Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
By
the
Same Author
AERODYNAMICS
BY
N. A. V.
PIERCY
Member of
SECOND EDITION
AA
ML
......
1937
FIBST PRINTED
REPRINTED
1943
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLAKGED 1947
Made and
Hagell,
Watson
6* Viney Ltd.,
first
The
original text
is
following connection.
The aim of the book remains unchanged. It does not set out to
and summarise the researches, test results and current
practice of the subject, but rather to provide an adequate and
collect
PREFACE
VI
established, notably
its
immediate application to
with
"
"
k."
No
preference.
CONTENTS
PAGE
V
ART.
PREFACE
NOTATION
xiii
CHAPTER
1115.
16-17.
18.
19-20.
Properties of Air
....
Pressure
Density
Equation.
Assumption.
Incompressibility
Measurement of Small Pressures
Buoyancy of Gas-filled Envelope. Balloons and Airships
Centre of Pressure
Relation between Pressure, Density, and Temperature of a
Gas. Isothermal Atmosphere. Troposphere. The International Standard Atmosphere. Application to Altimeters
Gas-bag Lift in General. Vertical Stability
;
.....
Hydrostatic
........
.........
.
CHAPTER
4
6
11
13
18
20
21
II
23-25.
26-28.
29-33.
.....
....
23
26
Measurement
Equation of Continuity. Experimental Streamlines. Stream
Function. Circulation and Vorticity. Gradient of Pitot
35
........
26
32
........
;
34-41.
42-43.
44-46.
......
of
Normal
Froude Number.
Corresponding Speeds
CHAPTER
44
52
54
58
III
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
50-53.
54.
....
68
75
CONTENTS
Vlll
PAGE
ART.
66-69.
Aero-
61-63.
.......
.......
Aerofoil Characteristics
ment
of
Single
Tunnel
64-66.
Practical
89
Scale.
Aspect of Aerodynamic
Gauge of Turbulence
CHAPTER
77
86
Scale
92
Effects.
97
III
103
Variable-density Tunnel
66A. Induced-flow
Wall
Tunnel.
Subsonic
Adjustment.
106
Blockage
66B-66C. Supersonic Tunnel. Illustrative Results
66D. Pitot Tube at Supersonic Speeds. Plane Shock
.
.109
Wave
114
CHAPTER IV
AIRCRAFT IN STEADY FLIGHT
67-69.
of Heavier-than-air Craft.
Aeroplanes v. AirAeroplane Speed for Minimum Drag
Airship in Straight Horizontal Flight and Climb
Aeroplane in Level Flight. Size of Wings; Landing Conditions Flaps
Power Curves Top Speed Rate of Climb
Climbing, Correction for Speed
Effects of Altitude, Loading, and Partial Engine Failure
Examples
ships.
70-72.
73-76.
77-79.
80.
81-83.
84-85.
86-89.
...
.....
Gliding;
Downwash.
Nose Dive
Circling and Helical
Handley Page Slot.
90.
91-96.
Wind;
Motor-less Gliders
Elevator Angle; Examples; C.G. Location.
Effects of
....
Flight.
118
126
129
137
140
143
146
149
155
156
CHAPTER V
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE IRROTATIONAL FLOW
96-100.
101-106.
106-109.
110-114.
115.
116-117.
118-120.
Physical MeanVelocity-potential.
ing of <f>. Potential Flow. Laplace's Equation
Source. Sink.
Irrotational Circulation.
Combined Source
and Sink. Doublet
Flow over Faired Nose of Long Board. Oval Cylinder.
Circular Cylinder without and with Circulation
Potential Function. Examples. Formulae for Velocity
Flow through
Circulation round Elliptic Cylinder or Plate.
Boundary Condition.
.....
.......
Hyperbolic Channel
Rankine's Method. Elliptic Cylinder or Plate in Motion
Acceleration from Rest. Impulse and Kinetic Energy of
the Flow Generated by a Normal Plate
.
....
163
167
172
180
184
186
190
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
IX
VI
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
PAGE
ART.
Conformal Transformation;
....
Example
130-133A. Circular Arc Aerofoil. Joukowski and Piercy Wing Sections
134-139.
Joukowski's Hypothesis Calculation of Circulation ; Streamlines with and without Circulation.
Investigation of Lift,
212
220
140.
.....
227
235
CHAPTER VIA
THIN AEROFOILS AT ORDINARY SPEEDS
140A-140B. Method and Equations
140c. Application to Circular Arc
140D-140F. General Case. Aerodynamic Centre.
237
240
241
Example
CHAPTER VIB
COMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW
140G-140i. Assumptions. General Equation of Continuity
140J-140K. Euler's Dynamical Equations. Kelvin's (or Thomson's)
.
Theorem
140L-140M. Irrotational Flow. Integration of Euler's Equations
140N-140O. Steady Irrotational Flow in Two Dimensions. Electrical
and Hydraulic Analogies
......
245
247
260
252
CHAPTER VIC
THIN AEROFOILS AT HIGH SPEEDS
140P-140Q. Subsonic Speeds. Glauert's Theory. Comparison with
259
Experiment. Shock Stall
140R-140T. Supersonic Speeds. Mach Angle. Ackeret's Theory. Com.262
parison with Experiment
.
CHAPTER
VII
Definitions.
Rankine's Vortex.
General Theorems
267
Analogies
272
CONTENTS
ART.
PAGE
151-155.
........
.
....
;
163-168.
.......
from Experiment
CHAPTER
295
VIII
WING THEORY
169-171.
172-177.
287
....
178-180.
181-186.
.........
.....
187-188.
189-192.
CHAPTER IX
VISCOUS
193-199.
ment.
346
Pipes
General Equations for Steady Viscous Flow. Extension of
Skin Friction Formula
.357
205-207. Viscous Circulation. Stability of Curved Flow
365
208-209. Oseen's and Prandtl's Approximate Equations
369
Flat Plates with Steady Flow Solutions for Small and Large
210-2 1 7
Scales
Formation of Boundary Layer Method of Successive Approximation.
Karman's Theorem Examples 370
2 18-2 ISA. Transition Reynolds Number.
Detection of Transition
384
219-221. Flat Plates with Turbulent Boundary Layers
Power
Formulae. Transitional Friction. Experimental Results 387
221A-221B. Displacement and Momentum Thicknesses. Alternative
200-204.
Form
of
Kdrm&n's Equation
.391
CONTENTS
XI
ART.
222-223.
224-230.
PAGE
Note on Laminar Skin Friction of Cylindrical Profiles.
Breakaway. Effect of Wake. Frictions of Bodies and
Flat Plates Compared
Turbulence and Roughness.
Reynolds Equations of Mean
Motion. Eddy Viscosity. Mixing Length. Similarity
Skin Drag.
Theory.
Review
of Passage
393
399
CHAPTER IX A
REDUCTION OF PROFILE DRAG
230A-230B. Normal Profile Drag. Dependence of Friction on Transition
Point
230c-230F. Laminar Flow Wings. Early Example. Maintenance of
Negative Pressure Gradient. Position of Maximum
Thickness. Incidence Effect Favourable Range. Velocity Diagrams.
Examples of Shape Adjustment. Camber
and Pitching Moment
230G-230H. Boundary Layer Control. Cascade Wing
230i. Prediction of Lift with Laminar Boundary Layer
230j~230K. High Speeds, Minimum Maximum Velocity Ratio. Sweep-
.......
409
back
412
419
421
423
CHAPTER X
AIRSCREWS AND THE AUTOGYRO
231-232.
233-238.
The
Ideal Propeller
Ideal Efficiency of Propulsion
Airscrews.
Definitions.
Blade Element Theory.
Vortex
Theory Interference Factors Coefficients ; Method of
Calculation
Example
Variable Pitch. Static Thrust
Tip Losses and Solidity. Compressibility Stall
.
......
......
240-241.
242.
Preliminary Design
Empirical Formulae for Diameter and
Inflow
Stresses
Shape
Helicopter and Autogyro. Approximate Theory of Autogyro Rotor. Typical Experimental Results
:
243-245.
425
239.
427
438
440
443
446
CHAPTER XI
PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
246-260.
........
.
CONTENTS
Xll
ART.
PAGE
262A-262F. Aerodynamic Efficiency
Charts. Airscrew Effects
Application to Prediction
Wing-loading and High-altitude
Laminar Flow Effect
477
Flying
263.
487
Autogyro and Helicopter
263A. Correction of Flight Observations
489
;
......
.....
CHAPTER
XII
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
264-265.
266-269.
270-273.
274-278.
279-280.
281-284.
285.
286.
287-289.
290-292.
.......
.521
523
526
AUTHOR INDEX
629
SUBJECT INDEX
531
296.
293-295.
NOTATION
(Some of the symbols are also used occasionally in connections
other than those stated below.)
moment
A.R.C.R.
&
M.
force
Aerodynamic
aspect
ratio
transverse
of inertia.
Memoranda.
A.S.I.
of
airscrews
leverage
Aerodynamic
of
a
a
a,
B*
lt
b
fi
lift
Tail-setting angle.
Gas constant
number
of
Stability coefficients.
Rotational interference factor of airscrews.
Transverse dihedral
wing.
Directional
moment
mean camber
twice the
of inertia
of a
sectional area of
tunnel.
C.A.T.
C C2
CL C D
lf
etc.
C.G.
C.P.
D
D D
.
lt
A, 8
Compressed
air tunnel.
Stability coefficients.
Non-dimensional coefficients of
lt
drag, etc., on
Centre of pressure.
Chord of wing or aerofoil molecular velocity.
Ratio of specific heats
tan' 1 (drag/lift).
;
Diameter
Stability coefficients.
drag.
ness.
E
E E
lift,
Elasticity
kinetic energy.
Stability coefficients.
MV
NOTATION
~
g
h
7]
Vorticity.
.A co-ordinate
.
co-ordinate
scale
/
k
V-l
Circulation.
Radius of gyration
its
Lift
moment.
rolling
Length
Pitching
moment
Mass
with
Coefficient
aeroplane
.
N.A.C.A.
N.P.L.
of
;
Mach number.
suffix
Mach
non-dimensional
moment
angle,
*
relative
viscosity ;
a co-ordinate.
density
of
Yawing moment.
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
U.S.A.
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington.
Distance along a normal to a surface ; revolutions
per sec.
Kinematic coefficient of viscosity a co-ordinate.
;
.A co-ordinate.
roughness.
'
diameter.
derivative
Non-dimensional
Inertia coefficients.
as suffix to
elevator angle.
momentum thickness.
second moment of area.
k99 kx
ji
*L *D etc
angle of climb
angular
temperature on the Centigrade
^A ^B *c
Impulse
of
efficiency
Pitch of an airscrew
pressure.
pressure gradient
total
XV
NOTATION
Torque.
Angular
R.A.E.
Q
q
stress.
velocity
of
pitch
resultant
fluid
velocity.
R
R Rt
.
lt
Radius
Reynolds number.
Routh's discriminant.
;
radius.
ra
Prandtl's
area
sectional
biplane factor
of
an
airscrew.
solidity
;
vortex
Thickness
thrust.
Period of time in sec.
;
semi-span,
of
j.
Absolute temperature
IX
tail
tail
volume
ratio.
<f>
Aerodynamic stagger
angle of bank
helical path of airscrew element
;
'n>n
f
t
angle of
velocity
;
yaw.
undisturbed velocity in the direc-
Oz.
jcity of
a body.
lircraft.
components
o.
stability charts.
'dinates ; with suffixes
)f
derivatives.
non-dimen-
NOTATION
&
o>
t&
V2
V4
+ iy.
Chapter I
Above it is the
is known as the troposphere.
to
be left at lower
tend
heavier
the
where
a
gases
stratosphere,
layer
levels until, at great altitudes, such as 50 miles, little but helium or
hydrogen remains. Atmospheric air contains water-vapour in
miles at the equator,
may be
~
mean diameter 1-5 X 10 5 mil (one-thousandth inch), to the number
These molecules are moving rectilinearly
of 4-4 x 10 11 per cu. mil.
in all directions with a mean velocity of 1470 ft. per sec., i.e. onethird faster than sound in air.
They come continually into collision
with one another, the length of the mean free path being 0-0023 mil.
2.
Density
Air
is
If it
of a small
would be defined as follows considering the mass
volume V of air surrounding the point, the density would be
the limiting ratio of M/V as V vanishes. But we must suppose
that the volume V enclosing the point is contracted only until it is
:
A.D.
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
mass
Density
'
'
3.
Pressure
momentum
occurs there.
rest.
to strike, or
of change of
momentum
it
is
normal to the surface
directed
a
force
which
is
everywhere
represented by
angles towards the surface. The intensity of the force
area is the pressure p sometimes called the hydrostatic
change of
can
be
at right
per unit
or static
pressure.
* In this
system, the units of length and time are the foot and the second, whilst
forces are in pounds weight.
It is usual in Engineering, however, to omit the
word weight/ writing Ib.' for lb.-wt.,' and this convention is followed. The
appropriate unit of mass is the 'slug,' viz. the mass of a body weighing g Ib.
Velocities are consistently measured in ft. per sec., and so on.
This system being
understood, specification of units will often be omitted from calculations for brevity.
For example, when a particular value of the kinematic viscosity is given as a number,
It will be desirable occasionally to introduce special
sq. ft. per sec. will be implied.
units.
Thus the size and speed of aircraft are more easily visualised when weights
are expressed in tons and velocities in miles per hour. The special units will be
duly indicated in such cases. Non-dimeasional coefficients are employed wherever
'
convenient.
'
I]
AND STATIC
LIFT
which the faces OAB, OBC, OCA are mutually at right angles (Fig.
Denote by S the area of the face ABC. With the help of OD
1).
drawn perpendicular
area
OCA is S
to this face,
it
is
easily verified
.
cos
a.
a force pAEC -S
on the
From the
to
DO.
which acts parallel
simiforces
pressures on the other faces,
larly arise which are wholly perpendicular
S-face gives rise to
BO,
for
cos a
= 0,
equilibrium
W + pABC
where W
cos a
- pocA
FIG.
i.
field of force in
equation,
order of small quantities.
Similarly
Hence
4. It will
for
in terms of
molecular motions.
in air, draw Oy, Oz
Considering a rigid plane surface suspended
Ox
and
its
in
perpendicular to it (Fig.
plane
mutually at right angles
to one side of it a right
and
the
of
S
Erect on a unit area
plane,
2).
If
is
that it encloses unit volume of air.
cylinder of unit length, so
molecules
enclosed
of
number
total
the
the mass of each molecule,
is p/w.
They are moving in all directions with mean velocity c along
X.
straight paths of mean length
of all the molecules can be
velocities
the
instant
At a chosen
is very large, it is
Oz.
to
But, since
resolved parallel
Ox, Oy,
move
molecules
that
parallel to each of
JV/3
equivalent to suppose
time A* required
short
the
c
with
axes
the co-ordinate
velocity during
to describe the
mean
Oz cannot impinge on
free path.
we need
AERODYNAMICS
to
parallel
one-half
towards 5,
Ox
[CH.
i.e.
(Fig. 2).
The
to the free
path
A*
During
cules
is
given by
= \/c.
moving
in
the
direction
Ox
2.
momentum,
is
thus given by
6. A*
= *?*
Thus the pressure amounts to two-thirds
0)
of the molecular kinetic
We
altitude,
in ft.-sec. units.
Sh
K
^fc-^'^
|pA
Fia. 3.
I]
AND
STATIC LIFT
downward
is
pg
A8h.
force
will
be
A-~8h.
ah
+ J~8h.
The gravity
force acting
on the cylinder
6.
Bulk of Air
Incompressibility Assumption in a Static
Full use of
(2)
between p and
portant. We then have
ftp
pg \dh
+ const.
and
by the
suffixes
~hi)-
(3)
This equation
is
this temperature.
7.
Measurement
of
the closed
Excess of air
tends to transfer water from A to B
is filled
with castor
oil.
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
is
FIG.
detected.
By
4.
in. of
water
is
easily
CHATTOCK GAUGE.
set close
is
airship
is
of
an
* Cf. also
I]
AND STATIC
LIFT
FIG.
6.
^ a)S 2
(pi
cos
a,.
The
similar force arising at h^ may be upward or downward, depending on the position of S l and whether an airship or a balloon is
considered, but in any case its upward value is
P() S I cos
(Pi
Since
Sa
cos
oc 8
=A
==
St
Substituting from
(3), if
AL
i-
AL
upward
force
is
lift
on the
AERODYNAMICS
and
[CH.
=
=
(p
(P
- hJA
.....
p'fcZfA.
-p')gF'
(4)
where
is
It will
W=
9gV'(l-v')
(5)
For pure hydrogen, the lightest gas known, a' = 0-0695. But
hydrogen is inflammable when mixed with air and is replaced where
= 0-138 in the pure state.
possible by helium, for which a'
9.
the
preceding
assumed.
article
values
Practical
thousand cubic
for
feet
are
must
lift
68
be
per
Ib. for
made
and
FlG
Referring to Fig.
6,
OA
represents
A.r>.
1*
AERODYNAMICS
10
[CH.
OH
the envelope.
filling
The
difference
arid
a rule circular.
The modern
structural
its
fabric.
Some
TABLE
The
I.
above has a
lift
of 25 tons.
I]
10.
AND
STATIC LIFT
11
Centre of Pressure
Th
an
Gas
from
are
the
envelope separating gas
atmosphere.
pressures
small at the bottom of an envelope and reach a maximum at the top,
as illustrated in Fig. 6, and positions of the centres of pressure are
ence, often called the gas pressure, unevenly spread over part of
usually high.
The high centres of the total gas pressures exerted on walls which
restrain a gas-bag, as in the case of the wire bulkheads or transverse
gas pressure
A',
where
ing
px
is
air.
Then h
BC
distant
= y cos a,
P=
re
JB
re
p dA
= pig cos a y dA
JB
= P!# cos a Ay
.
(i)
AERODYNAMICS
12
[CH.
BC
P(y Q
+ Ay) =
JB
Ay from
= ^g cos a y* dA
JB
= ? cos a 7B
py dA
where 7 B
is
is
this
moment about
/B
=/
-f
Substituting in
<?.
Pl g
__
AV-"
Hence from
where &
The
is
(i)
(ii)
moment of
the second
Ay
the B-
(ii)
cos a (J
Ayl)
_ y*
result is
independent of pitch.
= nr*/4: and
is
pB
is
not zero,
when a
correction
P
where
is
9iS(y cos a
sin a),
+
pig^'^o cos a + sin a).
TD
= pig (y* cos a + yl sin <x.)dA
J E
= Ptf[(Ji + AW*) cos + A'yil sin a].
JE
P'(yi
A/)
oi
.i
X
This gives
A^
'
~
__
tan a
__^?
""yj
+ /tana
'
X"
M
i;
Hence (6) is
additional term in the denominator is EF.
line
horizontal
to
draw
a
is
it
since
always possible
generalised by (7),
The
BF
at which
13
By
if
6 is
= + 273.
for a given
mass of a particular
gas:
pV^Bt
V
where
is
is
a constant which
treating
1 lb.
pressure
and
is
if
is
(8)
the volume of
P/9=gBi:
made characteristic
1 lb.,
(9)
of a particular gas
by
will
or
ft.
C.
per
TABLE
II
12. Isothermal
We now
gravity,
Atmosphere
examine the static equilibrium
its
AERODYNAMICS
14
[CH.
and
p.
*.-*.
9g
From
(9)
_ J5r
9g
Hence
'
,.
= - dh.
BiQ
P
Integrating between levels A x and h 2 where
,
tively,
BT O
log
(pjpj
= h, - h,
=p
.
and p 2 respec.
(10)
The stratosphere
is
subject
Dalton's law
greater
altitudes
still
The Troposphere
The atmosphere beneath the stratified region is perpetually in
process of being mechanically mixed by wind and storm. When a
13.
I]
AND STATIC
LIFT
15
.....
assuming.
Substituting for
from
or
i
=*
nk
-----
w
Putting
=p
when h
__
gh
_j__
const.
-i
nk"
Therefore
M-l
To evaluate k
atA=0.
while
by
Hence
By
(9)
let p
n-l
T O be the density
,
(11):
PS
P.
and
....
/rrT?^
\*A l-
or
Substituting in (12)
h
tQ
\i
(13)
v
'
16
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
found as follows.
is
From
and
(9)
(11):
n-l
=(!)"
Substituting in (13)
1
or
6 denoting temperature in
constant
dt
i.e.
The
is
dQ
As the stratosphere
becoming less and less
14.
C.
is linear.
steep.
atmosphere
6
15
0-00198 116&
(17)
A being in feet above sea-level
number
of
(the
significant figures
given is due to h being expressed in the metric system in the original
The dry air value of B, viz. 96-0, is also assumed.
definition).
This definition leads to the
following approximations
.
From
From
From
(16)
(13)
p/p,
(14)
Some numerical
=
=
(1
- 0-00000688A)*' M
'
B -*"
T
( /288)
4
P / PO == (T/288)
pfp 9
Similarly
== 1-235
f
-
a85
18 )
I]
TABLE
AND STATIC
LIFT
17
III
assumed
is
usually taken as 10
From
C.
atmosphere, by about
5-7,
1-6,
and
decrease of
is
A# =
TO
we have from
.
AA.^
(10)
(19)
remains constant
t
-1
(i)
AERODYNAMICS
18
Hence
[CH.
To
giving
.
TO
by
Sfl
(20)
v
(i).
1 6.
Gas-bag
Lift in General
The assumption
expression
(4)
for the
examined.
Although a balloon of twice the size has been conft. may be taken as a usual
height of large gas-envelopes.
The maximum variation from the mean of the air density then
follows from the formulae (18).
At sea-level, where it is greatest, it
amounts to 0-15 per cent, approximately. Similarly, the maximum
variation of the air pressure from the mean is found to be less than
0*2 per cent.
Equation (3) shows that the corresponding variations
in the gas will be smaller still.
Although the buoyancy depends on differences between atmospheric and gas pressures, these are negligible compared with variations caused in both by considerable changes in altitude.
Gas-bags
should be only partly filled at sea-level, so that the gas can, on
ascent, expand to fill an increased volume without loss.
structed, 100
To study
(4) is
We
also
symbols
W'
of gas enclosed,
have from
(9),
W'(-\Y
(21)
a'
__
~
p
'
__V
~~
~B^
So
(21)
becomes
(22)
and
it is
respect of
l]
19
A lighter-than-air craft can be forced to still greater altitudes by the following means
aerodynamic lift heating of the gas
by the sun entering a cold atmospheric region or by discharging
ballast.
The condition then is that V' remains constant. Excluding the case of variation of weight, we find from (4) that the gas lift
ceiling.
will
(11)
W'T /
D
5>T
)'
i- e-
way
it
PI
is
is
that
p'
remain constant
remain
HT7
T
JD
the condition
In this
if
if
constant.
or,
by
(9)
if
Hence, from
_Ljmust
any
altitude.
by aerodynamic means
immersed
ing time in the air through rate of loss of gas due to the need for con-
AERODYNAMICS
20
second question
[ClL
liable to continual
up and down
is
currents.
T*
TX
/A\*~T
/*
= #A
t1903
= (*!\
'
\pj
For the gas within the envelope the thermal conductivity is so small
that heat transference can be neglected. The gas then expands
according to the adiabatic law
:
rP
Distinguishing properties
1-405:
= const.
since
Y=
r,/x 0-288
T,
= (P*\
(p'J
pl
= p(
and
Hence, by
it being constant.
Conversely, a rapid descent of a gas-bag results in temporary
excessive buoyancy.
Thus a lighter-than-air craft riding below its static ceiling tends to
.
return to
The
1 8.
The foregoing reasoning may be applied to the rapid vertical displacement of a bulk of the atmosphere, and we find that if, for the
l]
damped
is
out.
If
less
AND STATIC
may
arise
down
from
local or
currents are
the atmosphere
When n > y, a condi-
tion that
21
IIFT
of heat.
all altitudes.
increases upward.
An
19.
Bulk
Elasticity
strain
is
8V I V and E
is
given
by
'-*/(-?)
Since
dV
.....
