbons, W.R., Effect
of extruder screw speed, temperature, and enzyme levels on
sugar recovery from different biomasses, ISRN Biotechnol.
2013, pp. 1-13.
[11] Madhavan A, Srivastava A, Kondo A, Bisaria VS.
Bioconversion of lignocellulosederived sugars to ethanol by
engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Crit Rev Biotechnol, 32,
2012, pp. 2248.
[12] Maeda, R.N., Barcelos, C.A, Anna, L.M.M.S., Pereira, N.
Jr.,Cellulase production by Penicillium funiculosum and its
application in the hydrolysis of sugar cane bagasse for second
generation ethanol production by fed batch operation J
Biotechnol, 163, 2013, pp.3844.
[13] Mc Intosh, S. and Vancov, T., (2010) Enhanced enzyme
saccharification of Sorghum bicolor straw using dilute alkali
pretreatment, Biores. Technol, 101, 17, 2010, pp. 67186727.
[14] Millan, M.C.D., Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass 1994.
[15] Sills, D. L. and Gossett, J.M., Assessment of commercial
hemicellulases for saccharification of alkaline pretreated
perennial biomass, Biores. Technol.102, 2, 2011, pp. 1389
1398.
[16] Talebnia, F., Bafrani, M.P., Lundin, M. and Taherzadeh, M.J.,
Optimization study of citrus wastes saccharification by dilute
acid hydrolysis, Biores. 3, 2008, pp. 108-122.
[17] Zhao, H., Jones, C. L., Baker, G. A., Xia, S., Olubajo, O. and
Person, V.N., Regenerating cellulose from ionic liquids for an
accelerated enzymatic hydrolysis J. Biotechnol. 139, 1, 2009,
pp. 4754.
[18] Zheng, J., Choo, K., Bradt, C., Lehoux, R., Rehmann, L.,
Enzymatic hydrolysis of steam exploded corncob residues after
pretreatment in a twin-screw extruder, Biotechnol. Rep. 3,
2014, pp. 99107.


Indigenous Fish Farming Knowledge in

Kutch District of Gujarat
S.R. Lende1, S.I. Yusufzai2 and P.J. Mahida3
1,2,3
College of Fisheries, JAU, Veraval, Gujarat- 362265

E-mail: lendesmit@gmail.com, 2saj811@yahoo.com, 3parvezaalam89@gmail.com
1
AbstractFarmers innovations are based on their indigenous

knowledge. These indigenous technological knowledge innovated by
farmers is stored in the peoples memories and activities. The present
study was conducted for the documentation of indigenous
technological knowledge of fish farming in district of Kutch, Gujarat.
These innovations are socially and ecologically acceptable,
economically viable. These knowledge can be promoted through
scientific approach as a mean of higher and sustainable fish seed
production in ecofriendly manner.
balance use for counting seeds, Ash produced from Banana to

improving pH of water and vegetation pit use for keeping
colour of water green etc.
2. METHODOLOGY
Keyword: Fish farming, traditional fish farming, Gujarat.
The present study was carried out in Kutch District of Gujarat.

Data were collected from the respondents through personal
interview using semi-structured scheduled. The conclusion
was drawn from the overall response of the respondents.
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Bhars for transportation of seed
Indigenous knowledge is traditional type of innovation by

farmers that is stored in people's memories and it is expressed
in the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dance, myths,
cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local
language and taxonomy, agricultural practices, plant species
and animal breeds. Farmers innovations are based on their
indigenous knowledge. These indigenous knowledge is the
accumulated knowledge, skill and technology of local farmer
derived from the interaction of the ecosystem. Aquaculture
remains a growing, vibrant and important production sector
for high protein food. The systems and technology used in
aquaculture has developed rapidly in the last fifty years. They
vary from very simple facilities (e.g. family ponds for
domestic consumption in tropical countries) to high
technology systems (e.g. intensive closed systems for export
production). Much of the technology used in aquaculture is
relatively simple, often based on small modifications that
improve the growth and survival rates of the target species,
e.g. improving food, seeds, oxygen levels and protection from
predators. Simple systems of small freshwater ponds, used for
raising herbivorous and filter feeding fish, account for about
half of global aquaculture production. The ultimate goal of
aquaculture is to achieve high production with the good profit
margin. Much more sophistication in the technology may
helps to achieve more production. On the other hand some
traditional and cost effective techniques are still used in
aquaculture which are found to be effective are discussed hear
such as bhars for transportation of seed, empty water bottles
are used as the floats during net operation, an handmade
Bhars are the simple aluminum rounded pots which are used
for transportation of seed from pond to market. These Bhars
are carrying by two ways one person can carry two pot full of
fingerlings on his shoulder with the help of one bamboo stick
also two person can carry one pot full of fingerlings on their
shoulder with the help of one bamboo stick. The mouth of
bhars is covered with the net in order to prevent escape of the
fishes. While the jerking movement during walking started
splashing of water which results in increasing DO inside
water.(fig1)
Fig. 1: Mens carrying bhars
2.2 Plastic Floats