(23)
tfp
and
(23)
thermal
conditions under which the compression is supposed to take place.
The interest of E in Aerodynamics is chiefly in respect of changes of
and therefore of density, occurring in air moving at approxiThe changes are usually too rapid for
altitude.
constant
mately
to the small
appreciable heat to be lost or gained, having regard
thermal conductivity of air. In these typical circumstances the
v
adiabatic law is again assumed, viz. p
&p so that from (23)
pressure,
E=
22
AERODYNAMICS
20. Velocity of
[CH.
Sound
geneous fluid
Thus
or,
for gases,
from
V(/p).
Vy^/p
VjgBi:
(24)
substituting from
The
homo-
velocity of sound
....
(25)
(9),
is
(26)
its
temperature only.
always employ the symbol a for the velocity of sound in
air.
With y
32-173 and B
1-405, g
96-0,
a
65-9-v/r
(27)
We shall
....
nearly.
For 15
C., T
= 288,
a = 1118
ft.
per
sec.
(28)
body
air.
Chapter II
classification
is
desirable.
streamline.
uniform motion.
Laminar
Parallel Flow.
lines are parallel straight lines, In which the velocity of the element,
although uniform in direction, depends upon distance from some
called
a
wider sense, strictly laminar motions being characterised as parallel/
Both uniform and laminar motions are steady, i.e. the velocity at
any chosen position in the field of flow does not vary in magnitude or
direction with time.
They are more than this, however, for the
velocity of any chosen element of fluid does not vary with time as it
(It is specifically in this respect that wider
proceeds along its path.
'
AERODYNAMICS
24
[Cfl.
'
lines.
When unsteadiness
Turbulence.
is
Two-dimensional Flow.
make very
frequent use, is
fixed co-ordinate axes Ox, Oy,
tacitly
motion
If besides
we have another
slice of
the fluid in
AIR
II]
25
all cross-sections.
through
a Boundary
The theorem
motion
if
fails,
'
ible.
mental
reduced.
molecules free
energy attains to the latent heat of evaporation the
of
the
the
bulk
to
return
and
themselves
gas thereby only giving
Thus the film of condensed gas molecules
place, however, to others.
is in circulation with the external free gas.
must
Regarding the action of the plate on the stream of air, we
26
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
molecular motion
(b)
'
'
in this affected region away from the plate cannot be equal in all
It will be noted that the mass flow is no longer uniform ;
directions.
itself.
Thus a uniform
in the
'
unevenly moving fluid will depend upon the direction conThe matter is further investigated in the following articles.
sidered.
VISCOSITY
23. Nature of Viscosity
in other than uniform motion, a further physical
brought into play in consequence of the molecular
structure of the fluid.
Its nature will be discussed with reference to
laminar (or parallel) two-dimensional flow. Let this flow be in the
direction Q% and draw Oy so that u, the mass velocity, is a function
If air is
property
moving
is
of
only.
(Fig, 9).
AIR
n]
27
the plane in unit time from either side. The molecules possess, in
addition to their molecular velocity, a superposed mass velocity u
which by supposition is different on one side of the plane from on the
other.
Hence molecules crossing in one direction carry away, per
t
unit area of the plane and in unit time, a different quantity of mass
that which those crossing in the opposite direction
momentum from
bring with them.
Hence momentum
direction of flow.
=y
f
.
Denote by 5 the
FIG.
9.
mean
X.
They have in addition a superposed mass velocity u
whose magnitude depends upon their values of y at the instant
considered, subject to the consideration that the u of any particular
molecule cannot be modified while it is in process of describing a free
path, for changes can come only from collisions.
The molecular velocities of all the p/w molecules can be resolved
length
at
any instant
two
axes.
AERODYNAMICS
28
[CH.
'
'
loss
it
receives
on
wX
account of
this
du
But
in addition
du
=mlu +
it
^-
= mu,
must, by
Ay
aggregate loss
is
du
.
dy
The
is
pX
AV
or, since
= X/c,
the rate
du
dy
is
du
The rate
of
change of mass
The direction of
Similarly,
traction
irging
it
below
;ame rate.
i
we
acts at
forward.
of
momentum and
on the
that
fluid below,
AIR
II]
29
The
following example
is
only.
Draw Ox
(Fig. 10) in
u=U
U-O
tr
FIG. 10.
and
in the direction of
ward.
is
ay
is
jx
dy\
^_
AERODYNAMICS
30
[CH.
Integrating twice,
A and B
where
equation for u
= o,
= Ay + B
Hence
= U when y = h.
Two
=o + B
U =Ah + B
which are
sufficient to
determine
A and
B.
We
find
5 =0
A
Z7/A.
=
j,y
.....
(30)
The
fluid velocity between the plates is proportional to y
distribution of velocity is plotted in the figure.
Let be, as before, the intensity of traction, and reckon it positive
The traction exerted on the fluid adjacent to
in the direction Ox.
Thus the
is
given
by
This traction
force
F=
__
~~
)y^
E7
/du
~~~
and opposite, as
uniform
in
fact,
is,
throughout the fluid.
case of motion is known as uniform rate of shearing.
1
If
A, the intensity of either force is equal to
Hence the
forces
obvious.
= =
on the
But
is
otherwise
Hence
this
U
Hence,
(z.
Maxwell's definition of the coefficient of viscosity as the tangential
AIR
U]
31
'
The result is a
/A per unit area of the plate.
the
heat
of
fluid
unless
the
generated is
temperature
gradual
fjtC7
conducted away.
25.
Laws
The
of Viscosity
is
flowing
is
of
y.
N = 3-58
for air at
x 1(T
It is interesting to compare
from the qualitative theory.
this
together give
c*
The value
ft.
per
Article
C. is given
slug/ft, sec.
by
.
(31)
Equations
= 3gJ3T
(1)
and
(9)
of Chapter I
.....
C., viz.
(32)
1591
sec., is
1
Hence, according to
(29)
(i)
cent., is
JJL
This
AERODYNAMICS
32
surprising law
is
expressed in
(i),
because
[CH.
it is
(33 >
'
(Rayleigh), where
(JL
is
PRESSURE
26. Relation
We now
an element
IN
C.
AIR FLOW
drawn perpendicular to
the
normal pressure on it
Ox,
in the direction Ox is denoted
face
by p xx and the
Oy by
The corresponding normal
ponent
p xr
tangential com-
in the direction
FIG. 11.
to
Oy
are
,and^.
always be possible to find two axes at right angles to
one another, moving with the element, such that, at the instant
considered, the pressures in these directions tend to produce either
simple compression or simple dilatation in the element. These axes
It will
stresses.
Let
is
that parallel to Gy' , and take a negative sign to indicate that the
AIR
II]
33
pressure
The prisms
of fluid
accelerations.
A8
however, to mass,
i.e.
to
2
Hence the stresses are related by the condiproportional to A
tion for static equilibrium.
For the equilibrium of prism A we have, first, resolving in the
.
direction
Ox
.A
pyx
y
sin a
cos a
+ P*
cos a
sin a
= 0,
or
Pyx
= (Pi
;cti(
Resolving in the direction
Oy, we have, in regard to the equilibrium
of
B
p xy A
.
/>!
cos a
sin a
+ pz
sin
cos a
= 0,
or
Pxy
Hence
(Pi
Ay
= Py* = i(#i
#)
sin 2a.
angles.
Oy
pyy
while resolving
1
2
p* A cos a
p l A sin a
parallel to Ox with regard to B
pxx A
.
cos* a
pt
:
sin 2 a
= 0,
= 0.
(34)
of equation
This
now in
the
AERODYNAMICS
34
[CH.
The
Static Pressure in
Let us write
a Flow
36)
it
'
at
all points.
The tube
is
air.
its
It is apparent,
short
arm
from Article
two small
perforations.
The
forces
AIK
nj
(b)
p through
35
(c)
tractions
In regard to (a) it may be remarked generally that, although aircraft traverse large changes of altitude, the air motions to which they
give rise are conveniently considered with the aircraft assumed at
constant altitude and generalised subsequently. The air will be
deflected upward or downward, but its changes of altitude are then
sufficiently small for variations of density or pressure on this account
to be neglected. An element of air may be regarded as in neutral
equilibrium so far as concerns the gravitational field, its weight being
The
is
(p
8y8z
-(P +
-~-
dx
'-r-
+ ~ 8x
Ox
is
8y8z.
thus
8*)
(37)
*
'
They
gradients are steep and the tractions large. Away from these
boundaries, however, the velocity gradients are usually sufficiently
small for the modification of the motion of the element due to the
tractions to be neglected.
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
29. Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation
The following five articles treat of flow away from the vicinity of
material boundaries, and such that the tractions on the element can
36
AERODYNAMICS
be neglected,
tions at
any
i.e.
the pressure p
It is also
point.
[CH.
means that
with
FlG
12>
tion,
collect
The volume
is
anywhere
= constant
pqA
(38)
variation
and
is
dp
-
acceleration
its
,48s,
by
The mass
(37).
By Newton's
is dq/di.
of the element
is
But
=
Jt
Hence
'
ds
It
=q
ds*
I
dp
~~~
p ds
+
,
dq
q-~^=Q
ds
v
(39)
'
may now
be regarded as
a streamline
J
h l?
= constant.
(40)
v
'
{41)
AIR
II]
37
and Temperature
Let us
first
C dp
*
from
(25),
<
specific heats
Hence
(41)
Pi
or
Pi
Expanding
in
an exponential
series
Pl
2.
Density variations actually occur so rapidly in, most aerodynamical motions that the isothermal assumption is inappropriate,
and, in fact, the condition is closely approached that no heat is lost
or gained. The adiabatic law then relates the pressure to the density, viz.
The absolute
p = kf
temperature T now varies from
(44)
to
From
(44)
dp
Thus
Y*pY
dp.
f*dp
J
= Y*
(
P
J
(45)
38
AERODYNAMICS
or, eliminating
k by
(44),
pi l\pl>
(46)
'-l}
where,
it will
=T
~-
1)
Finally,
>
(47)
i-
J-
-_
2dj*
pi
I[l
\
\2_
iL
2a^
__
(A0\
*
'
Comparison with
less, also
(25)
t.
P~
=*
now
to be
Ul
.
(49)
great.
cent. ;
this
would occur,
for example,
if
<7 2
= 2^ = 912
per
ft.
per
sec.,
if q* =
838 ft. per sec.
3#x
There is an important limit to the application of (47)
q 2 cannot
exceed a 2 because # a gives the limiting velocity with which
pressure
waves can be propagated. It will be noted that, since the
temperature is reduced on expansion, a < a x
When q 2 = a 2 and q l
0,
or
we
find the
minimum
But
/-i
Hence
Minimum
If TJ
= 288,
i.e.
Oj
??
= (-^y
"...
and
max.
(50)
=a =
9
AIR
II]
1019
ft.
48-7
C.
sec.
per
final
Two
flow.
cases of
brought to rest
(q^
= 0),
The values
15 C.
since q,
= 2q
l9
in Table
IV
33*7
is
(b)
AJA^
of
C.,
a drop of
common
temperature
39
(a)
a stream
In all
2^).
= J(p!/p).
TABLE IV
EXAMPLES OF ADIABATIC FLOW
The variation of temperature affects such questions as the troublesome formation of ice on wings and the location of convective
radiators.
Otherwise
it is
ignored.
Y-l
r-}
= 0.
(51)
(52)
that
it is
AERODYNAMICS
40
The condition
[CH.
Making
of
(55)
or
^=A'-*UrV-i|-
<
56)
These alternative expressions of Bernoulli's theorem for an incompressible fluid are of great importance.
now determine the error involved in applying (53) to a gas
We
= ~
1
fr
~~^7~~
Expanding
by the binomial
(52)
""
7/
sv
or
Since Y^>I/I S ==
p!
by
similar expression
with
readily obtained to
is
compare with
(56).
The above
2
Since a is only
small, provided that q? is small compared with a,
in
for
as
particular cases,
example at the tips of
approached by q l
it
follows
that
air
in
motion
airscrews,
may usually be treated as an
.
incompressible
fluid,
such as water.
The
error involved
ql
y,
(ft.
(ft.
per
per
sec.)
sec.)
100
200
:
0-6
200
400
2-4
300
600
5-5
400
800
10
32.
AIR
II]
The
Pitot
41
....
:
(58)
and it is convenient to
called
sometimes
the dynamic head.
p
p,
For incompressible flow, to which Bernoulli's equation applies, we
2
For the corresponding flow of a gas we find,
have p Q
Jpy
p
deal with the quantity
in the
same way as
for (57)
s^\
ft
Putting a
for
example
q
-2*
ft.
per
sec.,
per
sec.)
p)/foq*:
(59)
(ft.
(po
A.D.
1118
100
1*002
200
1*008
400
1-032
AERODYNAMICS
42
Thus the
[CH.
still
exist
although now
13).
dividing
streamline,
clusion.
FIG. 13.
FRONT STAGNATION
POINT.
fftersed
body
is
called
the
front
The undisturbed
Measurement
(60)
The
velocity thus obtained may be corrected, if need be, for comconcentric form of pitot-static tube is shown
pressibility by (59).
in Fig. 14
AIR
43
quantity that
namics
sufficient.
1=3
FIG. 14.
Putting q
10
p =0-119
ft.
per
Ib.
per sq.
ft.
head of water
0-023. in. only.
Gauges (compare, for instance,
Article 7) can be devised to measure such a pressure with high
accuracy, but the required sensitivity makes simple forms unsuited
to rapid laboratory use, owing to various small disturbing factors,
negligible, beginning to
or
It
44
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
where
VT/cr,
cr
is
replaced by a device giving less than static pressure. This sometimes consists of a single or double venturi tube. Particulars of
Venturis for this and other purposes are given in the paper cited *
(as
sound
is
given later.
SUBDIVISION OF
34.
will
now be assumed,
is
sensibly homogeneous
and flows incompressibly.
air.
pv
field of
x
FIG. 15.
owing to
es
difference in velocities
} Sjy
/
and
8#8y
p8y = ~~
ox
AB
densities at
is
rate at
o
BC and DA
&
is
-~-
which matter
S#8y.
M. 664, 1919.
is
ex-
Now density
AIR
II]
is
This expression
is
known
Hence
45
dv
pressible fluid.
35. When a wind divides to flow past an obstacle, such as an airship, held stationary within it, the inertia of the air tends to localise
to the vicinity of the body the large deflections that must occur in
the stream, so that laterally distant parts are little affected.
Imagine
a hoop of diameter several times as great as the maximum transverse dimension of the body to be held across the stream, enclosing
the body. The volume of air flowing through the hoop per sec. is
little diminished by the presence of the
body, the air flowing faster
to make up for the obstructed area.
As the diameter of the hoop is
decreased, this statement becomes less true, but at first only slowly.
In other words, the increase of speed increases as the body is
approached. If there were no friction at the surface of the body, the
speed would reach a maximum there. But (Article 22) the air is
stationary on the surface, and is retarded for some distance into the
are concerned with the manner in which such retardation
fluid.
We
more
distant,
though
still close,
increases of speed,
large.
integral
\q sin a
dn
on S l N l through which
Evaluate graphically
it
is
46
AERODYNAMICS
q l sin a
For n small,
sin a
1-0.
Now
dn
[CH.
= k, say.
find a point
A* on S 2 N Z such that
I-
O3
O2
O4
0-5
0-6
FIG. 16.
curve
is
a streamline.
by changing k
to
k',
k*
It is
AIR
II]
= k'
47
convenient to make k
Tc
k"
fc'
.
for then, if the
.,
intervals are sufficiently small, the velocity is inversely
proportional
to the distance apart of successive streamlines.
second streamline
.
is,
a third
first,
It
>
accurate as to
ensure
obtaining another streamline by equating the same
function of x and
another constant.
In a
motion
that
B'
to
known
on the other
analytically,
hand,
is
these
difficulties
We
then have
disappear.
a function of x and y
DC
FIG. 17,
of the curve.
YA ==
YB
fy 3
t];
i.e.
by
? sin a as.
such as ACB, joining the points, since otherwise fluid would be compressed within, or exhausted from, the area ACBA.
With A fixed let B move in such a manner that the above flow
remains constant. Then B traces out a streamline, because there is
no flow across its path. If the value of fy (x, y) at A
k, for all
equation to
ty
all
....
streamlines
= constant
is
(62)
AERODYNAMICS
48
{CH.
of
sign is
question
the increment
involved
of
is taken as positive if
the flow is in a clockwise
;
<|j
but
sign
is
generally
by
determined
(63) below.
and D be
adjacent points on two
= k and
streamlines
= fc + Jty. The co-or38.
O
FIG. 18.
Let
A
:
<Jj
dinates of
18,
and
are x
Hence
if
u, v are the
of the velocity
Now
8^
is
variables x
x
y, those of
that across
AD =
components
+ %%> y +
ED
less
From
Fig.
that across
AE.
q,
and y.
and 3^/3^
Hence
Sy.
It is
shown
in
-s
ty
(63)
Sx
= 0,
(63)
AIR
n]
Article
49
y/c*6
y/os
Wo*
the flow.
y/c=3
39. Circulation
and Vorticity
flow.
FIG. 19.
round
denoted by K.
If Ss is an element of
curve
of
of
the
closed
the
circuit, q the velocity, and a
length
the angle which q makes with Ss,
the
called
that
circulation
circuit
and
is
K = Jc q cos a ds
(64)
ABCD
of
20),
(Fig.
sides
8x,
The
Sy.
+ Y 8y\
(du
8%
=-
sides
Su
S#Sy.
AD
and CB
an amount
circulation
DC and BA together
Similarly
^i
contribute
Sx
Hence
Sy.
!**
8x8y
The
dx
9y
which
finite limit to
VA
Sx
fy ^vtl^Sx
dX
TN
ts
Thus
=4!-!:?
66 )
FIG. 20.
is
the ratio to
its
area of the
AERODYNAMICS
50
[CH.
circulation
radius
r,
SK
= 2-nr
<or
dK/dS
= 2to
or
Thus the
In the
= 0,
first
==
and
the elements of
everywhere
(65)
For the second example, u
fluid are devoid of spin.
2Cy, v
and (65) gives
2C, a constant, or there is a uniform distribution of vorticity.
Applying the latter result to the motion of Article
24,
Imagine the moving plate in Article 24 to be
C7/A.
and the fluid is devoid of
v
started from rest.
Initially u
distribution of vortiuniform
time
a
a
sufficient
but
after
vorticity,
condition
of zero slip
the
from
is
boundary
city
generated, arising
v
= =
We
are
now
Equation
in a position to prove a
is
and
RADR
theorem
assumed
tion
of
exist,
vorticity
is
to
ABCD
of the streamline AB be R.
denote
Let s
length measured along
n denote length
and
AB, DC,
measured along either of the normals towards the centre of curvature.
Let q be the velocity along
large,
AB.
AIR
II]
being steady,
is
61
Hence
8K round
the element.
There
From
no
(i)
the figure
CZ> __
CD ~~
_
AB ~~&T
Substituting in
last
term
Hence, finally
is
.-
~~~R'
-sT
R dn
-
IjR.
8n
__
(i)
dn
The
is
dq
pj
(66) for
becomes
Now p Jpy* is the pitot head (Article 32). Thus, across the
streamlines the pitot head has a gradient proportional to the product
of the velocity and the vorticity, provided tractions can be
neglected.
If, on traversing a pitot tube across a field of flow, the pitot head
remains constant, then the flow is devoid of vorticity so far as it
is
explored.
41. Irrotational
An
Flow
irrotational
0.
Where
motion
is
one in which
it is
this
condition usually
52
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
mately
irrotational.
42. Subdivision of
It will
0-0
l-O
Ol
O2
O-3
05
was
foil
set at
AIR
II]
53
The same two normals, S 1N 1 and S 2 N 2) distant c/3 and 2c/3, respecfrom the leading edge, were selected for study as those for
which the variation of velocity (q) has been given in Article 36. What
will now be described is the variation that was found
along them of
In Fig. 22 the first of these is
pitot head and static pressure (p).
tively,
to
h then, being the loss of pitot head caused by the model the second
is conveniently expressed as
(p
p )/pU*, both quantities being
non-dimensional
It is seen from the figure that the aerofoil causes
negligible change
t
head beyond n
0-04c for the upstream and n
0-2c for
the downstream normal. Beyond these limits the stream is concluded to be irrotational, approximately
just within them the
velocity gradients are not large and the tractions may be expected
to be small, so that, from (68), we infer vorticity to be
of pitot
present.
By
traversing a fine pitot tube along a number of other normals, or lines
across the stream, a number of similarly critical
points for pitot
head can be found.
line drawn through all such points forms a
loop
which wraps itself very closely round the nose of the model (where a
special
necessary
for
widens as the
is
detection),
edge
approached, and finally
marks out a wake behind the
aerofoil.
Fig. 23 shows the
wake located in this way behind another aerofoil set at smaller
incidence.
The complete loop may be called, for short, the pit<
* and is one
boundary
way of marking out an internal limitation
trailing
is
to irrotational flow.
The
pressure decrease p Q
p builds up along the normals as the
is approached to maxima at the pitot
boundary. Actually
aerofoil
maximum
Soc.,
October 1923.
AERODYNAMICS
54
[CH.
curve for the more downstream normal, the three readings nearest
the surface being
0-047
0-127
0-173
^~ =
0-310
0-308
0-312
n\c
pC7
is
43.
From
the
many
made on
lines simi-
which
The Aerodynamic
is
it
is
AIR FLOW
II]
ways
55
immersed.
etc.,
are excluded.
:
(a)
called the
IVeesui
increase
Pressure
decrease
FIG. 24.-
the section at
8s
we
shall
AERODYNAMICS
56
[CH.
the
Aerodynamic
and
is
taken as positive
SD
if it is
directed
for 8s
= (p cos + F sin 8s
= (- p sin 6 + F cos 6)
0)
Ss
Now Ss sin
upon a
the
lift
which
line parallel to
curve
due to p.
SL, and p is
is
set
made along a
all
aerofoil contour.
easily decided
by inspection.
45. An example of the variation of p round the median section of
an aerofoil at a certain angle of incidence, experimentally determined
is given in Fig. 24.
Curves are also shown
obtained by projection perpendicular to and in the direction of the
oncoming stream, the areas under which are proportional to the lift
and drag per foot run of the span at the median section, the area
at a certain speed,
ABC
Apart from
scientific
AIR FLOW
II]
57
interest, investigations of distribution of force are of technical importance, especially in the case of aerofoils, providing data essential
to the design of sufficiently strong structural members of minimum
weight for the corresponding aeroplane wing. Such analysis is
Since the pressure
usually required at several angles of incidence.
venient for bodies other than wings will be left for the reader to devise.
When a fluid flows
46. Some limiting cases may be mentioned.
flat
at
zero incidence
or
a
thin
a
plate
past
through straight pipe
the drag must be wholly frici.e. parallel to the oncoming stream
tional.
Such drag is small with air as fluid. At the other extreme,
flat plate set normal to the undisturbed stream
from
unequal distribution of pressure. This drag
wholly
is comparatively large, but is less than that of a cup-shaped body
with the concavity facing the direction of flow, as instanced by a
must
arise
parachute.
to
lift is
the projected pressure curve (e.g. ABC of Fig. 24) may approach
that of the positive loop, when the contribution of the pressures to
drag will be small. For 'this condition to be realised, the flow must
'
'
envelop the back of the body closely, i.e. without breaking away
from the profile. Negative drag loops are absent from the normal
plate and very small for the circular cylinder.
the
lift
the
lift
and nega-
AERODYNAMICS
58
As a matter
of experiment
it is
[CH.
wholly frictional it may amount to less than 2 per cent, of the drag
of a normal disc of diameter equal to the maximum diameter of the
;
envelope.
Formula
the bodies
representing a
IJL
the quantity
v-jji/p
(69)
AIR
II]
59
M/LT
size of the
/,
constant.
It is concluded, then, that
A
and on nothing
depends upon
p,
U,
I,
(70)
and
p
?
(71)
*-!;;:[
Writing
(71) in
dimensional form
ML
/L-V
(M\*(L\<
r
For the dimensions
ViV \r/
of the
\T/
term to be ML/T*,
it is
for
A
A
=y = 2
is
s.
2p[/
~'/ 2 ~*v
required that
+
2,
2s
l,
AERODYNAMICS
60
or
= P W.
[CH.
/,
(72)
....
(72a)
Number
The quantity
who
Reynolds,
Writing (72) as
required
by
is
it is
indepen-
absurd.
7//v is called
first
discovered
....
PD
we have, on the
.vnose value for
any shape
of
of
can be found
if
actual measurement.
for
particular shape, the method of Article 47 readily gives
instance
for
u,
velocity component there,
any
is
the
same
AIR
Il]
ponding points
oc
oc pt/ f , as
61
may
be shown
directly.
It follows that at corresponding points on the contours of the
bodies the pressure oc pt/ 2 and the skin friction oc y.U/1 oc pvt///, and
2 2
that part of
resulting from pressure variation oc pt/ / , while that
2 2
part due to skin friction oc pvl// oc p/ / since v oc Ul, because R is
2 2
constant. Hence A oc pC7 / or the left-hand side of (73) is constant.
Example if also the fluid is constant, show that A is constant.
,
have frequencies
to depend only on
p,
to be steady.
(dimensions
1/T).
U, I, v, the method of Article 47 gives
:
~=constant, ~ oc U/l in
While R remains
If also
periodic motions.
the fluid be given so that v, and therefore Ul, remain constant,
oc U* oc l// a
The streamlines pass through the same sequence
Aerodynamic Scale
When
curve
is
explored.
2 2
Fig. 25 gives as an example the variation of (drag -f- p7 / ) with
In order to fix
for long circular cylinders set across the stream.
62
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
the numerical scales, it has been chosen quite arbitrarily to use the
diameter of the cylinder in specifyingR and the square of the diameter
for /, but the drag then relates to a
length of the cylinder equal to its
diameter. The full line results from a great number of observations.
These are not shown, but they fit the curve closely, though a cluster
round a particular Reynolds number may include great
of points
\OZ
1O
1O 5
10 _
1O 6
R.
FIG. 25.
R=
eddying
The broken
for
R >
100.
realised
AIR
II]
63
compressions and expansions, the cause may be traced to considerable variation of unsteadiness in the oncoming streams.
Finally, it becomes evident that, with moderate velocities, the
Reynolds number provides a proper scale for Aerodynamic motions.
Circumstances in which this scale is not suitable are described in
is
on which
single experiments
on
scale
models of
aircraft or their
if
carried out.
scale,
...
ftVWE*
The dimensions
of
(M)
(L)
(T)
E are
=p+
l =
3p + q+r +
-2 = - q - s - 2t,
I
i.e.,
p
q
r
=
=
=
1-*
2
5,
2t
2s
(i)
of Article 47 gives
64
AERODYNAMICS
[Cfi.
Article
By
2
pt/
noted by
20,
(U/a)*.
M, and
A
There being
pa
The
2
,
where a
is
i.e.
de-
five
9UW.f(R, M)
......
(73A)
From
made
U=
is J,
(22/15)
on which
it
is
superseded
by
(73A)
are
and
multiplying.
and 2 to be dynamically
similar,
both
II]
66
Some Other
When
(M)
(L)
(T)
whence
\=p
i==-3p + q + r
2 =
2t
s
q
=
1
p
s
2*
q = 2
r = 2
s +
t
The drag
is
(73B)
modified by
A.D.
AERODYNAMICS
66
[CH.
D=
i.e.
to write (73B) as
1
P l7/
/,(*)
+ /,
(73C)
'
'
The wave-making
maximum model
resistance
is
assessed
dimensional parameter U\nD is given the symbol /. It is also convenient to replace U as far as possible by n. Now n1!)4 has the same
dimensions as E71/ 1 and the formula becomes
,
(73D)
II]
67
TABLE
III
Chapter III
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
50. Nature of
The
Wind-tunnel
Work
calculation of
on models made
Aerodynamic
revolution.
artificial
CH.
Ill]
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
69
it is
many
little
will
AERODYNAMICS
70
[CH.
numbers, and
initial
in the case of
small
difficulty still to
This question
is
be
many-
fast
aircraft
numbers
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
in]
51.
The
71
Open-Return Type
if
large as
direct to
'
__
-
550
input b.h.p.
shown
.-:
cas-
'
'
straight-through
or
'
open-return/
\>
SCALE OP FEET
FIG. 26.
H,
inlet
honeycomb
4-FT.
P, plane table
S,
guard grid
D, regenerative cone
W, honeycomb wall.
AERODYNAMICS
72
[CH.
Ill
'
velocity increases
To compensate for
sometimes made slightly
divergent.
The
side.
static pressure is obviously less within the tunnel than outfirst sight it
appear feasible to calculate the velocity
At
may
the working stream is less than the static pressure in the room. A
small hole is drilled through the side of the tunnel several feet upstream from the working section, and the pressure drop in a pipe
In the more modern tunnels of Fig. 27, the return flow is conveyed within divergent diffuser ducts to the mouth of a convergent
nozzle, which accelerates the air rapidly into the working section.
A ring of radial straighteners is fitted behind the airscrew to remove
spin and the circulating stream is guided round corners by cascades
(c)
FIG. 27.
(a),
enclosed section ;
A.D.
8*
RETURN-CIRCUIT
(b), lull-scale
open jet
73
WIND TUNNELS.
(c),
compact open
jet
(d),
corner vane.
74
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
of aerofoils or guide- vanes (see (d) in the figure for a suitable section),
which maintain a fairly even distribution of velocity over the
gradually expanding cross-section. The experimental part of the
'
'
'
course
pressure.
characteristic of prime importance is the contraction ratio of
the tunnel, defined as the ratio of the maximum cross-sectional area
attained
and
3|, respectively,
(a) may be regarded as
suitable for general purposes, (b) illustrates
the full-scale tunnel at Langley Field, U.S.A.,
(c)
indicates the
for this
possible compactness
developed at the R.A.E.,
for sizes
'
53.
FIG, 28.
SPINNING TUN-
H, honeycomb.
to 24-ft. diameter.
Spinning Tunnel
NEL.
M, flying model; O,
observation window ; N,
net for catching model
up
it
maximum
type of tunnel
as
tests.
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
question arising
is
75
as in form,
flying speed,
and
vice versa.
and Moment *
In the general case of a body suspended in a wind tunnel Aerodynamic force is not a pure drag, but is inclined, often steeply, to the
direction of flow.
This inclination is not constant for a given shape
and attitude of the body, but is a function of the Reynolds
number.
When the flow has a single plane of symmetry for all angles of
incidence of the body, the Aerodynamic force can be resolved into
two components in that plane, parallel and perpendicular to the
the drag and lift, respectively. By Article 47 we
relative wind
find for
*CL
and a drag
coefficient
=*L =
lift
-/.(*)
coefficient
(74)
76
AERODYNAMICS
aircraft,
supports weight
Aerodynamic
is
way up.
if
it
if its
(Fig. 29),
= CD/CL
tan Y
AX/&D = CJCD
and = LjD.
L is then positive
and
right
= foV*PVCL + CD
force (4)
and,
is
[CH.
lift
(76)
is
crosswind force.
Again assuming
this plane of
magnitude
and
symmetry,
in
the
body
(77)
,"
we
shall often
omit a distinguishing
suffix to
/ without implying
equality.
has been stated that any agreed length may be adopted for I to
More
specify the size of a body of given shape and attitude.
generally, any agreed area may be used for /*, or volume for I9
Practice varies in the choice made.
CL CD are always calculated for
single wings on the area S projected on a plane containing the span
and central chord (line drawn from nose to tail of median section).
The length of the chord c is introduced as the additional length
required for C M (although not for other moment coefficients, when the
It
semi-span
is
CL
used).
Thus
for wings
L/$ P FS, CD
D/*pFS, CM
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Hi]
77
'
The
parasitic, or
i.e.
usually chosen.
55. Suspension of
Models
and other
coefficients
can be
determined through a range of R by direct measurement, given suitable balances. These are grouped round the working section of the
tunnel, and the model is suspended from them. Their design and
arrangement are partly determined by the following consideration.
Suppose the true drag D of a model in a tunnel is required. Let
the suspension attachments (called, for short, the holder) have a
drag d when tested alone. Let the drag of holder and model be D'.
d
D D
Except under special conditions we cannot write
the combination represents a new shape not simply related to either
The mutual effect of d on D, or vice versa, is termed the
part.
mutual interference. An example is as follows. If a 6-in. diameter
model of an airship envelope be suspended by fine wires, and a
:
in
which the
The approximation
much disturbance,
gives good results, provided neither holder creates
to ensure which fine wires or thin streamline struts are used.
30 shows as a simple illustration an arrangement suitable for a
Fig.
heavy long body having small drag. Near the nose the body is
suspended by a wire from the tunnel roof, while a sting screwed
into the tail is pivoted in the end of a streamline balance arm, for the
most part protected from the wind by a guard tube. If the guard
'
'
AERODYNAMICS
78
tube
is
is
[CH.
dummy
fixed above in
heavy weight of the body, is achieved by calculating the fore-andaft location of the wire to make, following small horizontal displacement, the horizontal component of its tension only just overcome
that of the compression in the balance arm.
FIG. 30.
G, guard tube
S, sting
To
Low DRAG.
T, turnbuckle
W,
cross-hair.
drag of the wire, another test is made with a second wire hung from
the nose as shown at (a) and attached to the floor of the tunnel.
Next, the sting is separated slightly from the balance arm, support
being by the wires (6) from the roof, and the effective drag of the
balance arm measured with the body almost in place. Finally, the
model can be suspended altogether differently, from a lift-drag
balance as at (c), the wires and original balance arm being removed,
and the small effective drag of the sting estimated by testing with it
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
in place
and away.
79
special experiments
can be
made
56.
The
Lift-drag Balance
V-
When
several force
act
on a model
it is
desirable for accuracy to measure as many as possible without disturbing the setting of the model. Omnibus balances designed for this
An
made
to
of a
equipment
an Aerodynamic balance that will measure lift
and drag simultaneouslyjand preferably at least one moment at the
original descriptions.
tunnel, however,
same
is
time.
Aerofoil
Kyn^ Diaphragm
% ''
Tunnel Wall
FIG. 31.
AERODYNAMICS
80
lever
[CH.
by means
of the
useful, e.g.
worm
when
gear
testing an
W, an
aerofoil of the
is
often
Lift is
ainaH end
mounted on
usefulness
is
57.
The
enables L,
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
HI]
light
ment
model
81
measure-
of small
FIG. 32.
support a part T sin of the drag D, only the remaining part d being
supported at E. The lift-drag balance connected to E provides the
must be corrected for accuronly means of measuring D. Thus
At any setting of the
is
as
follows.
method
the
and
adopted
ately
aerofoil the zeros of the lift-drag balance are observed, before starting
the wind, with and without a known weight hooked on the model.
An apparent drag is thus found for a known value of T at the particular value of
corresponding to a, but which need not be known.
A proportionate correction appropriate to the value of T measured
when the wind is on can then be applied to drag observed at E. This
correction requires to be determined for all values of a.
AERODYNAMICS
82
[CH.
giving
+ tan
Also D = TQ + d
Tl
a = -j(cos
+ 6 sin p)
A
A = V(if + &)
~
y = tan
(D/L).
NP = c {a sec (a y)
9
L =7(1
since 6
is
small.
(3)
(3
where
and
Finally
58.
s }-
Aerodynamic Balances
of the
lift.
This in brief
it.
The sting wire, shown fastened
to the fuselage of a complete model in the figure, remains
truly vertical with change of incidence by virtue of being raised or
which is parallel to
and pivoted vertically
lowered by a stirrup
lift
at
EW
above
W. The
familiar problem
is
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
of the
lift supported by
the sting wire without
interfering with the drag
balance. This is achieved
by pivoting the bell-
crank
ports
(a)
crank lever
is
carried
on
the
lift
Aerodynamic
force
about
W.
The balance shown at
in the figure makes
(b)
(ft)
The model
is suspended
from the platform F by
means
any
convenient
and,
lift
beams shown
are of
equal
moment
about
is
the
w/////
determined
line
the intersections
joining
of the
FIG.
-32A.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCES
AERODYNAMICS
84
[CH.
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
III]
85
mate numerical form for a given shape, when it is seen to follow that
the choke correction is small. For a body whose diameter is
J that
of the tunnel the correction is usually < 1 per cent.
(2) Let the stream be inclined downward from the horizontal at
a small angle p, and, taking the familiar case of an aerofoil
upside
down, let its aerodynamic force be A and its true lift and drag L and
=A
D = A sin y
= A cos Y - P)
D = A sin Y - p)
= A (sin Y P cos y)
= D - pi.
cos
Thus the
this
may
La
error in
La
is
negligible, but
af for we
have
(78)
FIG. 33.
Upward
Example
If p ==
cent.
This error can be removed by testing the model right way up and
upside down, and taking the mean. The process is laborious, however, and a correction factor for general use is worked out by an
initial test of this kind.
Where their design permits, balances are
set
on
installation
so as to eliminate the error as far as
carefully
possible.
(3) Convergence or divergence of the stream leads to an error due
to the pressure gradient that exists in the direction of flow prior to
introducing the model. In the former, the more usual case, pressure
decreases downstream (x increasing). Owing to the short length of
may be assumed constant, and to this approximation is easily determined experimentally. The maximum convergence in a parallel-walled tunnel is only about J.
Complete analysis of the problem presents difficulty, but an
inferior limit to the correction is readily calculated by a method that
will now be familiar.
Considering an element cylinder of the body,
of cross-section
AS and length /,
and
86
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
it is
then
P*
*pt/
(P
*P?
a
)
iplT*.
It is much more marked close behind the aerofoil than farther downstream, where the wake has diffused outward.
Consider first a section of the wake sufficiently far behind the
aerofoil for the pressure to be equal to p Q and the velocity to have
become
by
writing q
length parallel to the span of the aerofoil, the mass passing in unit
time is p8y, and the rate of loss of momentum parallel to the
relative motion is pwSy
Hence the drag Z) of unit
(U
u).
length of the aerofoil is given by
.
Dg
or
p/(C7
u)dy
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
But u/U
(1
A)*.
87
Hence
1_(1-
tA-i*i
...)
in the square
t*.
CDO
DQ lfoU*c,
where
c is
(iii)
an
of
lift
Jones
(Sir Melvill),
A.R.C.R.
& M.
88
AERODYNAMICS
at section
[CH.
p Q by
p
mean stream,
Pi
iPft
- Po +
Writing
*
*~
this gives
Again,
(A
so that
(1
- h, -
...
ktf
(V)
qn
s
(^(i&}~UV U
Substituting from
(iv)
and
(v)
coefficient,
1
This result
wind tunnel,
is
it
known
was
(1
AJ*J
rfn
(79)
as Jones formula.
Tested in a full-scale
found* to be accurate within experimental errors
by
Restrictions
of
Taylor, f
Taylor
'
Applied
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
89
in tunnel experiment
found to
it
exist.
pitot tube should be fine in order to avoid a systemThe^ effect of compressibility on the
experimental error.
The exploring
atic
method has
by any
An example
60.
been examined.*
also
of
exist in the
instance, after
and
tail defines a.
maximum
which
it falls.
jet
f Bradfield,
A M.,
1363, 1930.
075
5
10*
INCIDENCE,
FIG, 34.
15*
20
<x
90
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
CH. in]
91
The
and
whether a
is
increasing or decreasing.
Minimum drag occurs when the lift is small but maximum LfD at
a considerably larger incidence. Drag and the angle y begin to
increase rapidly at the critical angle.
At
1-3 the centre of pressure is midway along the chord.
It
moves forward as incidence is increased up to the critical angle, and
then back. This travel results from striking changes which occur
in the shape of the pressure diagram, illustrated for a rather similar
aerofoil in Fig. 35.
Between
2-7 and
4-5, approximately,
D5r
of
-O5
-1-0
-15
OUO
10
-20
LIFT PRESSURE DIAGRAMS FOR THE MEDIAN SECTION OF AN AEROFOIL
(BROKEN LINE APPLIES TO LOWER SURFACE).
FIG. 35.
The
To see
<
16
= 20.
It
would
also
be stable
AERODYNAMICS
if
[CH.
is
only of interest
The
in connection with the auxiliary control surfaces of aircraft.
C.P. curve is physically indefinite, in so far as it would have a
different
shape
if
we
by A
of
Thus in
line parallel to the chord but displaced from it.
the above experiment different results would be obtained if the
some
practical
61. Application of
Complete
Model Data
in
the
tunnel
through
may
-0-04
of
-006
two examples
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLARK YH
(ASPECT RATIO 6) AT THE SMALL
SCALE OF FIG. 34.
FIG. 36.
J in.
WING
CM
line
= pitching
moment
coefficient
is
about a
of
following.
temporary wire,
diameter and 2 ft. long,
(a)
drop amounts to 15*36 Ib. per sq. ft. when the aeroplane is flying at
100 m.p.h. at low altitude. Find the drag of the wire under these
conditions.
Writing p, V
per second) where it is ex-
and velocity
(ft.
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
in]
theorem
giving
Now
sec.
^^ _ ^ ^ ^ _ ^ ^
= diameter
Hence
giving,
=s 185-5
of wire
= TV
ft.
by
suffix 0,
ig<36 ft
per
ft.,
93
by
Bernoulli's
ft ^
sec.
1-56
x 10~ *
sq. ft.
per
CD
= M6
X
0-58
Drag
==
0-00238(185-5)'
= 0-99 Ib.
96
as
(b) The lift coefficient of a wing of the section shown (known
R.A.F. 48) and span/chord ratio (aspect ratio)
6, set at 15
incidence, is found in the wind tunnel to vary as in Fig. 37, through
FIG, 37,
WING AT
15
INCIDENCE.
the range of
this shape,
What
lift will
when
AERODYNAMICS
94
From Table
[CH.
temperature
C.
is 6'1
and
relative
density 0*862.
(cf.
Article 25).
\ 273 /
1*77
10
60 m.p.h.
88
~4
sq. ft.
= 88
= 94-8
ft.
_
R=
94-8
L
or 11-5
Ib.
= 0-624
per sq.
10*
CL
per
per
ft.
-,
Vo-862
0-00238
0-862
sec.
sec.
per sec.
= 3-21
10*.
0-00238(88)*
216
wing area
= 2484 Ib.
ft.
0-296
Ib.
per sq.
ft.
62.
From these
conditions, e.g. at top speed at a certain altitude.
specifications and the size of the part the full-scale Reynolds number
can be calculated, and sometimes a single decisive test arranged in
the wind tunnel under dynamically similar conditions.
150
X
VO-738
88
256
60
ft.
per sec.
=
Assuming standard atmospheric conditions, the temperature
~
For
4-8 C. and, as in Article 61 (6), v is found to be 2-01 x 10 *.
the tunnel 15 C. may be assumed, so that v = 1-56 x 10 -.
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
ni]
95
Then
d X 50
(1/6)
X 256
2-01
1-56
or
The drag
coefficient
= 0-662
ft.
= 8 in.
actual weight will apply exactly to full scale under the prescribed
From (72a) the forces on the model and the weight will
conditions.
be in the ratio
= 0-816.
0-738 \2-01
Similarly the tunnel
the ratio 4.
(b)
full scale in
model
24 in.
Since only a
gives a model section of length 4 x 6
short axial length can be accommodated in the tunnel, the test is
swings
small
clearance be-
shoulders
same
the
model of
axial length 2
ft.
in.,
with
say,
tween
is
its
of
section
These
dummy
ends
separate the
model from the walls,
ary
sion
and
layer.
Suspen-
may be by wires
by a
spindle passing
sting,
or
FIG. 38.
ARRANGEMENT FOR TESTING UNDER
APPROXIMATELY TWO-DIMENSIONAL CONDITIONS.
M, model
E, E, shoulders or
dummy
ends fixed to
wind-tunnel walls.
through one of the shoulders, which will then act as a guard tube.
The drag coefficient determined will apply exactly to the full-scale
The
strut at the speed and altitude given, except near its sockets.
force measured will be simply related to that on a length 2 ft. 6 in. -f4
0*625 ft. run of the actual strut.
AERODYNAMICS
96
[CH.
Tunnel
63. Compressed-air
But
certain important
phenomena
used in a
Maxwell's
Law
(Article 25)
v oc 1/p
temperature, when
jx
is
and
R oc
~~
VF
where
suffix
example, the
VF
h'
Pr'
refers to the
last factor is
scale.
=f
If,
for
It is
Fig. 39 illustrates the compressed air tunnel at the N.P.L.
diameter
6
ft.
and
of annular return flow type, the working jet being
ft.
tsi
up
by
large
compressor
COMPRESSED-AIR TUNNEL.
electrically.*
The
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
HI]
97
the compression ratio required in the C.A.T. to secure a fullscale low-altitude value of R, so that VI for the model is 1/6 times
that for full scale, then by (72) the ratio of any component force on
the model to the corresponding full-scale component is also 1/6.
25 the aerofoil lift (Z,T ) for a wing of 5 tons
For example, with 6
If the geometrical scale of the model
448
Ib.
lift (I F ) would be
If 6 is
intensities
lift
16 a
IT//T*
Z, F //F
~~l!5
and
indicates the
models of wings,
obtained in various
types of wind tunnel and the range of Reynolds numbers charR is specified on the mean
acterising various aircraft categories.
chord. Maximum sizes are assumed for the models and involve
important corrections for the limited width of the tunnel stream
(Chapter VIII).
TABLE V
REYNOLDS NUMBERS OF WINGS
98
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
designed primarily
can be used
comparatively small
flight is due to the large
Reynolds
low power, and the landing conditions and
stratospheric Reynolds numbers of all but the largest aeroplanes,
for experimental
Reynolds numbers can be increased to about 25
million for small incidences
by testing under two-dimensional
for small aeroplanes of
when
access
is
required to the stream during a test, or details
concerned which cannot be reproduced in small models
instances of such details are engine
cowlings and Aerodynamic
controls
but it is often claimed that these purposes can be served
without going to the extreme of a full-scale tunnel. The relative
advantages of the two methods have, indeed, long been contended.
For very high compressions, models are expensive to construct and
the exceedingly heavy air creates
experimental difficulties, in
e.g.
are
Reynolds number,
made
be expected on the
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Ill]
craft.
99
'
effects.
By
'
scale
meant, of
is
0-6
0-08
0-6
0008j
0-06
CD
0-4
0-2
FIG. 40.
Full line
smooth flow
Spheres.
hatched area steadier tunnels.
(a)
dotted line
Full line
C D reckoned on maximum
(b) Streamline strut of fineness ratio 3.
sectional area across the stream ; dotted line
CD reckoned on maximum sectional
area parallel to the stream.
Full line
smooth flow dotted line
(c) Smooth tangential boards or plates.
:
turbulent tunnel
chain line
fairly
steady conditions.
later on,
100
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
tude and direction of velocity, but except very close to the ground
it is free of turbulence in comparison with all ordinary tunnel
streams.
Now the initial turbulence in a stream approaching a body is found
to affect drag (or lift, etc.), particularly at scales where f(R) changes
The sphere at circa 3 X 1C 6 affords a good example ;
sharply.
change is here so sharp that drag actually decreases with increase of
speed, as occurs also with the circular cylinder at much the same
Reynolds number. In Fig. 40 (a) the full-line curve shows the
CD (
variation in
smooth
= D/^pF ^,
1
R =
(
F<J/v)
flow, as obtained
WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
in]
R>
101
10
Thus aerofoils are often polished or plated if they are to
be tested at large Reynolds numbers.
While postponing further investigation of the foregoing, we may
note that from the engineering point of view knowledge off(R) in a
given case may not be necessary. The engineer is commonly faced
with inadequate data which he must extrapolate, whatever the risk,
to a flight scale. A controlled turbulence in the tunnel may ease in
.
can be inferred
the drag
the
from
Scale Effects
'
(b)
scale effect
coefficient,
maximum
and at what
immaterial
FIG.
(a)
41.
5-ft.
10
INCIDENCE, a
SCALE EFFECT ON L/D FOR
GOTTINGEN 387 WING.
low-speed wind tunnel corrected
to free air.