Floats are the material which is used to keep the mouth of net
open during fishing operation. The floats are generally made
up of plastic hollow material. But in India some farmers are
Indigenous Fish Farming Knowledge in Kutch District of Gujarat
using empty water bottles which are act as the floats during
operation of net. This helps to keep the net erect during net
operation (Fig.2) These floats are attached at the specific
distance. This technique use to reduce coast of floats.
229
2.4 Ash produced from Banana

The pH of water is an important criterion to produce adequate
amount of natural food in the water through effective release
of nutrients for the production of such organisms. Application
of lime is essential to rectify pH of water. In general, 200-500
kg/ha can be applied to all ponds, irrespective of the pH status.
In ponds with low pH, higher level application would be
necessary (Fig.5). In rural areas, availability of lime may be a
constraint. Hence, in place of lime, ash produced at home by
burning fire wood or various other sources can also be used.
Ash produced from Banana is reported to be having very good
impact in improving pH of water.
Fig.2: Net operation
2.3 Homemade balance for fish juvenile counting

Generally these are simple homemade weighing balance
which is generally used for counting the fingerlings of the
fishes. (Fig.3-4) Generally small sieves are used for counting
the fingerlings, but by using these method one can quickly
counts the fingerlings.
Fig. 5: Man collecting ash from burned wood and banana leaves
2.4 Vegetation pit

Green water is essential to increase the growth of fish based
on the natural food produced in the pond. Most carps depend
on the natural food produced in the pond and this is eaten by
the fish through the filtration process. Northeast has plenty of
greenery and vegetation that is rich in nitrogen, particularly
(Eupatorium spp). All such plants can be composted in various
corners of ponds by creating bamboo fence and dumping the
vegetation in such enclosures. (Fig.6) Adding manure to
vegetation pit would stimulate the process of composting in
aquatic environment and increase productivity. Make sure that
you do not over dump vegetation in the pond and cause
oxygen depletion. Repeated applications are far more efficient
than dumping at a time.
Fig. 3: Man with fingerling counting balance
(Fig.6) Fish Farmer adding manure to vegetation pit

Fig. 4: Workers are counting the fingerling by using balance

S.R. Lende, S.I. Yusufzai and P.J. Mahida
230
3. RESULTS
REFERENCES
In order to understand the hatchery owner and traditional fish

farmer clearly and comprehensively for this study, some of the
personal, socio- economic, communicational characteristics
were undertaken. The socio economic condition of fish
farmers was found to be comparatively better than the
traditional fish farmer.
[1]
4. CONCLUSION
From the stage of ancient India, traditional knowledge system
in field of fisheries is abounded. Some of these methods are
still in used either in original form or with modification.
Though the new techniques are developed with the
technological innovations, but still these traditional methods
are having their own importance. This abounded store of
knowledge in area of traditional technique for fish production
is still in practice and of great value. It is our duty to develop,
preserve and protect them.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by a grant from the National
Science Foundation.
National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India, Ministry of

Agriculture and irrigation, New Delhi, part VIII (Fisheries), 1976.
[2] Dasgupta DD, Traditional wisdom and experience in agro technology
generation and use, XVII Indian Science Congress, Bangalore, August
10-15, 1993.
[3] Jha BK and Shiyani RL,A study on differential levels of adoption of
dairy innovations in tribal setting of Burdwan district of West Bengal,
Indian J Agric Econ,47(3), 1992,419-420.
[4] Dohare RS,A study on indigenous technical knowledge in animal
husbandry in Mathura district of UP, PhD Thesis, IVRI, Izatnagar, 1996.
[5] Gupta A K, Documenting indigenous farmers ractices, ILIEA News
Letter, 6(2)(1990),29-30.
[6] Das P, Das SK, Arya HPS, Reddy Subba Gand Mishra A, Inventory of
indigenous technical knowledge in Agriculture, Mission unit, Division of
Agriculture Extension, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi,2002.
[7] Pandey AK, A comparative study of livestock rearing system among
tribal and non tribal in Chotanagpur region of Bihar, PhD Thesis,
NDRI,Karnal,1996.
[8] Gupta SL, Singh SP and Dubay VK, Traditional wisdom: A conceptual
exploration, Interaction, 12(1),1994.
[9] Ratnakar R and Reddy MS, Knowledge of tribal farmers about
recommended farm practices, Indian J Extn Edu,27(3&4) (1991),91-94.
[10] Vikash k, Suvra R, Debtanu B, Devanand U, A Case Study: Fish seed
nursing by farmers of Udaipur, South Tripura, India, International
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 2014; 1(4):103-107