.
Rayleigh's
(6)
Small
full scale.
effect is
more advantageous
at
some
AERODYNAMICS
102
[CH.
Ill
for example).
1-5
then
called
scale
effect irrespective of
fication of incidence.
modi-
istic,
1-4
is
Further
'RAF 48
(a)
scale effect
of
examples
with this wider
1-3
42.
(a)
a difficulty that
will be now thoroughly ap-
illustrate
L2
preciated
H
R.A.F
38
.20T
interpreting
sideration, experiments at
< 2 x 10 e would give
.GOTT387
18
in
J=48
tu
tu
be required at
14'
55
60
65
7-0
Log, R
APPROXIMATE SCALE EFFECTS
MAXIMUM CL FOR THREE AEROFOILS (ASPECT
RATIO 6).
FIG. 42.
R>
3$
10*
NevertheGottingen 387.
tests
less,
through a range of
much
smaller Reynolds
numbers, within the comopen-jet tunnel, would show max. CL
sharply. Such
evidence, though inconclusive, provides a better guide than comparison at a single small scale.
*
These and other examples given are based on Relf, Jones, and
M., 1627.
Bell,
A.R.C.R.
&
Chapter III
two parts
Mach numbers
'
""
If
- PC
5155
'"
the formula
may be
rearranged
M'.
1100
(i)
1100
103
104
by
AERODYNAMICS
Article 30.
[CH.
ratio,
as
is
-P
f
\
Pi
i.e.,
^Pi
Substituting in
(i),
M
(1
we
further assume
P=
.....
'
(111)
M'/5)*
mate formula
bhp
-
M*
Mach numbers
is
given by
R ^
Now
(ji
is
where
i.e.
3-72
from
(31)
and
(33)
10-' (T/288) 8 4
'
HI A]
Hence, introducing
<y
as before
and assuming
^=
105
288,
1 J million could
Referring to the numerical example above, R
be expected with a complete model at
0-8.
Again, putting
(j
4 instead of J in (iv) leads for the same case to
0-28, and
the expectation of a Reynolds number of 11 or 12 million with a
complete model. The Mach number is then so low as to have no
M=
>
M=
number could be
realised with
can now be seen that adjusting the density of the air used
experiment presents opportunities for economy in two directions,
viz. by employing light air for high Mach numbers and
heavy air
for high Reynolds numbers.
Excessive use of either expedient is
to be avoided, however. A very low
density leads to unacceptably
small Reynolds numbers at high Mach numbers, and a small mass
of attenuated air in which mechanical
energy is being converted
into heat at a great rate is difficult to cool.
Difficulties arising at
the other extreme have already ben mentioned. Thus a compromise is sought between apparent economy, on the one hand, and
the advantages of moderate compressions and rarefactions on the
other.
It is unfortunate, in view of the evident
utility of the
variable-density tunnel, that these considerations point to a power
equipment of some 10,000 h.p. The number of such tunnels is
likely, therefore, always to be limited.
It
for
air.
cross-sectional area,
ft.
in
air is
-4*
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
slots J,
The
indicated
may
for the
is 5 in.
By (vi) of the preceding article with a
1, this gives
a Reynolds number of 1-8 million at a Mach number of 0-8. An
III
A]
aerofoil of
107
more than
J
JW
,0
Reynolds number at
need to 4 million.
Adjustment
Walls.
of
For various
will
the
"
be referred to as
roof
and
its
that
lower
J3
opposite
surface as the floor.
The
roof
and
H-j
Pi
floor
The
u 3
approximately
free-air shape for a
non-lifting aerofoil
is
determined in steps,
as follows.
floor
If
adjusted to
constant pres-
first
give
sure (zero longitudinal pressure gradient)
ftg
%
S
fl
* -38
.empty.
.9
and
floor
AERODYNAMICS
108
for the
[CH.
empty
tunnel, as illustrated
of Fig. 42B.
The increment of speed at the edge of
the boundary layers of the roof and floor is much greater than would
by curve
(a)
exist at the
and
indi-
peak
aerofoil
wake blockage.
the
Clearly,
As a second
the
roof
and floor
step,
***
adjusted in
shaPe to g* ve constancy
aerofoil.
FIG.
'
'
flat
wall
(b)
pressure along
^^^
by 0-6).
The last step gives effect to a theoretical calculation by Taylor
and Goldstein concerning compressible flow between two parallel
one flat and the other corrugated. This showed that, under
certain conditions, one-half of the pressure distribution along the
flat wall is caused by the corrugation of the other wall and one-half
walls,
by the
Ill
A]
now be
109
different
aerofoil.
shapes for a
which
is
application.
The
by connecting them
or to receivers evacuated
high-pressure storage space, they are kept very small, only a few
inches in width.
Suffix
removed
AERODYNAMICS
110
[CH.
When
small.
boundary
velocity
to
and
is
layer,
the pressure
by
is
irrotational
related
the
to
Bernoulli's equation
the
by the
The boundary
layer will be ignored and the
tunnel assumed to run full with
density
adiabatic law.
SUPERSONIC
WIND TUNNEL.
T
velocity of sound in air of the low temperature then attained at
the throat. The corresponding minimum value of pT/p follows
immediately from (50) of Article 30 as
,
mm. p-
mm.
Po
Any
y-
(r +
0-527.
(i)
further increase of
at the throat or to
by
Wide scope
VQ =
exists
provided
/p R
can be made
large.
For
III
A]
111
M applies
pD
is
Greater values,
example, yields M = 2-15 and 2-60, respectively.
between 3 and
have been obtained in practice. At the other
extreme, M = ^/2 appears as a matter of recent experience to be
4,
to be
=
(iii)
Now
Substituting for
C from
(iii).
42D.
and
An
05
plotted in Fig.
approximate value
is
coefficient
is
To
given value of
folpo
is
fi rst
found from
from(iv).
in which
it is
chosen to expand
FIG. 42D.
AERODYNAMICS
112
then
[CH.
duct.
in
>
in
is the discontinuous
curve
pressure
appropriate to a
shock wave forming at B ; (c)
shows an earlier failure due to a
still
Irrotagreater value of /> R
p'
(b)
<-Throat
tional flow
as the
Distance
FIG. 42B.
downstream
is
wave
If
pR
< p'
the issuing
jet.
possible at a fixed
Displacing the station
is
size of the
of
very
provide
a minute at a time. For quantitative
two-dimensional work with larger apparatus, the section will be put
to best use if made deeply rectangular in
shape, or fitted with adjustable sides as described for the N.P.L. subsonic tunnel.
supersonic stream
for, say,
Mach
tests.
Ill
A]
The
illustrations
113
way.
As a first example, the left-hand side of Fig. 42F gives the drag
curves for certain symmetrical aerofoils of three different thickness
ratios (maximum thickness of section expressed in terms of the
chord) tested at zero inci-
some
until, at
critical
Mach
., .,
There-
CD
increases
very
os o* 07 os
rt
FIG. 42F.
0-9
ro
CRITICAL
rs
KM?
re
MACH NUMBERS.
<
small
The determination
matter of
first
of the critical
importance and
Mach number
is
evidently a
0-85
CHECK ON STREAMLINING
WALLS.
an aerofoil chord of 12
and curve (c) with one
in.
of
in.,
12-in. chord with the walls shaped to give constant pressure in the
absence of the aerofoil. Comparison shows the magnitude of the correction achieved in a rather extreme case (the depth of the tunnel
being only 17 J in.) by streamlining the walls, and the fair agreement
reached as to the critical Mach number for the given aerofoil section
with a test employing a much-reduced chord, for which the corresponding correction is relatively small. Thus the test on the
*
loe. cit.> p.
106.
114
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
smaller aerofoil can be regarded with some confidence as approximating to free-air conditions. Apart from its immediate interest,
the investigation illustrates the care that should be taken to
establish the validity of wind-tunnel experiments in general.
Fig. 42H illustrates the nature of the lift curve obtained for a
CL
cambered aerofoil at a small angle of incidence.
increases strongly at first, but the shock stall causes a rapid loss of
lift.
The initial increase is of special importance in the design of
airscrews.
Beyond the
fairly thin
lift is
high,
lift-drag
with
any
ratio
obtainable
has a
aerofoil
much-reduced value.
FIG. 42n.
by
visually
SHOCK STALL.
inspecting
the
flow
It is possible to gain a
preliminary idea of the
nature of the shock stall
under suitable illumination
;
be
may
fitted
changes the Bernoulli constant for flow passing through it, creating
the compressibility wake already noted. With further increase of
Mach number the wave penetrates more deeply into the stream and
becomes rapidly displaced backward. In a tunnel, a stage is soon
reached when it extends right across to the roof, and experiment
See frontispiece.
Ill
A]
115
is,
in
approximate terms,
/
/p\2/7
(-)
0.6,7
\2/7
(MI.-I)
tional flow
5
\pl
and the loss of pitot head implied in (81) becomes large at Mach
numbers considerably greater than unity. The formula may also
be used to estimate the speed of an aircraft diving at a supersonic
speed, and the pressure at a front stagnation point.
The theory is due to Rankine and Rayleigh and is summarised
below, partly in view of the importance of the case and partly as
illustrating, with a minimum of analytical complication, the nature
of the phenomena occurring at very high speeds.
Simplification
arises from the legitimate assumption that though the wave is in
fact flatly conical, only the bluntly rounded apex of the cone,
immediately in front of the mouth of tfre tube, is likely to be effective,
and that
this
may
of motion.
from
to
l9
and
its
FIG. 42i.
pvkinetic energy
is lost
at the rate
AERODYNAMICS
116
and the
r
by
The
Article 30.
[CH.
fP
Pi\
1 \ p
P!/
'
demands,
therefore, that
pV
- PlVl +
lm(V*
-F
x')
-^
(t
=O
^)
(i)
i.e.
- p = m(V -
Pl
VJ,
(ii)
- P) (V +
i(A
and
v,)
= ~(pv- pw + \(p + A)
(V
FO,
since
m = pF =
Hence
(i)
This
is
Pl
x,
reduces to
- i)# +
(Y + \)p +
(Y
(Y
+
-
i)
Pi
WilP)
(PilP)
Pitot Pressure.
+
+ G'
1
From
(ii)
Pi
(v)
6(pi/p)
P
and
(iii),
whence
F*
_
oF8
il-
_
y/>
* Phil.
'
It readily
Pi
or approximately
The
(iii)
Ill
A]
On
(v), this
117
gives
(vi)
In like manner
M
1KX
,
-I
= *V _
Pi*V
'
^+T-
vii >
<
]-
Equating
(vii)
P\
(p)
is
4Y
obtained from
(ix)
reduces to
*
fr
I)
is
isentropic.
Y-l
^J
we have
finally
pjp by
(vi).
p
and
-Vl
pitot tube
(81), closely.
1-4 for y,
Chapter
IV
Heavier-than-air
of airships have been given in Fig. 7.
lift
for
These
in
43.
craft are illustrated
entirely upon
depend
Fig.
motion through the atmosphere either as a whole, as with aeroplanes,
Examples
way
to autogyros
and
helicopters.
All heavier-than-air flying depends first and foremost on the lift
of wings of bird-like section, which has already received preliminary
discussion
(cf.
Article 46)
* Cf.
Relf, Institution of Civil
CH.
IV]
119
control,
plan to the flight path is known as yaw, and angular velocity, producing a change of yaw, as yawing. Horizontal rudders, called
elevators, are hinged to a fixed or only slowly adjustable tail plane,
and control attitude or incidence to the flight path in side elevation.
This is termed pitch, and angular motion that varies pitch is called
pitching: The ailerons move differentially, rolling the craft about
A fourth control is provided by the engine
its longitudinal axis.
throttle.
120
~ a
121
AERODYNAMICS
122
[CH.
and in
aeroplane flight, and are used both in the present chapter
But a preliminary discussion
technical performance calculations.
in more general terms introduces an alternative method, which,
of less technical accuracy, has the advantage of explaining
the reason for the above distinguishing features.
The duty of an aircraft is to carry a large useful or disposable load
though
from one place to another quickly and at low cost in fuel. The
and the drag D should clearly be minimised in
tare weight
and
let this
'
'
if
oc
L 1/3
IV]
123
loading with lift entails faster landing speeds for big aircraft, as
will be investigated later, but is evidently not an unreasonable
requirement within limits. It may be mentioned at once that in
1903 the loading per square foot of wing area was 2 Ib. (the Wright
15
Ib.,
WJL
is
given by
D = CpF
where C
a a
(i)
concerned.
D/L become
prohibitively large
AERODYNAMICS
124
[CH.
the rate \mv* which must be equal to the rate of doing work against
i.e. to
4 V, whence
it
t
D =
(
^v.
(ii)
The
lift.
'
Comparison with
becomes
(ii)
v'
v
v'
gives
alternative expression
v'
'
\v,
A = i~ L
mv
is
'
'
'
'
(iii)
volume
D =
Substituting in
When
it
(iii)
and writing
for 1/2&,
into account,
the formula for the total drag of each of these similar aeroplanes
may
be taken as
D=
where
D<
A and B
scale effects
+ DP =
BpV#,
(v)
and incidence
effects
IV]
and
level flight,
126
pF
minimum
to be a
-.
D = 2L\^AB
and
minimum
so that
minimum D/L =
....
=
2^/AB.
pF
F^(22/15)
(vii)
(viii)
1
,
(vi)
gives
very closely
14
.4x11/4
//A
1/3
(B)
This indicated air speed for minimum drag will be denoted by F|0
Thus the essential peculiarity of an aeroplane or flying-boat as
a means of transport is that minimum drag occurs at a certain
in other words, that
intermediate speed
actually decreases
.
when
V < F
1/2
F.-o-to
minimum value
of Z)/L
is
can be varied.
imposed on the increase of
limitations
altitude
(x)
flying,
keep
of
aircraft
speed,
much
when required.
much greater than
altitude quickly
is
airships at such speeds because their surface area for a given lift
further advantage to be derived from increasing
smaller.
much
wing-loading
is
thus perceived.
126
AERODYNAMICS
(v)
;
if
[CH.
to external bracing
and
on Even Keel
dirigible balloon
W =L'
and
=D
T satisfies
TV =
H
550
where
W
FIG. 44.
is
IV]
127
Taking
L'x =
= Wx.
+
D(t
d)
Dd
or
If there is
case.
length.
coefficient varies in a complicated manner through the
wide
range of Reynolds number (7?) occurring in practice (from
very
at zero speed to 6 x 10 8 if length of hull be used in specifying R).
Direct model experiment can give only a rough estimate of full-scale
drag this is matter for semi-empirical theory and full-scale experiment. From 15 to 25 b.h.p. per ton are usually supplied.
The drag
Now
consider steady straight horizontal flight, but with the airFig. 45 gives the normal pressure difference
O2
0-J
(BOTTOM)
pv
10(TOP)
NOSE
TAIL
-0-1
FIG. 46.
along the top and bottom of the hull of Fig. 7 (c), when level and when
10, showing Aerodynamic lift (L) in the latter case.
pitched at a
Associated with this is an Aerodynamic pitching moment
Re-
pitch.
An
Aero-
AERODYNAMICS
128
[CH.
FIG. 46.
dynamic
force
at a distance
exerted
it
by the
horizontal fins
W=
Tt
and
elevators, acts
+ Dd +
M -L'x- L
~
= 0.
The
equation as before.
tends to increase, so that V must diminish.
With increase of a,
Thus L increases on account of a, but decreases on account of 7, and
a maximum value will evidently occur at some particular a and
V, assuming the elevators to be sufficiently large to
corresponding
permit the last equation to be
satisfied.
157 tons and maxiThe airship illustrated in Fig. 1 (c) had L'
of
4200 ; the curve
possible Aerodynamic lift against
b.h.p.
speed has been estimated as in Fig.
mum
O-15
the
Airships
10
20
so
4O
one-third of
maximum Aerodynamic
fly
commonly
cabrS
(tail
lift.
down)
(1)
resulting from
of
loss
either general
gas or consider-
decreased gas
lift,
IV]
129
72.
horizon
L' cos 6
L' sin 6
+ L = W cos 6
+ T = Wsin Q +
>
D,
'
'
l
^'
Aeroplane in Straight Level Flight >
The vertical position of the C.G. of a heavier-than-air craft varies
considerably with type, but longitudinal position is restricted by
(
73.
FIG.
A..D.
AERODYNAMICS
ISO
[CH.
Aerodynamic conditions.
D=
.....
W = L + L + T sin p
t
p = D
Aa=LJ + Tt
T cos
r=550#/F
with
where
H is
First
(82)
(83)
(84)
(85)
Approximation.
diffi-
W=LW =C
....
....
......
.^V*S
T = D = 550 H)V
Aa = L
t
(86)
(87)
(88)
where S
is
flight,
approximations
W = const.
......
(89)
where
single
Aerodynamic
DB is the 'extra-to-wing'
drag,
i.e. the drag apart from the wings, and DB its value at standard
within the range. It
density and a particular speed V' preferably
we
scale
effects
that
will be observed
through the flying range
neglect
of the wings, but the
to
curve
also
the
lift
This
of scale.
applies
f
IV]
131
speed.
In (89)
In (90) we also omit to take into account variation in airscrew slipstream effects these will be allowed for in estimating H.
If at constant altitude V changes from V l to V tt the corresponding
;
lift
by
C La
provided S remains constant, which with present aircraft is imDB2 follows from Z)B1 by the relation
plied conventionally in CL
.
Cy
(92)
These expressions are independent of the shape of the wings or constancy of that shape. But resulting values of wing drag and incidence depend upon shape. If this is constant, r is conveniently
CL curve if it is continuously variable for changing
read from an r
from the evolute of a family of such curves, one
r
be
read
may
flight,
for each shape, but the result will express an ideal that the pilot may
not quite realise in practice. Incidence is similarly determined.
;
74.
Minimum
While, as
from
(86)
is
is
....
The
W=
132
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
hand, high
speeds lead to danger in forced landings on unprepared
ground. Such comparisons lead to two general conclusions
Really
low stalling speeds cannot be designed for
economically in aeroplanes, seaplanes, and flying-boats.
Special devices to reduce such
speeds by adapting wing shape are important.
minimum
75.
Landing Conditions
Further,
a nose-wheel exists undercarriage wheels must be located considerably in front of the C.G. to prevent overturning on the ground, due
to running the engines at full power with wheels
chocked, or applying
brakes.
Thus, to land at 18 would mean a high and heavy under13 is often the economic limit.
carriage
a curves for the wing Clark
Fig. 49 gives C L
illustrated in
Fig. 34 (aspect ratio 6) for a small aeroplane (5-ft. chord) with low
lower curve
and for a larger craft of
stalling speed (48 m.p.h.)
At the greater Aerodynamic
higher stalling speed upper curve.
scale, CL drops from 1-48 at 18-3 to
1-20 at 13.
The lift coeffi:
YH
<
is
maximum C L when
who
133
IV]
steady motion,
landing
alising
which are
speeds
often lower than designers have reason
to expect and which
1-0
0-8
stalling speeds.
therefore
aeroplane
descends
06
0-4
02
pilot
brings an
i.e.
in,'
10
FIG. 49.
15"
20
30
25
CL would have
0-7 of its
is
not uncommon,
maximum
value,
when by
corresponding to
be described
later, is
conveniently effected
by use
of flaps.*
76. Flaps
Wing
flaps
exist
in
many
different
forms.
They commonly
extend along the inner two-thirds or so of the span and are retracted
*
The variable-pitch airscrew also provides, as one
and powerful means for restricting landing runs.
AERODYNAMICS
134
[CH.
into the wing section except when required for landing, slow flying,
or take-off. Size is specified by width expressed in terms of the
wing chord, and angle by the downward rotation from the withdrawn position. Flaps should be located well aft. Several forms
move aft on opening, increasing the wing area
in such cases
coefficients are reckoned on the original wing area.
In an early scheme for modifying wing sections during flight, the
;
(5)
10
14
12
16
18
INCIDENCE
FIG. 50.
Original form
;
(2) Split flap;
Split flap with displacement ;
U\ Original form slotted ;
(5) Split type slotted ;
(6) Split with displacement and
trailing edge slot.
(1)
CL and CD
(3)
(a)
(6)
at
1-7
x 10 6
(6)
(2)
at 30.
at 45.
IV]
135
'
1921 and, like most ensuing types, leaves the upper surface of the
wing undisturbed. The split
flap
much
in
larger
wing-loadings to be employed
without
of
increase
With
speeds.
wings of a
its aid,
monoplane give as
much maximum
four wings
of
lift
as
the
an unflapped
to
leading
biplane,
landing
the two
maximum speeds by
greater
reducing
skin friction
have so
been applied to
improve high-speed performance, and development tends
to continue on these lines,
but their reverse use is always
far
available
to
produce
aero-
12
14
16
18
INCIDENCE
FIG.
YH
(a)
(b)
(3)
at 45.
(2).at
90,
in-
20 and
heavy undercarriage, (2)
little effect on stalling angle,
51.
constant
CL
(3) little
the
stall,
increase of
and
(4)
CL beyond
a great in-
AERODYNAMICS
136
[CH.
The severe
angles.
by a so-called cut
'
'
operational
difficulties.
a journey.
wing shape
gives r
14,
effect.
At
approximately,
D =
13
incidence the
or,
357 Ib.
air-borne just prior to landing,
w
5000/14
of
284 Ib.
an
increase
With the flap, r
7-8 and
641
Ib.,
w
This is independent of the speed, which depends upon the wing area
S. Fix this at 75 m.p.h. with flap. Since CL =1-56, S=5000/(l-564pF')
is
still
D =
= 222 sq.
ft.
ft.
39'4
1 1-1
both edges, CD
1-9,
IV]
D = 0-95pF
137
they
to be brought in slowly.
Tabs. Tabs may be regarded as very narrow flaps which are
fitted close to the trailing edges of control surfaces.
Operated from
Power Curves
From
TABLE VI
A.D.
5*
AERODYNAMICS
138
of
[CH.
low
may
SPEED
IN
Columns 4-6
be evaluated before the
altitude.
p h
FIG. 52.
CL
ing the
Drag
sequently it increases, at
At 70 m.p.h. the body
contributes < 7 per cent,
to the total drag, but at
though special to
1500
and
fine lines
speed
craft
often
appears
with low-
body drag
in
con-
ciooo
values at a comparatively
early stage.
adding
decrease
DB
An effect of
to
Dw
is
to
500
minimum drag
greater change.
sub-
first
50
150
100
SPEED (m.p.h)
FIG. 53.
200
IV]
139
The
(see p. 126).
Top Speed
The h.p/s available and required
78.
maximum
mum
Had
But to answer
has been assumed, in preparing Fig. 53, that (88) or, more
Means for ensurgenerally, (84) can be satisfied at all flight speeds.
Now
later.
assume
this
will
be
described
flight to be taking
ing
as
lift
to
be
so
to satisfy (84) only
tail
at
and
changed
place
top speed
If steady conditions are to result, speed must
at some lower speed.
decrease to an appropriate extent. If the engines are left at full
throttle, they will exert more power than is required for horizontal
It
flight
and the
Alternatively, let the craft be flying at some speed lower than its
with engines throttled, full power not being required.
maximum
Now let
no
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
available at a given speed over and above that required for horizontal
flight at that speed, and v is the rate of climb in ft. per sec.
:
mum
is
zero at
= 550 H,/W
(94)
small at mini-
speed, but
it
is
not the
maximum
angle.
With the
forces acting
= Q, %? V S = W cos 6
T = 550 H /V = D + W sin
*
L*
'
(
.
95 )
(96)
same
incidence.
(97)
IV]
141
and we have
LJL
D /D
cos
6,
T =D
c
whence
it
W sin
= D cos
6j
6(1
tan
ra
6)
=
jf
ra
(1
ra tan 0) Vcos 8
(98)
considered.
form
in the
H =H+
c
Wv/55Q
or
= +
1
jl
y:
= +r
1
sin
0.
15.
A difficulty is sometimes
felt
=4
or 89, approximately.
Hc jH = 2 and ra =
The small angle refers
we
15,
find
to flight of
the kind under discussion. At the large angle the craft would be
almost hovering, and would be of different form, of the type known
as a helicopter, and then practical difficulties in design would
tiating
[
This
is
J ra
i.e.
+ r" sin
6(cos
9)
fj
'
maximum when
sin 0(cos
or
~ f sin
tan a
+r
+ tan
when
sin 0) == f ra
f ra
tan
=
=
AERODYNAMICS
142
[Of.
FIG. 65.
ANGLE OP CUlVfB
NUMBERS ATTACHED TO CURVES GIVE OVERALL LIFT-DRAG RATIOS.
maximum
H /H =
0-618r
It would be
0-5, approximately.
a craft with sufficient power to exceed this
Incidence could not then be maintained and rectilinear climb
ratio.
if it were not decreased, the craft would
result
begin a loop.
With reciprocating engines, the useful load of such a craft would be
C
fl
feasible to construct
very small, and one-half of the supposed power equipment considerably exceeds the economic limit with present-day aeroplanes
intended for high-speed transport. On the other hand, the restriction does not apply to military aeroplanes fitted with jet or rocket
propulsion.
account, there are two speeds at which ra = 15, viz. 97 and 132
m.p.h., the h.p. ratios being 2-65 and 2-35, and the climbing angles
IV]
143
So
far,
If altitude
be increased,
increases as V,
i.e.
as
ground level.
Every point on a
'\fljja,
or
is
a particular incidence.
on any one such point,
in the ratio
where
its
Vlja.
700
THRUST
H.P.
(b)
500
120
16 O
14O
160
V(m.p.h.)
FIG. 56.
is
higher than that for which the engines are supercharged more
rapidly than the atmospheric pressure, Examination for a given
144
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
full
power at low altitude. The h.p. available curve of Fig. 53 has been
replotted on this assumption for 20,000 ft. altitude in Fig. 56, curve (b)
It will be seen that, at the chosen high altitude, minimum
flying
.
speed
is
and rate
'
is
18,300
Time
in the
ft.
example.
Climb.
of
The
is
by
dh
v
LX
and measuring
the
area
KXOOO
ALTITUDE
15.000
(FT)
FIG. 57.
2QOOO
engine,
dh
H6
IV]
If
t is
tion
rfA==
82. Variation of
z.
lo
L77T
'
(")
Load
abscissae
gi
of points
on the
aeroplane
is
increased, the
D oc Lac
Dw
V* and
increases.
H oc
V*
oc \/L*.
Consequently
enabling a h.p. required curve to be derived rapidly for any new total
In the limit this curve will have a common tangent with
weight.
the h.p. available curve, when the absolute ceiling of the craft will
be at ground
level.
The
first
assumed from experience and parts of the h.p. required and available
curves are plotted, whence an estimate follows of the probable h.p.
An
available and incidence required in the limiting condition.
equation can then be framed in W, having one term dependent on
the h.p. required for horizontal flight at the assumed incidence and
a second on the prescribed rate of climb. The solution can afterwards be improved if need be.
83. Partial
Engine Failure
usually
somewhat
less.
146
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
Twin-engined layout has been assumed for the example of Fig. 53.
For moderate airscrew drag the h.p. required with one engine out of
action is represented by curve (e)
Curve (d) gives that available with
only one engine, and (/) the reserve h.p. with a fixed pitch. The
maximum reserve at low altitude is 107 h.p., indicating an absolute
An estimate on these lines of performance with
ceiling of 5000 ft.
outboard engine failure must usually, however, be reduced owing
.
two
craft flies
fin.
The
resultant
is
Moderate Angles
= CL ip7/S = W cos 8
T. = 550H./F, = D, - W sin
!>
0.
known
as a power dive.
Particular
solutions follow readily from power-curve analysis, but reciprocating
engines must be taken into account. Maximum permissible engine
is
r,
may
= cot
(101)
is
glide follows.
IV]
147
=0-50
Steeper descent is, of course, feasible, and there are then two incidences from which to choose, corresponding to alternative speeds
for a given 6.
It is desirable to be able to approach a confined
a steep angle and a low speed while avoiding very
at
landing-ground
in
consideration of the comfort of passengers. For
incidence
large
this purpose ra must be low and C L large at a moderate incidence,
conditions which are excellently realised
by using
flaps.
The example
of Article 77
may
also
be used to
drag occurs when the induced drag D% is equal to the total parasitic
drag Z)P and using the data deduced in the preceding article from
Table VI, each part of the total drag is equal to 710 Ib. at 112 m.p.h.
But for a given aeroplane in straight and level flight D< oc 1/F 1 and
DP oc F 2 to the present approximation, and hence at any speed
,
m.p.h.
DT listed in Table VI
V
(m.p.h.)
Error (%)
95
85
128
155
190
212
1
148
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
evident.
For example,
creased from
l to
for the same speed is
if
,
V _
550
constant provided no great increase of incidence is
of
at V with the weight equal to
t
l may
be found as indicated above (methods of direct calculation are given
in a later chapter).
DP remaining
involved.
The value
85. Effects of
Wind
the wind.
wind
The
velocity, provided that it has no vertical component.
is of great importance and seldom holds in
The
practice.
presence of an upward wind inclines the lift in horizontal flight for-
proviso
ward
atmo-
power
as follows
motorless glider.
IV]
149
a recognised sport.
It will be appreciated that observations of top speed of engined
aircraft require correction for upwind if representative performance
Another assumption in foregoing articles,
figures are required.
rate
of climb, is that the horizontal wind remains
peculiarly affecting
constant in respect of altitude. Suppose an aeroplane climbing
against a head-wind which increases (as is usual) with altitude.
With constant air speed, horizontal speed relative to the ground
becomes less with increasing altitude. The craft loses kinetic
energy, while its potential energy is increased by the wind at a like
Thus the observed rate of climb is fictitiously great. Correcrate.
tion at altitude is easily made in this case, however, by repeating a
climb downwind and taking a mean of the observed rates. The
effect is of importance in the study^* of the take-off of aeroplanes,
and may greatly increase rate of climb near the ground.
86.
Downwash
Downwash
is
usually defined
its
by the
undis-
Rolinson, A.R.C.R.
&
AERODYNAMICS
150
2C
[CH.
3C
4-c
-2C
0-50.
its centre.
tail plane, if of
small
IV]
151
Fig. 58* gives the downwash as measured in a 4-ft. enclosedsection wind tunnel in the median plane behind a thin aerofoil
j
FIG. 59.
DOWNWASH
IN
WIND TUNNEL.
'
lift
(a)
aerofoil,
(b)
* The reader
already acquainted with Aerodynamics or Hydrodynamics will at
once observe evidence in favour of the circulation theory of wing lift originally
advanced by Lanchester, developed by Praodtl and his colleagues, and now in
universal use. The observations recorded formed, indeed, some of the earliest
experimental corroborations advanced in support of the theory in this country.
(Piercy, Adv. Com. for Aeronautics, R. & M., 578, 1918.)
152
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
But it
removed
from the
effects of downwash.
some wing incidence oc when the downwash at the tail plane
no lift is required from a tail plane of symmetrical section, it
If at
is e
must be
setting angle
change in the
tive
Angle
To
M M
(taking
If it is desired to
*
change from a to
Piercy, Adv.
a,
the righting
&
moment towards
IV]
153
a must be
or negative, is
reduced to precisely the
positive
amount required
for the
new
compensating
If
now a
moment.
change without change
of Y), the complete tail
plane will right the aeroplane back to a. It will
be seen that the role of
-2*
-4
-6
quired.
Now
a correspond
to particular speeds of
a
-12
75
100
125
150
SPEED
200
175
223
(mph)
0.
FIG. 60.
ELEVATOR CURVE.
and unity.
Example
Y]
results in
angle.
craft.
The
AERODYNAMICS
1 54
[CH
plane for the complete craft less tail-plane is given in the third
column of Table VII, the first two columns of which are copied from
Table VI. The C.G. is located at 0-3c behind the leading edge of the
wings of chord c, whence column 4 of the Table, % denoting the
distance of the C.P. measured in the plane in the upstream direction
from the C.G. No righting moment is required at 128 m.p.h., and
it is chosen to have the elevators neutral at this speed.
TABLE
The value
VII
ratio 6, is
follows the
0-35,
column
To
must be
0-8
for zero
lift
=
=
= 2%c
tail
~W\
Lw
x cos a
=L
cos a
or
P F*
or-
'LI
c'
2W x c
^"c'lSt
2Wx
(102)
IV]
155
if
calculated directly
by the
relation
Cu
= 3-08CL
x/c.
elevators suffices to add 60 m.p.h., although 5 movement is necessary to decrease speed by the same amount. Control is still satisfactory at 70 m.p.h., but is tending to become sluggish.
89. The student is recommended to work out further examples,
and should verify particularly that, although insufficient tail volume
This
is
V>
90.
150 m.p.h.
Nose Dive
The circumstances
An
tional.
of
an aeroplane
interesting case
is
wings are nearly at the incidence for no lift, whence a first approximation to the high speed attained readily follows.
But it is easily seen
that L w the wing lift, will not exactly vanish. For if it did so there
would remain a pitching moment due to the wings, which, together
,
AERODYNAMICS
156
[CH.
with the moment of the body drag, now no longer negligible, must be
balanced by a tail moment. L w is consequently required in general
to secure zero
The centre
in the
and
excluding that of
Neglecting body
lift,
we have
(i)
whence
,=
(A,
or,
by |pFS
(103)
lie
maximum
it
must be remembered
moment
of
drag of the
body.
91. Circling Flight
For
an
W to
weight
at speed
aeroplane
fly
of
uniformly
in a horizon-
R,
lift
FIG. 61.
and the
total drag Z) , a
force
With
crosswind
force due to
Q */gR.
centrifugal
large,
flat yaw can be utilised for this
craft
the
purpose,
sideslipping, but
WV
IV]
167
the normal course, necessary for smaller radii, is to bank the craft
an angle
Then, if
(Fig. 61), such that no sideslipping occurs.
L Q is the lift
at
<f>
L
L
so that
=W
= WV^/gR
sin
= V^/gR.
tan
D F = 550 H
cos
<f>
<f>
<f>
(i)
(ii)
(104)
(iii)
and
same incidence
altitude, since
....
'=' = VsecU
and-
(105)
The
thus immediately constructed for increasing values of <, corresponding to decreasing values of R at constant speeds.
Although h.p. required increases on turning into circling flight at
the same incidence, this is due, as the equations show, to the
necessary increase of speed. Comparing at constant speed, on the
other hand, gives
The
CLO
>
CL
increase of
level to level
found from
incidence
is
(v)
of
Article
not large,
DP
69.
l/cos $.
of
increases in
is
VD
158
AERODYNAMICS
Rewriting
(i)
CLoip(gU tan
(104) gives
W/cos
<f>)S
R sin
or
<f>
[CH.
= &/CLO
<f>
<f>
of speed and drag prevent (iii) from being satisfied at a much smaller
angle of bank. Thus power-curve analysis decides minimum radius
of uniform turning subject to limitation of L /W.
Of course, the direction of motion of an aeroplane can be reversed,
for instance, very quickly by using vertical bank and large incidence,
flying
sin
= WV*/gR
T = D - W sin
<{>
6,
increased
Notable
by the
factor sec
effects occur
0.
The matter
is
and Autorotation
IV]
159
side, beating downward, experiences a graded increase of incidence, while on the other side incidence is decreased. Consider a
pair of wing-elements (Fig. 62), distant y on opposite sides of the
one
axis.
it
The change
a span of 2s the
yP/V>
and
occur
at the wing
sp/V
r
FIG. 62.
Then the
lift
coefficients of the
by
the
amount
elements at
i y, originally the
rise to a
T/i
pV*
8y
dC L^ yp
.--dcx.
.y.
must be expressed
AERODYNAMICS
60
For a
lift
[CH
lift.
Considering again two elements distant
y from
the axis, their changes of lift will now be different. Let AC L be the
whole difference of lift coefficient between them. The expression
for the rolling moment becomes
increase their
which
may be
rewritten as
018
cal integration.
Plotting
ACL yp/V
against yp/V,
the area under the curve
016
(Fig.
04*
is
63)
as far as
sp/V
proportional
to
the
moment
at
con-
rolling
042
stant
O40
p and
V.
couple tends
0-8
10
20
15
j
25
to
30
CL
but
increase
still
limit
is
As p
in-
further
at
first,
reached
is
zero,
at
Aa
o-i
0-?
for
increase of
any further
p would pro-
-OO4
-o-osL
FIG. 63.
IV]
161
agreement.
94.
Slot
Recovery from a spin can usually be effected by decreasing incidence, and nose diving to recover speed, but at low altitudes there is
no space for this manoeuvre. Thus it is important to retain lateral
control in case of inadvertent stalling near the ground.
This insuris admirably effected by the Handley Page slot, a false nose to
the wing in front of the ailerons, which, on opening, considerably
are not here concerned with the
delays the stall.
theory of the
but
the
64
of
shows
the
effect
in
a particular
device,
Fig.
working
Associated
case, the slot extending the whole length of the aerofoil.
ance
We
might
As a
brief
result
of
we
investigation,
this
stall
of use in landing.
The
to
ordinary flap
stall and induce autois liable
To remove
rotation.
this disadvantage, while
retaining high drag when
the
next
required, is
step in its development
A.D.
FIG. 64.
AERODYNAMICS
182
slot
[CH. IV
y from
the
slC*
pF
c8y
-~~ Aoc
dv,
y,
lift
(109)
The sense of this couple is clearly to right the aeroplane and stop
the sideslipping. Inserting practical numbers into the
expression
shows the righting rolling moment to be powerful with the small
values of
(3
excessive, in
factors,
used
some
but a
(cf.
makes up
for
any such
deficiency.
The angle 2p
is
becomes
We
adjusting
* Cf.
Nazir, Flight,
Chapter
force
fluid
is
immersed body,
generate vorticity. Thus the total pressure head given by BerTo take
noulli's equation remains constant throughout the flow.
account of the shape of immersed bodies, we must suppose that their
surfaces are closely approached, but not so closely as to enter the
boundary layer. This is tantamount to assuming that the boundary
In the limit
layer is everywhere very thin and that no wake exists.
the fluid may be regarded as slipping with perfect ease over the surThe boundary condition for the idealised
faces of immersed bodies.
fluid is, then, simply that the velocity component normal to the surAttention is confined to two-dimensional conditions,
face vanishes.
and compressibility
97.
The
of the fluid
is
neglected.
Velocity-potential
A and B,
a field of two-dimensional
For the present the region
<B
^A
TB
COS a ds
J A
163
(1 JO)
16*
AERODYNAMICS
[CH
velocity
com-
ABCA.
circuit
plete
The
by a
The
parts
lines.
fine
network of
circulatory velo-
common
Thereedges.
the
circulation
round
fore,
the circuit equals, in the
end, the sum of the circulaall
tions
round
enclosed.
that
all
the elements
Now it is assumed
everywhere, so
that the element-circulations
all vanish separately ; there-
(W
fore,
FIG. 65.
ABCA
is
Hence B
same whether
zero.
the
<f>
^A
evaluated along AB or ACB, or along any curve joining the points.
Its value is therefore definite, and is called the
change of velocityis
potential.
If
^A remains
constant,
conversely.
of flow can be mapped out with contours of ^,
which are known as lines of equi-velocity-potential, or, shortly,
If zero value of
be assigned to one of these lines,
equipotentials.
a numerical value follows for the velocity-potential along
any
other
line.
Now
let
and
V]
If
165
A to B, we may calcu-
late
But
Hence
98. Physical
Meaning
of
velocity-potential could
by
J
Article 28,
~
ex
8*8>y and
8#8y, respectively.
Hence
oy
^ex
with a similar expression for
v,
or
_
""
Now
dw
dx
dm
p#
(111),
const.
we immediately find.
(112)
The
assumption
will be of particular interest later on, but
This interpretation of
the following may be noted
(1) The equations for u and t; above
small
are
which
forces
all
compared with the very large force
neglect
which
constitutes an impulse. Viscous
time
a
short
for
acting
<f>
166
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
Irrotational flow
99. Since there
is
of a line of constant
streamlines
cross
that
line
velocity-potential,
everywhere at right
If the equi- velocity-potentials are closely
angles.
mapped over a
is
9d>
= -,
3ib
"-.
ox
dy
(113)'
Hence
U(b
CW
C(b
UW
"~~
dx dx
'
dy dy
result.
a*0
L
a* a
3y
VV=0
the symbol v* standing for d*/dx*
For
(115)
d*/dy*.
must also
For substituting from (113) in
(no)
v]
167
approximation.
1
01. Source
lines
obviously
and at radius
the velocity q
and
is
= m/2nr
wholly
radial.
and choose Ox
streamline
flux
<J>
for the
= 0.
The
FIG. 66.
any curve
drawn from Ox will equal that across the arc of a circle of any radius
this follows from
subtending the same angle 6 at the centre
there being no flow across a radial line (Fig. 66). Therefore
across
(H7)
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
m
For equal intervals of fy tilt? streamlines are inclined to one another
at equal angles, and for equal intervals of
the logs (to base e) of
<f>
the radii will increase by a constant.
If the
will differ
by
<]*
or of
between
and 2n and
consequently
and m. Other cases will occur where, as here, the value
is unique,
except for the addition of a cyclic constant.
between
of
lie
'
<(;,
'
<f>
102. Sink
Changing the sign of m in Article 101 makes the source into a sink,
a point or small circular area towards which fluid is flowing
equally
in all radial directions in the #y-plane and at which it is
supposed to
be disappearing.
A three-dimensional
sink
is
a symmetrical radial flow from all directions. The flow across all
surfaces completely surrounding the point will be the same.
If this
is denoted by m, m is the
of
the
and
the
sink,
strength
velocity at
radius r
is
m/4nr*.
Away from the immediate vicinity of the source or sink, where the
large velocities attained would make untenable the assumption of
incompressible flow, Bernoulli's equation applies in the simple form
const.
It is easily found that the
\9f
P
pressure drop varies
as 1/r 1 for a two-dimensional, and as 1/r4 for a three-dimensional
source or sink.
Application to
made
in
V]
169
Therefore
(rf
W.^^
ds
But
since
/>
'
ds
ds'
p^
Hence
dp
2 P?
ds
AA
'J
approximately.
show dp Ids
oc
commonly amounts
to 110
An
pressure gradient.
103. Irrotational Circulation
<J>
equi-velocity-potentials
m is
m
= -logr,
*--e.
now a
where
The
__ ~~ ty
_
^
~~2nr
Ijr
and
constant if r
concentric circle is
is
is
The
Thus the
constant.
K = 2-nr
circulation
K round any
a const.
6*
AERODYNAMICS
170
[Cfl.
which may be drawn enclosing the centre, for any such circuit is
equivalent to one made up of arcs of concentric circles and of radial
elements, and along the latter there is no flow. To the value of <f>
for any radial line may be added a cyclic constant as for ty in
On
cussed later under vortices. For the present we assume the centre
by a concentric circle, the trace of a circular cylinder,
of sufficient radius to prevent the velocity exceeding that which is
consistent with the assumption of incompressible flow when the fluid
is air.
If the radius of the circle is a and this circle is chosen for
to be isolated
fy
= 0,
If
=-
difficulty is
1,
<|j
TjT
~~^
(120)
r.
(K/2n) log
sometimes experienced on a
gradient.
Thus,
if
is its
From
(120) q
volume and
path
v.f-v%=o.
r
dr
dfy/dr
= K/2nr.
Substitution leads to
and on integrating
Let
= P when r = oo.
Then the
const.
= P and
...
is
When
must satisfy
and we must have
= oo, q = 0,
v
(121)
'
171
explaining
V]
is
an example of what
is
often called
Conversely, a
and Sink
source
together with a sink B of equal strength provide an important combined motion. Let A and B be situated on the #-axis at equal distances from the origin (Fig. 67). With A B as centres, draw arcs
y
FIG. 67.
a streamline, be
Ax
fy
= 0.
The
flow across
PR
PQ
due to A,
less the
inward
(122)
to
through P.
the figure.
AERODYNAMICS
172
[CH.
105. Doublet
and
the preceding article approach one another inthe streamlines become the family of circles
touching the #-axis at the origin, as included in Fig. 71. Let
increase as AB, which we will now write 8s, diminishes, so that in the
Let
J5 of
definitely, so that
limit,
when
8s
becomes
and as
6'
and
(0
v
^r-
(6
v
= tan
(x,
6')'
and
When
say.
(5
small
is
x*
+
.
*****
x.
1
y*
( JSs)
8s vanishes
ty
infinitely small
finite
27c.8s
6')'
= /- sin
0.
(123)'
2nr
way
is
known
as a doublet of
strength p.
106. The foregoing simple motions will now be combined with a
uniform stream of velocity U in the direction
Ox, i.e.
C7, whose
a
The
stream
function
of
stream function is
resultant
flow
Uy.
by
both methods.
Thus
=
t]/
-^ +
= 0.
0.
Either
^6
TC
_.
2U
--
2U
= 2nUy/m.
or 6
(124)
r sin 0.
(i)
i.e.
v]
giving-
The method
figure.
be
178
is
Any
of
of obtain*
them may
by a rigid boundary
the
without
modifying
others, because the fluid is
assumed to slip without
friction along a material
Let us choose a
surface.
boundary in the position of
the curved part of ^
0,
part
and assume
it
to represent
solid
Ox and
direction
also
FIG. 68.
perpendicularly to the xyThe streamlines internal to the curve, of which four are
plane.
shown dotted, then cease to exist, and the source becomes an artifice
TT
U
m 30 =
__
4U^
,
9y
cos 6
.
2n
msin
2n
a*
any point
rt 6
mUcos
6
(ii)
TC
p
where
is
+ i??
P+
(iii)
AERODYNAMICS
174
[CH.
1-166
= 66-8.
radians
i.e.
when
increases
decreases
at
We
The pressure
difference given
by
(iv) is
plotted against
in Fig. 69,
to
y-m/2u
direct
of
Bernoulli's
consequence
equation applying exactly throughout the fluid, so that the fluid loses
no mechanical energy.
But the
of
the
of
nose
a board
pressure-drag
in
this
be exwould
way
shaped
os
pu*
(f>-p)/
to
be
small
with
air
as
fluid
pected
FIG. 69.
and with the real boundary condition of absence of slip
a drag
would exist, but this would approximate to the skin friction. In
the present example the pressures given by (iv) would, at least as
far along the board as the points of minimum pressure, differ little
from those which would be transmitted through the boundary layer
For a board of finite length, if the section were suffiin experiment.
the
ciently long,
presence of a tail would not greatly modify the
nose.
the
near
Thus the distribution found approximates
pressures
to that existing over the fore-part of a symmetrical tail plane.
The %-axis beyond the stagnation point, together with the part of
to one side of the axis, might be chosen alterthe curve of fy
as
boundary. Half the field of flow would then approximnatively
ate to the flow of a uniform wind from a plain or sea over a cliff of the
The application of this interesting
section bounded by the curve.
to
motorless
gliding is developed in the late Mr.
interpretation
Glauert's Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory. Again, if the external
streamlines be ignored, we have the case of flow from a source
/
V]
176
=+
s,
the sink at x
direction Ox,
s.
we have
fy
Uy
m
p.
(125)
FIG.
70.
ABOVE
fy.
The
OVAL
176
AERODYNAMICS
sum
[CH.
of the
2n x
or
Vi
,The condition
Article 149.
(126)
Putting
r
<J;
0,
/y/ f g^jrA
we have
a const.
= a,
say.
Thus a
circle of radius
or
a with
v]
- U (r- ~] sin
si
FIG. 71.
shown the
(127)
To obtain the
177
-L
*-[- !L -
= 2U sin
we have
(128)
0=0
is
-&W=i (1-4
sin- 6).
(129)
The variation round the cylinder is plotted in Fig. 72, together with
some experimental measurements. There is fair agreement over
AERODYNAMICS
178
[CH.
front
the
the
of
part
From
considerations of
symmetry
it is
apparent
72.
CYLINDER.
Hatched area includes experiments with R ranging
from 2 x 10* to 2 x 10 6
Original papers should
Circular
109.