Microcellular Bio-nanocomposite Foam as

Sustainable Bone Scaffold Material
Sanchita Bandyopadhyay-Ghosh,Vasudha Batraand Subrata Bandhu Ghosh
Birla Institute of Science and Technology, Pilani,Rajasthan, 333033, India
AbstractThere is a critical need for developing orthopaedic biomaterials for prosthetic and transplant surgeries. Existing
polymericscaffoldssuffer from lack of sufficient mechanical performance and can only provide a two dimensional microenvironment to
the cells, whereas in situ environment of a cell consists of a three dimensional biocomposite structure having network of extra-cellular
matrix and nanofibres. In order to culture cells in a truly three dimensional microenvironment, the scaffold must be a biocomposite with
nanoscale reinforcements and desired mechanical integrity.Against this background, bio-based nanocomposite foam scaffold with three
dimensional environment wasdesigned towards developingnew generation orthopaedic biomaterials.Epoxidised soybean oil was used
as green resin precursor to develop polyurethane (PU) based microcellular foam scaffold. Nanocellulose derived from agricultural
residue provided the environmentally-preferable platform, which was incorporated within the biofoam scaffold to assist in biomimeting
three dimensional matrix environment.Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the successful fibrillation and synthesis of
cellulose nanofibres with average diameter less than 50 nm. Graphene nanoparticles were thermodynamically dispersed into the
interpenetrating composite network structure to enhance the energy absorption performance of the composite substrate and to deliver
the desired structural integrity. After fabrication, these bioengineered foam scaffolds were undergone microstructural analysis, thermal
and thermo-mechanical characterisations, and biocompatibility assessments and the results were compared with tri-calcium phosphate
(TCP) reinforced foam scaffold. The preliminary biocompatibility assessments confirmed the nanocomposite foam scaffold as a good
candidate material for adhesion and proliferation of mouse fibroblast and human osteoblastscells.It was concluded therefore, that this
novel biobased nanocomposite foam scaffold has a great potential to promote cell proliferation and growth which could be an initiative
to develop truly bio-mimicked orthopaedic biomaterials.

Traditional Knowledge of Resource Use in

Context to Ethno-Medicinal & Ethno-Veteniary
Practices in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve,
Uttarakhand, India
Archana Sharma and Jayati Rawat
Doon University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand India
AbstractThe Himalayas have a great wealth of medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge on health care. The Indian
Himalayas alone endorse over 18000 species of plants out of which nearly 45% are considered to have medicinal properties. Our knowledge of
medicinal plants has mostly been inherited traditionally. Use of plants for curing various ailments are not only confined to the doctors but is
known to several households as well. Disseminating and upholding this knowledge on medicinal plants and their uses has become important
for human existence. Thus, this paper explores the range and distribution of traditional knowledge of the local people in context to the use of
wild edibles and other medicinally important plants species for ethno-medicinal as well as ethno-veterinary purposes. Information of about 55
species belonging to 32 families having medicinal, cultural and religious relevance was collected from the local people. The study documents
the traditional knowledge, utilization aspects and distribution of ethno-botanical knowledge of the local people of 8 villages under NDBR
region, as a step towards sustainable utilization and conservation of medicinal plant species. Information given by the people about the
medicinal plants can provide an interesting ethno-botanical data and the distribution of ethno-botanical knowledge indicated that much of the
germane ethno-botanical and utilization information was held by more aged members of the society. Hence, there is an absolved need to
capture this knowledge before it is bewildered such that it can contribute to the knowledge of younger generation regarding the importance
and need of preservation of the resource use.
Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Ethno-medicinal, Ethno-Vetneiary, NDBR, Biodiversity

Some Stochastic Models for Spread of

Infectious Diseases
E.S.V. Narayana Rao and P. Tirupathi Rao
1,2
Dept. of Statistics, Pondicherry University, Puducherry-605014

E-mail: 1esvnraomadhavi@gmail.com, 2drtrpadi@gmail.com
Abstract: Infectious Diseases are important and emerging public-health problems throughout the world. The mechanisms that cause an
infection to spread are highly variable and difficult to measure and assess its intensity. Thus probabilistic tools need to be used to study
infectious transmission dynamics. In this paper we proposed some stochastic models on the spread of infectious diseases. The factors of
influence on the groups of susceptible, infected and diseased are modelled with suitable assumptions. The concepts namely trivariate stochastic
processes and linear differential equations are used to get the probability functions and related statistical measures. Sensitivity of the model
was analyzed with numerical illustrations. This study has the scope in understanding various parameters of the said diseases like time of onset,
incubation, latent period etc.
Keywords: Infectious Diseases, Trivariate Stochastic Processes, Linear Differential Equations.

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