Cylinder
with Circulation
On
adding a counter-
clockwise
article
(130)
2?r
The tangential
and
IX
-P
= a now comes to
velocity at r
sin e
^L =
2U
circulation
we obtain from
sin e
on the surface
2K
sin 6
-.
(132)
by
qa
sin 8
or
K
(133)
y]
179
K=
bottom
of the cylinder.
If
be further increased,
they
(133) does not apply
K/U
still
y but
occur in the
fluid.
K/U
FIG. 73.
The streamlines
for a
much
smaller
again obvious from symmetry that the drag is zero. But the
pressure is less on the upper
half of the section than it is
is
im-
(132),
example, that if pi be
pressure at the top of the
cylinder and p^ that at the
for
bottom
P.
2K
FIG. 74.
= a of the
circulation alone.
P from
on substituting forp
with
and
regard to 6
integrating
(132)
and 2;r, all integrals
between the limits
except that derived from the third term
so that
of the R.H.S.
Hence
Lr
pt/K f- sin 8
.
7C
(134)
FIG. 76.
AERODYNAMICS
180
This gives a
lift
coefficient
[CH.
(135)
The
We
many
no. The
Potential Function
so that
+ **=/(* + *.
(i)
Then we have
and
"
~~
9y
3y
with
write
(i)
For shortness
it is
usual to
=x + iy,
= +
<f>
ify.
The function of z,f(z), can always be separated into real and imaginand ^, which are
ary parts. Then from (i) we immediately obtain
real functions of x and y.
It will be noticed, however, that the
method can be applied only to two-dimensional problems.
<f>
V]
It is
shown
dw
d(<p
-j-
^T)
*r
^T
v(p
d(x
+ iy)
dx
dx
dx
~~~
dz
dw
-=u-w
in. As a
first
example
=/(*)
where A and
We have
dit>
dy'
....
(136)
= (4
+iB)z
(137)
Equating
==/(*)
be shown that
will
it
if
181
real
-f-
ty
^
fy
= Ax By
= Bx + Ay
and
U=Z
v
fa~
B.
3y
by the angle
VM + B
12. It is often
polar form
tan"" 1
).
=x+
iy
= f(cos + i sin
Remembering that
cos
sin
=C
and
-
^
2i
we note that
cos
cos
sin
sin
=
= 0~*
e**
0).
AERODYNAMICS
182
we have
If
x in the
+ iy,
form %
[CH.
it
form
= re.
For, writing out both sides and equating real and imaginary parts,
2
we find x
r cos 0, y
r sin 6, so that r
3/2 )> of which the
V(*
|z|
is
6 is called the
between
or
positive root
of
argument
z.
The complex
the point %
iy x is measured along
Ox and the increment y is measured at
t
If
is
right angles thereto (Fig. 76).
the point represented by z, it will be
seen that OP
r and tan"" 1 (y/x)
0.
Thus
z represents
76
=/(*)
= Az + A/z.
we proceed
.
to
(138)
Article
first
w=A(re*
+ -"*)
and we have
-f
Equating
ity
real
= AY (cos + i sin
0)
-f
(cos
i sin 0).
=A(r
=A(r
l/r)
cos
l/r) sin
0.
Comparing with
as 0,
we
V]
H3A. Formulae
183
for Velocity
The velocity q at the general point in a two-dimensional irrotational flow can be expressed in various ways, of which the most
useful are the following
w1
(a)
Directly from
(b)
(111), since q*
by
r
whence
By
(c)
('*
(136),
and
u'
v',
-f
respectively,
v'
and,,
-^5
v*,
^r>
3r
30
t/ 1
('
+ v')
1 '2
.
Hence
(iii)
gives, since
dw
~dz
=A
y1
(cos
26
sin 26)
>
,
J
1/2
1/2
c
~~z
of
n,
<f>
and
1,
the
ty
e.g.
a doublet with n
streamlines
rectangular hyperbolas)
a stagnation point
of
(consisting
in the vicinity
with
of
9=
\dwjdzl
2,
all these,
J
|C*"-
O"-
1
,
i.e.
FIG. 70A.
For
AERODYNAMICS
84
114.
It will
[CH
Let
=-
~ log
z.
2?u
re?
is
log r
+ *6.
(139)
Hence
K
K
+ .-*--.-logr + -e
and
,(,,
hr
US. Instead
z as
of
w being expressed as
a function of
we may have
z,
a function of w.
Consider
= c cosh w
(141)
Writing out
x -f iy
= c cosh ($ + *^)
= c (cosh cosh + sinh ^ sinh i^)
= c [cosh cos + sinh
sin
<
*4>
<
Equating
real
<
fy
(i
<{;)].
<
y
Square and add
to eliminate
or square
cosh 2 ^
cos 1
^
1|/
c 1 sinh 1
<^
i|>
i|;
(i)
obtaining
= cos
d/ -f~
sin 1
(ii)
= cosh
Z
c 1 sin 1
<k
sinh 1
<A
1.
(iii)
<j>
= a series of constants in
=
(Fig. 77), the foci being at %
Putting
ellipses
-j
and subtract
c1
<J>,
v1
x*
c2
= c sinh ^ sin
(ii)
may
be taken as
V]
185
JL
FIG. 77.
boundary, and we then have the streamlines for irrotational circulation round a cylinder of elliptic section.
The line joining the foci
be
taken
as
when
the
may
boundary,
ellipses become the streamlines
for circulation round a flat plate.
It is readily seen by plotting or
calculation that the velocity and the pressure reduction both become
very large as the edges of the plate are closely approached, and we
shall frequently have to remark on artificiality on this score.
It will
be noted that, at a large distance from the plate or elliptic cylinder,
Putting
<|/
same foci.
interpreted as the streamlines, so that the ellipses become the equipotentials, we shall have the case of fluid flowing through the whole
or part of the #-axis between
c.
Choosing two hyperbolas equidistant from the ^-axis as boundaries, we at once have the stream-
for flow
AERODYNAMICS
186
[CH.
walls, the flow ceasing
fill the channel, if
the divergence is other
to
With
than small.
this
dimensional analogue
is
the
applied in
design of high-speed
wind
Re-
tunnels.
of
pressure
covery
energy at the outlet
from the kinetic energy
at
the
generated
throat leads to higher
FIG. 78.
resulting
speed at
for a
the
throat
given expendi-
The idea is of
ture of power, than if the tunnel were parallel-walled.
fitted
with
a divergent
tunnel
is
often
ancient origin.
cylindrical
outlet only.
is
advisable to shape,
if
is
known
many
practical applications.
conveying
liquid, the
the venturi
is
short
and
(after calibration) to
measure velocity
power.
with poor efficiency.
1 1 6.
is
supply
associated
loc. cit., p.
44.
v]
187
now be
described.
is
in
of
any
cylinder
Ss,
v,
shown,
noticing that x
is
denoted by
s.
Con-
u cos
sin
cos
0.
ds
ds
is
dx
Finally, integrating
0.
figure
'
dy
= U cos
is
Hence
ox
+ TT~ dy = dk =
Udy.
dy
Any
is
ds/
increasing.
the resolved
FIG. 79.
follows
Uy
const
(142)
form of
from
a
<|t
to the y-axis.
Superposition of motions parallel to x and y enables
be
to
obtained when the cylinder moves with its section
path-lines
AERODYNAMICS
188
[CH.
inclined.
lines.
form selected for ^ (and there is an infinite number) may well lead
to a possible variety of shapes for the boundary, none of which has
any bearing on Aerodynamics. The following classical example has
a particular interest, and should be studied carefully, as we shall use
it later on as a
key to a difficult problem of the greatest practical
importance in our subject.
Assume
w
A
where
is
a real constant.
^
and on separation
-f fy
co-ordinates
x y in the same
t
Ac- * + i*.
(
We
(i)
have
Ac~*
(cos
sin
Y)
YJ)
of real
<J>
The
form
=<4*~ f
sin
Y)
(ii)
5,
way
= c cosh (? +
f>j)
so that
= c cosh cos
y = c sinh sin
As in that article, we find that 5 = const. =
x
Y],
which we
YJ.
say,
is
(iii)
the ellipse
so that
a
are
its
Now
= c cosh
= c sinh
5o
(iv)
semi-axes.
putting
(142) gives,
(ii),
with 5
making use
Ae~*9 sin YJ
Uc
sinh 5o sin
YJ
(iii)
+ const.
* Phil. Trem$.
Roy. Soc., 1864.
V]
and since
this
must be
= 0,
= Uce*
the const.
A
Hence,
in order that
5o-
= bef* = b (cosh
t
YJ
we have
>),
(i)
ty
sinh
189
(v)
(iv)
+ sinh
e)
= -b (a
c
-f b)
and
c 1 SB
a1
ft
Thus, finally
^
'
*-*civ
c
sin Y)
*
and
A/
r
Ub
_
.
n/lQ\
(I4o)
c~* cos
=-
Va
e~s sin
/\A4.
v a
6
73,
(144)
Y,.
6=0
^
<
as
Vc t~* cos
Vc e~* sin
the
or plate has
and
of velocity
for
>j
>)....
(145)
cylinder
components
/^ ^N^
V, Le.
tion,
is
if
the
written
Superposition.
^
FIG.
rtxv
80.-
AERODYNAMICS
100
lines are
more
illustrative
must be superposed.
of incidence a can
[CH.
be plotted
way the
they are
streamlines for
shown
a
for
= 45
any angle
flat
plate at
in
where
Article
further
124,
details
are obtained.
From symmetry,
there
is
no component
of force in
any direction
cidence, although,
if
it
be inclined, a couple
exists tending to produce broadside-on motion.
This further
instance of absence of force in steady motion is reviewed in the next
A circulation might be added from Article 115, and a lift
article.
or transverse force
of a
fluid,
would clearly prevent the flow from running smoothly to the back of
we might round the edges, as, for instance, by substituting
an elliptic cylinder. But the flow would still break away, as was
The subject of drag
seen to occur even with the circular cylinder.
is complicated, and is postponed until later chapters.
But it should
not be inferred that failure to indicate drag prevents the foregoing
theory from being of practical use. The methods discussed will
the plate,
FUNDAMENTALS OF
V]
TliE
IRROTATIONAL FLOW
191
and
velocity
They could
This
is
treated in
from Rest
There
is
an indefinitely short
is measured
by the momentum produced. In vacuo, the impulse would be given
by the momentum acquired by the body. But part of the impulse
an
i.e.
let
it
for
The impulse
is
body under
known
known
7, it
for that
pressure acts normally to the surface of the body at all points, and,
on integration over the body (cf. Article 44), will give a resultant
force which must exactly balance that part X of the external force
applied which is not absorbed in producing momentum in the body,
and we have
x = Tt
146>
<
AERODYNAMICS
192
the latter
is inviscid,
we have
resistance, as
obtained
is
whether the
[CH.
we have
'
'
end
of T
by E.
It is given
E^toJJfdxdy
case, if E be reckoned
by
.
(147)
for unit
in the two-dimensional
depth perpendicular to the ay-plane, q denote the velocity at any point, and
the integration extend over the whole of the ay-plane that is not
occupied by the section of the body.
of impulses operating
from
sum
of the
continuous
If 8n be an
distribution of impulse which we have to consider.
element
an
8s of the
from
fluid
the
into
element of the normal drawn
pulse pressure
at 8s
is,
by Article
98,
p.
S
'
the im-
Hence
'
'
'
(W8)
all
Dynamical
V]
193
Assume two-dimensional conditions take the origin midway between the edges of the plate, draw Ox in its plane, and let
going.
2c be its
(f>
Vc sin Y]
^ =
to 2n in the integration.
Hence (i) gives
YJ dt\.
__
and
Y]
ranges from
dx
article,
c sin
(ii)
T2ir
sin 1
r>Vc*
i
dr\
.....
Y]
Article 117 x
(149)
=~c cos
i)
and
is
equal to \V.
E=
A.D.
iTrpF'c*
....
(150)
Chapter
VI
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
The present chapter obtains the streamlines and other
and aeroThe process employed is an applicafoil sections of practical forms.
tion of the methods of conformal transformation, the aim of which is
121.
or can readily be obtained. The method is applicable to twodimensional conditions only, so that the shapes derived must be
= +
-/(*)
</>
(i)
which
will
In like manner
w-plane.
194
195
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
CH. vi]
in the w-plane can have only one form it must consist of one group
of straight lines parallel to the ^-axis and another group parallel to
:
<f>
mesh net
as z
+ a*/z
(ii)
= re* +
V"*r.
(iii)
very small
element of the
will
square
te>-plane
evidently
trans-
although
orientation,
and
w- plane
size,
dis-
position geometrically
relative to the axes are
metrically
infinitely
not so
similar
small,
if
z-plane
but
FIG. 82.
if finite.
is
as follows
from
(iii)
we
AERODYNAMICS
96
<
fy
and on the
circle,
where
fy
=
=
=
<f>
varies from
Since
on the
[CH
-f a*/r) cos 6
(r
a*/r) sin
(r
and
= a,
= 2a cos
to 2n, the
(151)
values of
<
Thus the
circle are
2a.
122.
Conformal Transformation
= +
= +
<=/(!)
Let
yj.
.
(i)
Thus
we exclude transformation
formulae
197
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
t
z*, while also we assume that in the parts of the planes
considered dt/dz has neither zero nor infinite values.
As in Article 112 82, 8z may be interpreted as very small vectors.
Applying the operator dt/dz to an element-vector in the one plane
converts it to an element- vector in the other, and this transformation
is independent of direction.
Elementary lengths in the z-plane are
such as
dt
Further, element-
1.
dz
Further,
it
-_
1.
ctz
Let
<
w=F(t),
be the velocity potential and stream function of a motion in the
From
constant.
2-plane and let the boundary there be F^Z, 73)
t in terms of z and obtain
for
substitute
can
we
(i)
=/(*).
constant in
In the same way we can find a new boundary f^x, y)
the 2-plane corresponding to that in "the -plane. The same functions
and ty then hold for the motion in the #~plane.
Considering a small area mapped with streamlines and equipotentials transformed by (i) from the z- to the -plane, the distances
dz
-j
1.
dl>
ratio,
dz
To make such
change
in the
two planes.
If
when
is
large
Application
198
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
t=z +
a'/z
dt/dz
(i)
Differentiating
/**
although this also holds for the line as a whole, at its ends the angle
becomes 2?u. A singular point is seen to produce a discontinuity in
the transformed contour.
124. Transformation of Circular Cylinder into
An
Normal Plate
motion investigated
The opportunity
will
in
be
taken to effect certain calculations required later on, which were left
over in anticipation. The article is of further interest in that in
principle it forms a starting-point for more difficult work than is
attempted in a first reading of the subject.
Flow past a circle of radius a at unit velocity parallel to Oy is
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
Ox by multiplying
199
the co-ordinate
by
giving
The
circle itself is
of the /-plane
a1
we have
~ a*\
'
T>
A*
'
by the formula
= z + a*/z
as
*+
5
(ii)
and transformation
seen,
z.
= 4a*
t*
or
w
If u', v' are
the
= *V/
40 a
and vj-components
(iii)
from (136)
dw
=
Hence
(iii)
,
'
'.
gives
w'
u'
it
=
V{
7]
))'
and we have
'
(iv)
-4'}'
for 5
>
2a
= 0,
'
=-
The
is
'
= 0,
w'
= ?/V4a
'
.
(153)
AERODYNAMICS
200
[CH. VI
and
v'
for
If
noulli's
P-P __
P F'
The
p over
(W
fi
~*L
the plate
l-(5/2a)J-
elucidate remarks
-0-5
FIG.
a permanent
experiment, when
become
and
has
established,
regime
the flow has broken away from the
edges, the whole of the upstream
face has an increased and the downstream face a decreased pressure,
83.
TION OVER A
DISTRIBU-
NORMAL PLATE
IN IRROTATIONAL FLOW.
venient
form
for
plotting,
elliptic
= +
by transforming
Now
follow any
The
<f>
The
and a
smooth curve may be drawn through them. The proof is left to the
The graphical method can be used to find the streamlines
reader.
of flow without circulation past an inclined flat plate (cf. Article 117).
For this purpose the direction of the flow in the 2-plane to be trans-
7034-321
01 254-3
8780
10
II
ia
2
il
9
8
5ti V
/
a
5
\\
4-
3
2
1
-I
\\
-2
-3
-4-
-3
-Q
-/
-7
9
-IO
-II
12
t-plane
FIG. 84.
NORMAL PLATE.
.D.
7*
201
202
AERODYNAMICS
[CH,
with centres at the origin in the 3-plane and the orthogonal system
become
of radial lines
transformed to the
m
z
ae + tn which
radial lines
making
tf-plane
and hyperbolas,
by formula (ii).
respectively,
when
For substituting
m
represents circles of radii ae
together with
n
with
the
the
formula
#-axis,
angles
gives
(m +
= 2a cosh (m + in).
+
-plane, therefore, m and n are the elliptic co-ordinates already
t
In the
ellipses
in)
employed in Article 117. Thus mapping the 2-plane with a network of such circles and radial lines and the tf-plane with the
corresponding confocal ellipses and hyperbolas provides corresponding systems of co-ordinates which enable any curve drawn in the one
plane to be transformed at once to the other plane.
FIG. 84 A.
foci.
and the
The same
,
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
203
125.
t=z +
a*/z
....
=
(154)
achieved by applying
the formula
to a
circle of radius > a
Q and
R.
Describing such a
circle
with
as
centre results in an
enclosing
but displac-
ellipse,
ing
centre a
its
little
upstream leads to a
section of the streamline
form
found in
to
experiment
small
flow
drag.
to be
formed
give
The
trans-
now be
will
FIG. 85.
and radius
b,
which
will
be called the
6-circle to distinguish it
from
and
for that of
= re"
P'
sum
which
is
of
P'
is
the
The
relation
OP OPl
.
a* is clearly necessary.
AERODYNAMICS
204
[CH.
The vector
is to be reflected in the #-axis, giving OP 2
found by completing the parallelogram POP ZP'.
This graphical method can be applied, of course, to points outside
the 6-circle, so that any point on any streamline past the circle can
immediately be transformed to the /-plane in the same way, its
so obtained
OP'
is
radius
/ being
FIG. 86.
written for
r.
is
In Fig. 86 b/a
The transformed section
1-05, OB/a =0-035.
of thin symmetrical streamline form, such as might be adopted for
an aeroplane fin or tail-plane. Half the contour is also plotted with
is
FIG. 87.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
205
thin,
common
tangent there,
the
while
rear parts of
the contour are concave
outwards,
simple, and
in
SECTION,
an
making
On
unpractical shape.
FIG. 88.
some
calculations
A theoretical interest
complicated shape without serious error.
Unless otherwise
will also appear later in the sharp trailing edge.
will be referred
which
section
of
it
is
this
stated,
particular type
to as a Joukowski symmetrical aerofoil.
126.
In
Approximate Dimensions
applications of the foregoing the lines of
Article 107) and the reciprocal of the fineness
ratio, called the thick-
many Aerodynamic
sections are
'
'
fine
(cf.
the section
thickness of
For small
to the chord.
thickness ratios b
is little
than
a,
greater
certain dimensions
for
be evaluated
Joukowski
and
may
the
symmetrical
aerofoil.
Let--
b=a(l+m)
where m is small compared
.
FIG. 89.
with
a.
sin 0) a
(r
cos 6
(r,
6),
am)*
Fig. 89-
= b* = a* (I + m)*.
Zram cos
or
2m
cos 6
(1
2m)
(i)
AERODYNAMICS
206
Now
of order
r/a is positive.
m*
and
[CH.
(1
_.
(i
+ cos
6)
(iii)
approximately.
Hence, in the *-plane we have for P', the point corresponding to P,
remembering
(154)
E= a
cos
\a
first
(iv)
a\
\a
The
/r
= a sin
Y)
+ -r/ = 2a cos
r/
when
is
small compared
with a the chord of the section is 4a to the first order. Again, the
thickness ratio is the maximum value of 2-y]/4a, and differentiating
and
the right-hand side of the second formula with respect to
t
=m
so that sin
(1
m=
+
1-3
Hence
\/3.
m, approximately.
The maximum
is
(165)
i.e. when
a,
thickness, occurring when cos
situated at one-quarter of the chord from the leading edge.
Eliminating leads to a simple formula by which narrow aerofoils
,
Then the
first
of (iv) gives
2
=
x = 1-U
4#
Hence
if
second of
K!
cos m.
(iv)
gives
y = 1 = mx sin
4a
2mX* *(l
!
X)
1/3
.
(156)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
b
a(l
m) as before, and let OB
following expressions result in place of (iii)
Let
The
f
CL
m+
cos
cos
207
a/,
<
where'/
m.
6.
Thus the
first
becomes
2a sin
last expression
(vi)
can be rearranged as
Y = 2/X
The
(v)
1/ 3
1/3
/)
The
- X) + (m - QX ^! - X)
1
1 /3
3 /2
(1
1 '3
.
(157)
and thus
The second term is an
represents a thinner-cusped aerofoil.
ellipse. Hence the rounded-tail Joukowski symmetrical section can
be described as a cusped aerofoil of reduced thickness enveloping,
or built round, a core consisting of an ellipse of the same chord.
The position of maximum thickness no longer occurs at one-quarter
of the chord from the nose but farther back, depending upon the
for maximum thickness.
ratio m/l.
Let X' denote the value of
Then by differentiating (157) and 'equating to zero,
first
in (156)
gx'(i
i~2X'
X')
-7'
(vn)
'
X =
1
For mil
JTICK
9o.
1,
Joukowski,
(b)
K&rmdn-Trefftz,
(c)
Piercy.
of
having a thickness ratio of (H5 and the position f maximum
in
0-6)
thickness located at 0-4 of the chord from the nose (X
will
be
described
later.
and
curves
The
4-6.
this case m\l
(c)
(b)
aerofoil
AERODYNAMICS
208
m is
[CH.
The
gives on separation of
5
(r
a*/r)
real
cos
*V)
T)
a*/z
(i)
(ii)
TJ
(r
a*/r) sin 6
=
+ -r^
sin
cos
2r.
found from the first of (iii) and then r from the second.
U and the
The undisturbed velocity in the 2-plane is taken as
is
The
circle as of radius b.
circle is
the
potential function of the flow past
then
<
ty
-U(z l
6V*i).
iv )
FIG. 90A.
in
which
zl
xl
iy l
^d ^
1
is
209
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
BP
=r
=r
r cos
r sin
OB
cos
sin
so that
tan
r sin
r sin
=
r
cos
OB'
(v)
sin "07
dw
113A
U(l
b*
4-
The transformation
dt/dz
sm
A
6,
(vi)
gives
a*/z*
when
z is large.
U
Hence the undisturbed velocity is
the 2-plane, and the velocity at the general point
(vii)
of Article 122,
is
given by (152)
i.e.
ft
dt
dz
(vi) it is
found that
dt
.
dz
(viii)
circular boundary.
(ix)
210
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
If
is
the
tail is
controlled
sharp
from practical
it is
also cusped,
viz.
transformations
An
The formula
Trefftz.
_ (z +
~V7
which
is
t
na
z
a
whose singular points are at z = _ a as before. Using (158) to
transform a &-circle drawn through one of the singular points and
enclosing the other, as shown in Fig. 89, enables the aerofoil to be
given a tail angle T, defined as the angle at which the two sides
of the section meet at the tail.
The angle is secured by choosing
for n a value less than 2 according to the relation
'
'
n
Again, the position of
maximum
FIG. 01.
T/TT.
(ii)
KARMAN-TREFFTZ SECTIONS,
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
the nose.
Two
characteristics
sections
shown
in
Fig.
211
91
The
transformation (158)
is
insufficiently elastic
from
as will be illustrated.
is
of this book.
is left
to further reading.*
y =
sx(i
(159)
As the
Glauert, A.R.C.R.
No. 1241.
&
&
M.
AERODYNAMICS
212
128. Aerofoils inverted
[CH.
from Hyperbolas
articles
symmetrical form of this family is given in the following
advanced
and provides an introduction to 'methods used in more
work, where the number of parameters is further increased.
FIG. 92.
THEZ O -PLANE.
'
'
AB
^/cos
^-
in that
(j.
lie
*
425 (1937). Piercy,
Piercy, Piper and Preston, Phil. Mag., Ser. 7, vol. xxiv, p.
Piper, Phil. Mag.,
Piper and Whitehead, Aircraft Engineering, November, 1938
For further generalisation and applications see
Ser. 7, vol. xxiv, p. 1114 (1937).
later publications by Piercy and Whitehead (when released).
;
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
213
IJL
The hyperbola
C located on the #
reckoned positive if C is to
of inversion
the
left of
Co-ordinates
figure.
are distinguished
<
If e
C lies
1,
and in
e
>
z 0c
1,
since
.
by
between
pc
[i c
cosh
of
suffix
+
(JL C ,
C
c.
ir/2
If
0.
in, giving
and this
-plane
z, -pi tine
determinate alquantity
itself
is rendered
though
uncertain by the change of
sign on crossing the # -axis
beyond the focus.
is
(ji
hyperbola
is
of
replotted
dent
with
inversion C.
the
centre
of
2 -plane
FIG.
z 2 -plane
TO CIRCLE
92A.
Thus with
1,
iy-i
as
marked
in the figure.
In the -plane of Fig.
Substituting
rt
=
-
ie
re
t
t,
zl
l/r lt
aerofoil obtained
(160)
to
.
(i)
Thus points remote from the origin in the ^-plane are close to the
remote parts of the hyperbola
origin in the tf-plane, and vice versa
the
and
the part of the hyperbola in
of
the
back
aerofoil,
yield
part
;
the neighbourhood of
its
214
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
The inversion
is
accompanied by reflection in the real
upper side of the aerofoil corresponds to the lower
side of the hyperbola, and vice versa.
Thus jx is negative on the
aerofoil.
cos T/2).
Then the distance of C
lengths in the ^-plane by l/(e
to the left of the centre of the hyperbola becomes e/(s
cos T/2),
and the complex co-ordinate of the general point in the zr plane
becomes
v
.(161)
'
cos T/2
It will be seen that the tail angle T of the aerofoil is equal to the
angle T between the asymptotes of the hyperbola. T and e comprise
the two independent parameters of the family.
Aerofoil Profile.
Any point on the hyperbolic
be
denoted
Y
boundary
by v l and any point on the aerofoil
Y
the
co-ordinates
are non-dimensionally expressed
X,
profile by
in terms of the chord, and X, Y have the same meanings as in
Articles 126 and 127.
With this notation, (160) gives
the
Plotting
will
X+
iY
l/(X l
+ y
*
x)
(ii)
X = XJRf
and
Y = -YJRf
(iii)
where
parts,
s
X = + e cosh cos T/2
+ cos T/2
__
LL
l
1
and YI*
sinh
e
LL
sin T/2
-
cos T/2
..
(iv)'
v
the aerofoil.
Xi and Y!
Eliminating
\i
y t = x-^ - i)^ +
-
&)
(v)
where,
==
tan T/2
1
and
^^ C T
e + cos T/2
{
(vi);
v
is
Noting that
and
215
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
Vl]
if
R*
+ Y
X>
X =
equally gives
(ii)
etc.,
X//?,
substituting,
*-(*-)(*+')
<->
bX)}'
Further approximation is permissible in the case of very thin aerofoils, for which the denominator will differ little from unity, so
that
y=
But
(162) should
xX(l
X)W(I
bX)
112
.
(viii)
dY _
Y^'dX,-
2Xl
Xf^Tj
(X.-l^X. +
b)
_ ^'(2^ -
1)
+ X '(2X
1
3)
X&=3XJ=Y{
l/X approximately,
l
(ix)
reduces further to
2
The curve
3X'
AERODYNAMICS
216
[CH.
The
Fig. 92A.
The
first
step
is
(163)
iv in which
has already been defined, being the complex p
between O and TC. e" is a constant such as to
ensure that the origins in the 2 r and z 2-planes shall be corresponding
where
v is restricted to lie
points.
Hence, putting
z^
when
z2
0,
This transformation may be regarded as changing the given hyperbola into the hyperbola which coincides with the jy -axis in the
2 -plane, Fig. 92.
However, in the 2 2-plane it is defined by v
r/2,
upon the
circle,
z 2 (z
1)
(164)
inverts a circle of unit radius with centre at the origin in the z-plane
into the straight line of the z 2 -plane, and then the centre of inversion
is
at the point
on the
circle
tf-plane.
To enable the
an hyperbola, and
aerofoil to
regions except only the singularity yielding the sharp tail of the
aerofoil.
(164) transforms the region exterior to the circle into
the region to the left of the infinite straight line in the * 2 -plane,
(163) and (161)
giving a singularity at the origin in the z 2-plane.
217
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
transform this region into the entire region to the left of (or outside)
the right-hand branch of the hyperbola, introducing no further
The
singularity in the region considered not on the boundary.
and z 2-planes occurs at correspondtwo planes and at infinity in the z- and 2-planes,
while the singularity on the circle and aerofoil boundaries occurs at
corresponding points in the z- and ^-planes and at infinity in the
singularity at the origin in the z r
others.
its
The
final
in the 2-plane.
The change of velocity between the circle and
aerofoil planes must be allowed for but is easily determined, as in
can be found from (iii) and (iv) of Article 128, and this boundary
pi
value of \i is related as follows to the corresponding angle 6 in the
ie
1 on the circle) in
e
circle plane.
(since r
Substituting z
n/2 from
z 2 in
terms of
(163),
.
tan
--
is
to evaluate
(ji
smh
t"
mod.
T/7C
dz/dt
from
fa
dz,
(ii)
dz
dz 9
dt
E--
(i)
'>'
dz
C'(2
cosh
T/7C)
ft/2
T/7T
(x
218
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
cos T/2
sinh
whence
(ii)
-A
*l'
cosh
cos'
(iii)
coefficient
4&
2(e
e*(2
The
velocity
the velocity
cos T/2)
'
-U
is
derived from
= -U'
(v)
dt 00
For
and
inversion,
large, z l
and
(ii)
and
(iv)
T/TT)
z% are
gives
cosh
V
00
00
2 -T/7C
(vi)
sinh
But from
(v)
we can
[-1
L<&J oo
and substituting
write,
and
z,
+1
in (vi) gives
oo
which reduces to
dz
dt oo
(vii)
(165)
is
given by
(iii)
and
A by
(iv).
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
219
sure
The
Experimental observations
section obtained at a
for this
Reynolds number of 6 x 10
gave the broken line. Agreement is seen to be close over
5
FIG.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
92s.
OF
91.
ment
Equally successful
comparisons have also been
made with symmetrical sections
of the simple Joukowski type.
The important conclusion is
that for the Reynolds numbers
Aeronautics the present
of
illustrated.
lations to
FIG. 92c.
outside
velocity
field
boundary
layers. f
In these
theory
their
circumstances the
finds
many Aerody-
* Loc. cit.
t
page 211.
According to Piercy, Preston and Whitehead, Phil. Mag. Ser. 7, vol. xxvi,
of a bluff section
p. 802 (1938), approximate allowance can be made for the wake
by determining the potential function as for an imaginary elongated boundary, in
which the back of the section is replaced by a narrow extension to infinity, representing the wake.
f
AERODYNAMICS
220
[CH.
In the
namical applications, one of which is indicated in Fig. 92c.
figure there have been drawn two examples of the family of aerofoils
inverted from hyperbolas. Both have a thickness ratio of 0-15,
but for (a) the position of maximum thickness is at 0-35 chord from
the nose, while for (b) it is at 0*425 chord from the nose. The
distribution of the theoretical pressure distribution round the two
is also shown and can be relied upon to agree fairly with
boundaries
tail.
The
difference illustrates
a decrease in the
the
position of
the
backward displacement
the
maximum
sections for
Joukowski Transformations
The straight lines to which the circle of radius a transforms by
formulae (154) or (158) are known as the skeletons of the symmetrical
130. Circular
FIG. 93.
in the -plane
ordinates of the corresponding point
r
a
cos
(
*/r)
TJ
=
=
(r
a*/r) sin
0.
(i)
(ii)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
From
the triangles
6a
=a
OQB,
see p
OBP with
shown
as
(i
221
= ?* + a* tan* p
or
r
Hence from
(ii)
a*/r
= 2a tan p sin
T)
= 2a tan
2
p sin
the 6-circle at
(iii)
6 transform to a single
showing that two points on
point in the -plane, and that the maximum ordinate of the transformed curve is situated on the yj-axis (6
OB.
ju/2) and equals 2
Q and R transform to Q and R' (Fig. 93), giving Q'R' = 40, as
seen from (i) and (ii). The ratio of the maximum ordinate of the
arch to its chord is called the camber and from
tan p.
(iii) equals
Squaring (i) and (ii) and by subtraction we find
-_
--- _
cos 8
and eliminating
by
2
circle
(iii)
(T)
whose centre
+
is
-_-
sin 2
on the
vj-axis at
73
(iv)
2a cot 2p.
The
The
by
131.
We now consider in some detail wing sections of a certain type introduced by Joukowski in 1910, which are susceptible to simple
To obtain
is
analysis.
* The
transformation is known after Kutta.
Detailed investigation of this and
other shapes is given in a paper by Mrs. Glauert,
Jour. R.Ae.S., July 1923, which
should be read.
AERODYNAMICS
222
[CH.
through one of the singular points, Q say, and enclosing the other,
with centre B slightly displaced from both axes. For a section of
normal proportions to result, the angle (3 which QB makes with Ox
requires to be small and EB (Fig. 96) a small fraction of a.
FIG. 95.
preceding
article.
5,
>)
of
any point
Let
(3
is
we have approximately
6fl(l+m).
(i)
small
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
223
FIG. 96.
From
(PN)*
a
(J3iV)
(BP)*
Fig. 96
and
(i)
= (r sin 8 ma sin
a tan p) = r sin 8
= (r cos 8 ma cos
= r cos 6
= 6 = ((XB) = (a sec p + ma) = a + 2wa
a
2ra$ sin 8
2ram cos 8
(3
(i)
a
.
m and
(3
= (BP)*,
2ra (p sin 8 + m cos 6) = a* (I + 2m)
of
(BN)*
or
a
/r\
-
This gives
2 -
sin 8
((J
+ m cos
8)
2m
= 0.
= + p sin 6 + m (1 + cos
1
m (1
p sin 6
6)
-f cos 8)
Finally
(ii)
si
8)
sn
in
8}.
(166)
224
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
133.
for
m and
P.
may
be conveniently expressed.
It is first seen that the thickness ratio is still
if
v], T)'
any
position
is
given by
r = ,,-v
and if
is transformed from a point on the ft-circle whose radius
makes an angle with 0%, the corresponding angle leading to 7)'
will be
0.
Hence from (166) of the preceding article
TJ
T = 4am
sin
(1
+ cos
0)
and, on comparison with Article 126 (iv), the result follows. The
maximum thickness again occurs at one-quarter of the chord from
the leading edge.
The mean camber is defined by the maximum value of (7) -f- 73')
divided by the chord, or (YJ
V)/8# for m, (1 small, and from the
article
preceding
T)
this,
7)'
= 40p sin
occurring
Mean camber
as
is
0.
when
|(3
Hence
|TT, is 4a(3.
.
(167)
Karman-Trefftz Aerofoils
tional parameter.*
*
d.
LFF., 1937.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
1
225
Cambered
modern
FIG. 96A.
-MS +
coshi;
V
f COS T/2
'
in place of (161).
An aerofoil of zero thickness is obtained in the ^-plane when the
hyperbola degenerates into both sides of the part of the axis of
A.D.
AERODYNAMICS
226
[CH.
8
e
and
it
amount
cos T/2
of camber, or the
mean camber,
is
p as in (167).
For constant values of the parameters e and T, the maximum
thickness and its position along the chord of an aerofoil are only
slightly
by camber.
affected
for
the parameters
may be
mined by means
of the formulae
deter-
is
between the
asymptotes produced of the
hyperbola, i.e. 8 must be less
than e tan T/2.
of inversion lies
(b)
of scale
EXAMPLES OF CAMBERED
FIG. 96B.
SECTIONS.
The value
of 5
is
(b).
tan
2(3
is
accordingly
(160A)
With
this
for points
X + iY =
(1
tan 2(J)/(X1
iYJ
(iiA)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
227
and
X = (X + Y tan
Y - - (Y - X tan 2P)//?/
l
whilst to relate
we now have
X Y
lt
to
(ji
'
(iiiA)
for points
cosh
(ji
cos T/2
(ivA)
tan
cos
Y
and Y
for
is
It follows that
will
FIG. 97.
228
AERODYNAMICS
[CH
It is easily proved, as follows, that for all conformal transformations the circulation round the aerofoil is the same as the circulation
round the
circle.
Construct any two corresponding circuits enclosing
the circle and aerofoil respectively. Then, since
is the same at
<f>
corresponding points (Article 122), the interval of ^ round each
circuit will be the same.
But the circulation is the interval of <f>
round a complete circuit. It is important to note that this result
is
in the
two
planes.
becomes
finite.
Joukowski's hypothesis
is
that
is
consideration.
correctly
and uniquely
deter-
Q be
the point on
the circle which transforms to Q' the trailing edge of the aerofoil.
Since dt/dz == O at Q and
Briefly, let
dz
135. Calculation of
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
229
FIG. 98.
of the circle
when
is
Referred to axes
Bx By
lt
through
of the aerofoil
as origin parallel
is
given
and per-
by
(i)
whence
<!
If qb
= - J.
(r
sin 6
[3tin
giving
qb
(Cf.
-')
=o
when
- "ft
log
r.
(168)
circle
K
.
471^0 sin 6
Article 109).
K = 4nbq s n Y
= 4nbq sin (a + p)
determining K in the z-plane.
9
from the
The
figure,
figure refers particularly to the
(169)
Joukowski transformation,
is
230
AERODYNAMICS
and angles
in passing to
136.
[CH.
and
may
be changed
the aerofoil-plane.
The Streamlines
Plotting (168) with the prescribed value of K/q gives the streamappropriate to a chosen value of a in the 2-plane (cf. Article
109).
Transforming these gives the flow past the aerofoil. An
lines
is
example
shown
The value
in Fig. 99.
of
K/q and,
therefore, the
FIG. 99.
by
L
This force
is
pj^
....
(170)
evaluated
by a
Analytical investigation
137.
The
is
articles.
Lift
ponent at the
circle is unaffected
Article 115).
It equals K/2-xR,
point
(R, 0)
it
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
231
FIG. 100.
and
is
sin 6
K/2nR
given by
parallel to q
m=
When P
is
circle J?.S0 at
pg
We
q at
P, and
let
be the
fluid
have
R8Q
cos
0.
(ii)
upward momentum
at the rate
cos Q.K/2nR to the fluid within the
This calculation is correct wherever the element is situated.
Hence the fluid within the circle will, on account of the flux of fluid
circle.
its
momentum
in the direction
OY)'
""* we
We have omitted to attach a sign to q and it is evident that this
should be negative, since the velocity is in the direction
0%'.
Hence the last member of (iii) when essentially positive gives the rate
at which the fluid within the circle is
receiving momentum from the
aerofoil in a downward direction, i.e. in the direction
This
,
OT\
'.
AERODYNAMICS
232
[CH.
checked by the fact that the aerofoil bends the streamlines downward.
The fluid outside the circle exerts, we shall also find, an upward
force on the fluid within by virtue of the pressure p acting radially
inward. This must also be taken into account.
Considering again the contour-element R8Q, the upward force on
it is
p sin 6 R8Q. Integrating round the circle we find the whole
is
force to
amount
to
f2T
Now
If
is
R is large,
and
since
is
pQ
is
the undis-
compared
negligible
Substituting in
the circle
(iv)
we
P;r-
upward
on the
force
fluid within
(v)
the rate
fluid
'
obtaining
= 4p
*
.
7c6
sin (a
P)
(171)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
Introducing the
coefficient
lift
CL
C L and remembering
,
that
b/a~l+m
= 2w(a + p)
approximately, when
a, p,
and
m are small.
(172)
In these circumstances
.....
Tsr
i.e. if
233
<>">
increase, the
(HI per
degree.
Moment
139. Pitching
The most
aerofoil shapes
type
*
where the
C'
=z+
coefficients are
-,
z
C"
+^
+
z
......
complex numbers.
This gives
and
all the zeros, except that yielding the sharp trailing edge of
the aerofoil, must be enclosed within the circle. The origin
is
situated at the centroid of the zeros. Different sets of poles and
circles may be chosen to give an infinite variety of aerofoil shapes.
Further development of this wider view of a subject of considerable
practical importance
is left
to subsequent reading
and research.
the pressures on
a given aerofoil can be determined as an application of the process
described in Article 136.
General analytical investigation may
proceed as follows
Consider a great
circle of radius
R with centre at 0.
radially directed
fluid within.
of
of the
moment
The pressures
and exert no moment on the
about
can be calculated
momentum
of the fluid
the
resultant
at
the
passing through.
velocity q
point R, 8 is
inclined at e to 0%, the mass of fluid crossing the element RSQ per
second is p<? cos(e
0)jRS6, while its velocity perpendicular to R
moment of its momentum is accordingly
is q. sin(e
the
and
0),
change
of
If
sin 2(e
2
6)J? 80.
J
A.D.
8*
sin 2(c
eye
= o.
AERODYNAMICS
234
Now from
dw
=u
iv
[CH.
= #(cos e
/
= qe
sin e)
whence
= foR*
Mo
and the problem
is
-^)
sin 2(e
6)^8
(ii)
The flow round the 6-circle is given in Article 135 (i), referred to
a Zj-plane, whose origin is at JS, and whose axes are at the inclination
This is transferred to axes through
a.
parallel to 0, OTJ by the
substitution
*i
where
is
z)
(z
e**
(iii)
?c
whence
dw
Nowrfze^
~dt
and on expanding
(i)
we
The
(iv)
rf^
dz
~~~~dz
'Tt
in descending
powers of
find
integral in
where L
(ii)
Q
(v),
with
of the expression
is
the
acting at
lift.
MB = 27rp
This result
is
*A sin 2(oc
+ y)
As an example,
(175)
it
quite general.
for zero travel of the centre of pressure, a problem of practical
importance, particularly in connection with the structural design of
* Mrs.
Glauert, loc.
ment
is
TWO-DIMENSIONAL AEROFOILS
VI]
236
= p,
MB = 27cpj
The moment
coefficient
Cm
it is
sin 2a.
(176)
is
aerofoil.
is
M = M - 2aL
from
(172),
where
c is
the chord
= 40.
*
2
-2 P ~4 CL
'
approximately.
140.
measurements
of
lift,
its
median
$K x
by graphical determination
closely realised on assessing
velocity,
from measurements of the line integral of the tangential velocity
is
AERODYNAMICS
236
[CH. VI
may
closely (without, of course, cutting the boundary layer)
decrease by some 10 per cent. The lift is determined for purposes of
comparison from the experimental pressure diagram, as already
described.
often used instead, although even this value is too generous and 5|
For incidences approaching the critical
is much closer to fact.
Chapter
VI A
cf.
(177).
There
is
no analytical need
and
an unreflexed camber-line
is
Ed., p. 214.
AERODYNAMICS
238
[CH.
skeleton
term
'
'
is
intended
thin aerofoil/
(in
by the
Thus the
differs in
'
'
round a
cit.,
p. 212.
VIA]
239
let it
= +
K=
The
lift
MX.
(i)
is
kdx
M=
kxdx.
the
(iii)
Kdx
The
component
v 1 at x
_ Vl __L
~~
2n
kdx/2n(x
x^, whence
kdx
f
J
X*
(iv)
This velocity, though determined for the point x on the chord, will
be approximately the same at the corresponding point P on the
But the resultant of v l and V must be parallel to
thin aerofoil.
the tangent at P. Now this tangent is inclined to V at the angle
a _|_ dyfdx, so that the normal component of F at P is F(a
dy/dx).
Thus the boundary condition requires
F(a
dy/dx)
+ v = 0,
AERODYNAMICS
240
or
by
[CH.
(iv)
MX =
f
7
ft
xl
dy
dxt
(y)
and this equation is to be satisfied for all points on the thin aerofoil.
Thus the complete solution of the problem follows the determination
of the distribution of k along the chord which will satisfy (v) in
respect of a specified thin aerofoil defined, in the present connection,
by the
chord.
Generally,
nomenclature of the figure, let the chord Q'R' be at a positive incidence a to a stream of velocity V coming from the right. With a
circulation appropriate to Joukowski's Hypothesis, the velocity at
any point Pon the circular boundary is obtained from Article 135 as
ft
2F[sin
where
(G!
BP
2F[sin 6 X
Now by
a)
sin (a
oc(cos 8 t
1)
Substituting in
ft
(i)
P)],
Or approxi-
x-axis.
= +
p].
(i)
aerofoil
Joukowski
and x/c = % cos
figure,
6,
0.
gives
2F[sin 6(1
P sin
0)
a(l
cos
6)],
(ii)
6,
VIA]
241
dz
2 sin 6(1
p sin
6),
boundary
byQ
q*
= ~-J^ = vril!E
- P sin 6
L!
dt/dz
I
and
Now
if
sin 6(1
-V
for a
i
.
"^
\
L
2p sin 6
+ cos e
- p sin
i
6)J
AJ^L
sm 6 ]J
(iii)
0,
2F[2p sin
a cot
(6/2)],
(iv)
is proportional.
The first term arises from the camber
and the second from the incidence. Only the second would be
present in the case of an inclined flat plate.
to which k
The above result suggests that for more complicated thin aerofoils
than the circular arc a suitable assumption regarding the variation
of k along the chord is
k
where 6
is
now
2tcF L4
cot
ItA n sin
w8j,
its
\C COS
9,
242
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
camber-line
i\
AQ COt -
+
T
dx
-fJo
sn
sin 0^0.
cos 6
(i)
Cos
We
to
e and
e
integral in two parts, between the limits
X
X
to TT, and then evaluating the limit as e becomes vanishingly small.
The principal values of the integral
are*
of these,
(i)
A Q (l +
cos
0)
sin (n
cos
1)0!
1)0
The
TU
{A
sin (n
may
Alternatively,
*
1)0]
(ii)
be evaluated directly
if
the
sum of cosines in
they may be found by the usual pro-
8^
....
(n
sin Ui
- cos
VI A]
243
Dropping
suffix 1 as
cos
CL
2/^
2n\Jo [A
VC
27u'(,4
Denoting by CM
CM
f 77
=
'
=7c|Jo [A
i^).
cos
6)
moment
the
'
(l
(i)
cos 6 dQ
......
^(4,-^) ......
(l
i^ f
Q]dQ
coefficient
cos 6)
Expressed
6]
(ii)
C M without an
CM
=
=
CM
JCL
(iii)
(iii)
that a fixed
i4oF. Example
(J
#!<*) (A
BXJC),
so that
==
or, in
terms of cos
*(*lc)(A
iB
Bxfc)
2Ax/c
3Bx*/c*,
0,
dv
-f
dx
~B
8
cos
244
AERODYNAMICS
[Cn. vi
This gives
A,
Sn
is
+ S>
where C is a small coefficient. This shape of camber-line is illustrated in Fig. 100B, showing the magnitude of the reflexure towards
the tail.
FIG. 100B.
Chapter
VI B
fluid considered
'
'
of time $t this
mass
is
increased
by
(i)
246
AERODYNAMICS
246
[CH.
components are u, v
The mass entering the box during the time
nearer to the origin
z) where, at any
the density is p.
through the ^>
(x,
y,
w and
&
is
while the mass leaving the box through the opposite face
is
fluid within
dx
But
this
must be equal to
(i).
Hence
!+++-
<>
du
dv
dx
dy
I I
p\
dp
3p\
~
+ v~
dx
(in)
v
'
dyJ
an instant along
element.
If at
time
(x,
y,
z) t
at time
VI B]
dx
(
(x
dz
dy
247
8x,
8y, z
dt
_ a/
Di~dt +
Df
The operator
Z>/Dtf,
defined
a/
d~
x
a/
ty
a/
dz-
by
is
is
increasing
is
Dp
~W+
Dt
Substituting in
(ii)
3p
zt+ u dx
z+
== 3p
dt
9p
Sp
+ w ~^'
^
dz
dy
Dp
fdu
dv
From
Dynamical Equations
the preceding article, the component accelerations of an
element are
248
AERODYNAMICS
Article 28,
[CH.
of the element.
Y Z
t
and
dp/dx and
Hence
z-directions.
from resolving
in the y-
finally,
Du
~Dt
Dv
Dt
Dw
P
^X-^
pdx
= Y - i^
I
(ii)
dp
p dz'
to an in viscid fluid.
is
two-dimensional.
I40K. Kelvin's
(or
Thomson's) Theorem
of
inviscid,
(a)
The
though it
fluid
may
FIG. looc.
VI B]
and
pressure
density
The
(c)
249
extraneous
con-
are
forces
servative.
Consider first any two separated points, A and J3, Fig. lOOc,
themselves moving with the fluid and connected by any fluid
thus
line/ i.e. a line of which every point is moving with the fluid
the line selected will always consist of the same fluid particles,
'
however
its
shape
may
The
D
_
But
(D/Dt)(8x)
is
(u$x)
vdy
wdz).
(i)
this expression,
_
= Du
,._.
is
elongating,
= D~** +
i.e. it is
Sw
=D
Hence
equal to Su.
*x
or, substituting
to
(udx
term of
first
Considering the
from
+ !(),
components
a
ii,
so that
X=
dl/dx, etc.
p \
dx
dy
t/
80
-f
+
P
[cdfi
I
i?
/)
dz
250
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
and
when
is
an integrable function
of
p,
DK
.
-^-=0,
(ni)
every closed circuit that can be drawn in the region occupied has
But the argument can be shortened to the
zero circulation.
following.
If at any instant
then u
d<f>/dx,
udx
+
=
vdy
d(f>/dy,
wdz
is
d<j>/dz,
that
dw
dv
ty-~dz
The left-hand
vorticity of
Su
__
'
dz
"
dw
dv
__
Tx
~~
du
'
dx
dy
'
an element situated at
(x,
z).
components of
Assuming (i) in the
VI B]
2fil
step
of Articles 29
and
But
40.
first
will
it
By
virtue of
(i)
of motion, viz.
du
a7
ot
du
u a"
ox
du
V
Tdy
du
-- X +
+ w dz
a
3/>
*'
dx
"
can be changed to
d26
a-75
cxct
du
+ u^
+
dx
dv
v
*dx
dw
-- X + ~
+ w dx
a
1
=
/
dx
df>
gives
8
&
But u8u
that X, Y,
last
8(^
),
etc.,
and
u*
v*
w*
2
.
Hence, assuming
dd/dx,
etc.,
the
Integrating,
In general
is therefore more
accurately written as F(t), or absorbed into d</)/dt with this understanding and the left-hand side of the expression then equated to
zero.
In this strict sense the left-hand side of (i) is constant for
is
all particles
AERODYNAMICS
252
[CH.
(i),
--
%q*
constant,
(ii)
i.e.
to the
same form
Two Dimensions
the flow
in terms of
where
is
irrotational, this
becomes on substituting
for
<f>
Differentiating
(ii)
aa
dq*
a?
of the
= y^/p =
3^
dp 9p
p rfp
2a a
8y
__
3#
2a*
3p
3^'
9p
*
dy'
If
y1
that dpjd?
u and
air in
the
VI B]
where qa
(Y
is
!)(.'
- M)]V* =
253
made
(iii)
W.
(O +
number U/aQ
in
for the
(iv)
M=
The
moderately small values of the Mach number
U/a Q
range depends upon the section of the body since the criterion is
associated with the maximum value of q/a attained by the fluid in
thus it may be more than twice as great for a wing
flowing past it
section as it is for a circular cylinder.
is increased, a stage
As
.
is
by defining 8fy
aq oX where a denotes the density relative to
that of the undisturbed stream. Hence while formerly, with the
density constant, <f> and ^ varied equally through any small region,
their variations are now inversely proportional to a.
Near the
the
where
the
streamlines
close
increases,
stagnation point,
density
.
in,
Rayleigh (Lord), Phil. Mag., vol. 32, 1916. Hooker, A.R.C.R. & M., No. 1684.
Imai and Aihara, Tokyo Univ. Rept., No. 199, 1940. Kaplan, N.A.C.A.T.N.,
1936.
And others,
Karman and Tsien, see the
The value
264
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
expansion of scale across the stream, but this statement is incomplete. Associated with the distortion of the streamlines, the
pressure changes round the profile of the body are augmented so
long as the flow remains irrotational.
1400. Analogies
These and similar considerations have led to the suggestion of
certain analogies with a view to inferring from convenient experi-
ments the
on irrotational flow. In an
is passed through a
an
current
analogy,
alternating
layer of electrolytically conducting liquid contained in a bath
having an insulating bottom, which can be shaped to represent
effects of compressibility
electrical
to flow irrotationally
be constant at
vertical line.
and
its
velocity to
all
direction of
is
w.h'
b.
mean
horizontally,
and consider a
rect-
Taylor (Sir Geoffrey) and Sharman, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 121, 1928.
see also Riaboushinsky, Pub. Sci.
| Jouguet, Jour. des. Math., 1920
Miaistre de Fair, No. 108, 1937.
;
et
Tech.,
VI B]
255
Su
1 TT
SAC,
Hence the
respectively.
&*} ("- 4
*+
3*
AB
is
leaving
and
CD
is,
(*+ *!) *
*f
dx
BC
dh
ox
du
h
ox
v ~~
dh
+ h~
oy
oy
dv
=:Q
i.e.,
Iw + ^w-o.
( i)
This result is identical with the equation of continuity for twodimensional compressible flow if p replaces h.
Relations derived by virtue of the absence of vorticity are
identical for the two cases of motion and, to establish the analogy,
it remains only to compare the relation of h to the resultant velocity
q in the channel, on the one hand, with the relation of the density p
to the resultant velocity in the corresponding compressible flow, on
will denote undisturbed conditions.
the other hand. Suffix
140M:
256
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
But gA
The corresponding
been
expressed in (47) as
where a
2.
1-405,
Moreover,
a
is small
<?
~~
2a<*~~
^o
If
is
[2_
2a
plane through
= ch
Q.
VI B]
Substituting for
257
surface, the
+ gho = k + gh>
a
q,
2$h *
The
velocity a of pressure-waves in the atmosphere cannot be calway without large error owing to the variation of
culated in this
temperature consequent upon adiabatic expansions and compresThis matter has already been discussed and a reliable formula
sions.
is approximately equal to
the static value, whence dp fix
g^.dz^Jdx. This
independent of z, so that every particle in a vertical line is displaced
gfw
is
(*o
+ *i
z)
equally.
du
dp
p w dx
dt
dz l
dx
moves
equally.
We
have
3*,
is
by
s.
D.
258
AERODYNAMICS
[CH. VI
With E written for the bulk elasticity pdpjdp and with udu/dx neglected in comparison with Su/dt as before, the equation of
du
dt
dp
*
dx
motion
dp\_
is
P *a*
vi
'
P 8i
Now
equations
(vi)
and
(vii)
du
-ai
,
'
'
'
,. v
(V11)
(iv)
and
(v)
wave
in Article 66D.
Chapter
VI C
Glauert's Theory
One
high speeds
that account must be taken of the compressibility of the air. The
primary aim is to avoid the formation of shock waves by restricting
the maximum velocity ratio (cf. Article 129B) for a
given lift
coefficient.
The flow outside the boundary layer then remains
The difficulty in
irrotational, as is assumed in the present Article.
the way of obtaining even an approximate solution of the exact
equation for is avoided by deriving in the first instance an approximate form of that equation suitable for thin aerofoils. Owing to
the augmentation of pressure changes, modifications are
required
to formulae (169)-(173) of Articles 136-138, and Glauert's
Theory*
is directed towards
The theorem
establishing the basis for these.
proved in Article 137 for incompressible flow, and now written
for convenience as L
^KU, still holds when the undisturbed
<
of
appreciable variation of
from its initial value p
I (P) + I
aw
may
dx
= o,
dv
if
do
P
aP
p
dy
p \
dx
dy
i.e.,
(P*)
(i)
_ o.
+
dy
dx
v '
(U)
* Pvoc.
Roy. Soc., A, vol. 118, 1928.
f
Ill,
Div. H.
260
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
notation
u du
I
aj dx
3p __
2a
Now (y
l)/2
1/5
and
1 <5p
u du
is
always small.
du
a<f
dx
__ __
aj dx
dx
Therefore
closely.
(ii)
__
C/ 8 )/a
(u
'
Substitution in
v'
of
(iii)
v/(l
2 1/s
)
du
dx
and
==
y(l
M')
1 '2
W _~
dy'
vorhcity
dv
--
du
=
0,
gives
K=
Jc
(udx
vdy)
VIC]
261
points on the profile, or on any other streamline, in the incompressible flow case do not correspond to points on a streamline in
the compressible flow case.
Thus the
approximation,
at
(1
ratio
inci-
dc
"Ha
FIG. IOOE.
I40Q. Comparison with experiment.
Fig. IOOE relates to some well-known
*
experiments at high speeds carried out at the National Physical
Laboratory on an aerofoil having the section inset. The observations are shown as encircled points, while the increase of
and
0-7
is
M=
Stanton, A.R.C.R.
&
still
increased
AERODYNAMICS
262
[CH.
M=
1-7.
experimental curve, to a much reduced value at
The section of the above aerofoil may be regarded as favourable
to the conditions postulated in the theory except that the thickness
ratio
M=
When
and
K&rman,
263.
loc. cit., p.
Littell,
VIC]
263
increased,
and
it
FIG. lOOo.
moving
let it
front will
cylinders.
the angle
Each
sin""
of these planes
(a/U), which
is
is
AERODYNAMICS
264
by m.
is
[CH.
loss of velocity
moment
at supersonic speeds.
pressible flow,
a
writing n for
and substitution
in
(iii)
of Article
140P
gives,
on
1,
^-tf^O
dx*
dy*
+ MX +
ny\
ny)
fi(*
solution over the upper surface of the aerofoil may be regarded
as that for a uniform flow plus a function of the type/x whence it is
<
The
at the angle
i.e.
at the
Mach
angle m.
Z.F.M., vol.
16, 1925.
VIC]
265
all
aerofoil profile.
Considering an
element of the profile inclined,
component
fluid
"lie
FIG. IOOH.
velocity
u cos (m
along the
component
is
is
e) and the
same direction
t/e.
= Us sec m,
(ii)
e is small.
provided
little
from
Now
[7,
giving approximately
stituting,
-p =
p
Since u
is
tan
(i)
m=
a Q l(U*
A.D.
J Po t/
,
the
9*
sin
mY +
Mach number,
m)
]}.
2
p C7 e
from
(ii),
tan m.
Hence
2 l/2
.
finally
rk _
where
its
in this equation
sin
[([/- u
Ipoff/
Substituting for
But by
(M
Ufa
1 '2
'
'
I)
as before.
(iii)
[CH. VI C
AERODYNAMICS
266
M=
examined
For
1-7, Taylor
coefficients, ignoring skin friction.
from this point of view the biconvex circular-arc aerofoil of Fig, 100E,
and obtained good agreement with Stanton's experiments. Approximately, the calculated value of dCJdat. is 2-85 and the observed
value
3.
M = 0-5
At an incidence
of 7 \
is about 7
data have yet
been published regarding tests on
aerofoils of other sections at super-
03
Few
sonic speeds.
&C
02
01
or adapted as
6
INCIDENCE
more experience
is
-0-1
OO
Theory (Hooker)
Experiment (Stanton)
BICONVEX AEROFOIL
FIG. lOOi.
AT
M=
1-7.
will involve
A.R.C.R.
& M.
1721, 1036.
Chapter VII
141.
is
which
air flow
We
and Uniform
Vorticity
AERODYNAMICS
268
= J.
angular velocity,
2na
00.
Hence
The
circulation
[CH.
round
its
periphery
is
K = 2w
7ra a
=&
(178)
velocity at
any radius
we have
r,
<
for r
= wr = K~r
a q
t
TT
for r
Let
>
a,
&TW
.....
=
noulli's
be the pressure at r
oo when q
0.
the
for
outer
r
flow
equation through
gives
(179)
Applying Ber-
>a
dp
Tr
Integrating and substituting for
give the
=P
o>
from
(178)
pK*
*&** +
same pressure as
pK*/4n*a
*
(i)
when
= a.
Therefore
(I80)
Fig. 101
constant and
its
periphery
is less
sharply defined.
Article
VII]
To prevent
fluid core.
tation,
269
cavi-
we
is
for the
obtained
at
once as
FIG. 101.
a,
143.
the constant
interest.
of liquid
positive.
= K/4n and
For
(iii)
to agree with
(ii)
when
becomes
(iii)
on whose
To
take account of the weight of the liquid, of density p lf equations (i) and (180) of the preceding article become (cf. Article 6)
P - rP
f
for
r
gz>
Lri = J
47U 2
Pl
d\
*}-
>a
for
2a*J
where
z is the
== -
r-.
of the
dimple
is
for r
>
a,
L for r
<
a.
K*/4gn*a*
AERODYNAMICS
270
[CH.
they form loops within an air stream, one way of making them
visible is by introducing water-vapour, which tends to condense in
the interior of the filaments.
144. An essential difference
circulation around a solid core
expanse of
the case with a vortex ring or loop, or when one rectilinear vortex
near another or approaches a boundary.
is
We
true only for the inviscid fluid assumed, but their direct application
to air flow is remarkably fruitful in practical results.
The theory of
inviscid vortices was, in the first place,
further developed by Kelvin.
145.
The Strength
Fig. 102
of a Vortex
shows part
is
Constant throughout
its
Length
ABCDD'C'
second K'.
It is clear that
if
VII]
271
A'
K=
sum
of the circulations
K = K' or fr =
V.
constant.
146. Other Vortex
Laws
Theorem
(Article
respect to time.
AERODYNAMICS
272
[CH.
Theorem
is
negligible.
On
The laws
away
from boundaries, including that a vortex cannot originate or terminVortices may be built up slowly but originate
ate within the fluid.
from the surfaces of moving bodies by the action of viscosity in the
presence of intense velocity gradients.
147. It is seen that the motion of a vortex arises, not from itself,
but from the general field of flow, which may be due to a number of
A vortex line
causes, such as sources, sinks, and other vortices.
also
element of the
at
fluid
mass.
is
8s, it is
VII]
273
the plane
PQR
and from
_#
(181)
amounts
R
f
4?u J
ds
sinjh
__
r*
Kh
4:71
5 to y, since
sec
to
ds
J Q r*'
ds/dy
= h sec
K
where the
limits are
now from
to
Hence
p.
cos a )*
(182)
An
away.
We
then have
l-All +
If
77/IiVlsl
'
'
'
<
183 )
K
(184)
i.e.
and
AERODYNAMICS
274
[CH.
dicular to
velocity component in
the direction Oy> w
that
the
in
direction
Vortex Pair
The combination of
two parallel rectilinear
vortices of equal and
strengths
opposite
is
a vortex pair.
Let them be situated
instantaneously on the
called
at
jy-axis
FIG. 104.
INSTANTANEOUS STREAMLINES OF A
VORTEX
Below
PAIR.
velocity.
itself,
104),
the
distant
other, given
(Fig.
from
and
equidistant
and
and
let
apart,
origin
^K
their strengths be
as shown.
Neither has
by
-,
(185)
Thus the
of reference
to the vortices.
The first
are identical
respectively,
A and B
alone
=_
log
we have
for the
combination
.
(186)
VII]
275
w'y
Kyfiid, obtaining
[
? + f)'
'
It will
'
(187)
be noticed that
0-87/,
approximately.
The instantaneous
velocity rela-
P (y z) in the field is
obtained
readily
by the construc-
at
any point
tion
shown
in
Fig.
Careful
104.
The
For
1/17
w represents
V-y
^f
..\
(188)
it is
(189)
V-y\
the velocity
is
AERODYNAMICS
276
[CH.
Beyond A or B, w
The special
tive.
of this
is
nega-
interest
in connec-
example
be described
150. If
two
later.
vortices A,
K K
that of
FIG. 106.
DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITY
THROUGH A VORTEX
Both
PAIR.
will
be
velocities will
K^nl.
be per-
AB,
by other causes.
The instantaneous velocity
there
at
to
any number
of
electric tank.' *
EFFECT OF WALLS
151. Applications of the
When
Method
of
Images
a vortex approaches a parallel boundary which is not coit, the streamlines become distorted, and a motion is
axial with
* Relf, A.R.C.R.
&
VII]
may sometimes be
determined
one of outstanding
because Aerodynamical measurements of flow involving
by the method
interest,
These
277
of images.
effects
The question
is
As a
first
152.
case, is
"
/
^\^^
situated at
the inverse
FIG. 107.
point.
EC
CA
Thus C and
traces a circle
PD BA
;
is
CPD =
BD = rB =
= y-r
const.
DA
rA
on
AERODYNAMICS
278
be a and
its
[CH.
centre 0.
figure
OB
= DA
.BC
CA
- a)
(a
r)
(OB
giving
(190)
_ K
~~
J_
'
2w a
__
~~
___
#
"
2?c
_r_
fl
"
r2
104.
from
the
distant
centre
of the tunnel
is
shown
in Fig. 108,
=
2n
(191)
a*
( I
/4
when
VII]
Some
153.
279
briefly.
FIG. 109.
infinite
and2(A
(2)
z).
images situated at
corners of a rectangle, as
the
shown
FIG. 110.
in Fig. 110.
in
doubly
infinite
Fig.
111.
made
case, when
Reference will be
later to this
&
terference.
But when
is
often sufficient to
FIG. 111.
IN A
Of*^
through the
Sides.
AERODYNAMICS
280
[CH.
an
infinite series of
is
convenient in some
cumbersome
images
may
The
sum
slowly as to make
be
in others.
difficult to
may
be
ular to the A;y-plane, i.e. our real plane will be the z-plane of Article
x
122, where the co-ordinate of a point is z
iy, and transforma-
= +
If at
any
the same
= +
made
tion will be
<f>
plane which corresponds to its path in the z-plane. The two paths
can be related, so that one can be drawn from the other, but, since in
Aerodynamics we are chiefly concerned with instantaneous induced
velocities, this development will be left to subsequent reading.*
The
potential flow, lies in finding the transformation formula.
to
vortex
near
a
that
a
is
single
simplest image system
appropriate
If in the 2-plane the trace of the wall coincides
parallel plane wall.
is at the point
with the #-axis and the real vortex of strength
will be at the point x l}
x l9 3/1, the image of strength
y lt and
field is
Soc.. t.
XII, 1881.
VII]
K
g
47r
281
(x-xp + b-yp
- x,Y + (y+ yj*
(x
In the same way the identical system in the /-plane (not that obtained by transformation) gives
--*
**
W lini'-^HlH^
log
(192)
(192)
'
the real vortex being situated at the point ^, v^, and the wall coIf a transformation formula can be found
inciding with the -axis.
to convert whatever configuration exists in the z-plane to this configuration, for instance, in the /-plane, the problem in the z-plane is
at once solved.
J 55*
The image system for this case follows from Article 153 (I), but
we shall ignore this and solve the problem by the method of the
preceding article. Assume that the distance apart of the walls is
H. Choose Ox in the -plane, so that y = 0, y = H represent the
Let %' = x/H, y' ~ y/H.
walls and Oy passes through the vortex.
....
= Ttz/H
(193)
or
= c**
(cos Try'
+ i sin
Try').
gKX'
H we have =
toy
transform to the
=0, we have
Corresponding toy
!*
CQS ^yt ^ __
n*
',
YJ
= 0.
g^ ^y^
e"*',
73
^
= 0, and corresponding
^
%'
J;
73
(i),
to a vortex of
1.
from a
comes to
f
To
K
P + to -s^5TRn--ir'l
)'
terms of
i;,
TJ
in
AERODYNAMICS
282
* ~~
_^
~
4w
K
4?r
Jog
6
e2
cos a
Try'
*'
d 2 "*'
20
***
+ 24"*
71
[CH.
+ (e** sin
+ (^ sin
sin Tty' +
sin
+
1)
ity'
+ 1)'
Try'
1
1
Try'
="K
4^
The path-lines are shown
FIG. 112.
cosh
cosh
nx/H
7rA;/ff
sin
ny/H
sin
ny/H'
'
'
'
in Fig. 112.
velocity
This velocity
K f sinh TixjH
H/2~ 2 ^ Lcosh nx/H
2
-^
2H
is
given by
1
ny/H J y ,_ 1/2
sin icy/H
sin
......
""
sinh
/J?
(195)}
(
In the absence of the walls, the velocity along this line would be
apart, reduce
equal to Kftnx. Hence the walls, if at distance
the velocity
KX/H
.....
is
its distance
v
(196)
'
VII]
283
the
of
lift
vortex.
The
are,
from
(194),
___
~~
I"
cosh
cos ny'
"
rex'
[3^1
3yJ^o,i
K
U
of velocity
unit
per
length of the
resultant velocity along these walls
lift
= $KU
?o
where the
U+
and
UQ
and
ql
to produce an
bound vortex
U +
uv
upward
(ii)
u
-=:
\U
K
_
~ y
^ V ~~
\2UH coslTTu*'
V
_____
\2Wcosh^r#'
by
(i)
and
(ii),
or
UH cosh
~
nx'
H cosh
TT*'
=
(p
J-CO
- pKU.
poo
pjdx
= oKU
AGO
J- a
We
AERODYNAMICS
284
[CH.
will
lift
ROOF
clearly
is
pl
1-0
0|
x/H
aerofoil, the
obtained by integra-
tion will be
dx'
LIFTING VORTEX
FIG. 112A.
lift
nx
This result
is
2f tan" 1
TU
,1*'
?*
(iv)
J_^'
it is
which
be written, if
are polar co-ordinates in the /-plane,
t
27uz',
may
(193) to log
r,
+ i0 = 2(nx' + try'),
Thus
giving log r = 2nx', 6 = 27cy'.
of
the
r
I when x = 0,
thejy-axis
log r
i.e.
0,
and
^ when y
=
=
\H.
of
width
#-axis
112c).
midway between
FIG. 1 12s.
as before,
its
INTEGRATED WALL
PRESSURE.
edges (Fig.
These edges are derived from the two sides of the negative
half
of
/-plane.
2 -plane
FIG. 112c.
corresponds to a source
radiating
at equal
real
Hence the
the
axis
in
strip
may be
t -plane
the
wind
origin transform
VII]
285
first
example,
let
0,
a source
which
is
UH.
m
~
log
(*
1).
so that the
complex velocity u
dw
m
+H
_
=
~dz
When
when
On
z is large
z is large
iv
between the
parallel walls is
**'
?^=T
the walls, z
=
u
iH/2 giving
t
= U+
H eM + 1
= U + iw(l + tanh
Tix')jH t
The streamline
112D.
will differ
Article
in
parallel
(2)
fy
more
106,
becoming
rapidly,
Doublet
in
Uniform
UH.
FIG. 112D.
1,
and
LL
in that plane
AERODYNAMICS
286
[CH.
so that
and
u
iv
dw
= U
y.,
~~
dz
On
separating (i)
that the streamline
fy
is
~~
(*"
into real
e*"'
.
'
given
1)*'
it is
easily
found
by
'
cosh 27r#'
47cC7
cos 2TC/
*y tan ?y
__
""
at the points
sinh
'f =
TC// and,
\H in (ii) gives ^/U
Substituting, for illustration, y
a
circle
whose
of
the
deformation
Thus
0-254/f.
by (iii), ^
diameter is so great as one-half the height of the tunnel is small.*
It is
assumed
dt
may be proved
27C
dz
ed,
p. 72,
is
solved
and
by the
VII]
287
GENERATION OF VORTICES
As soon as an
articles.
may
(cf.
Articles 98
and
119).
differ little or
the change.
157. Impulse
We
shall
have occasion to
The external flow associated with an inviscid vortex loop is irrotational, and could be generated instantaneously from rest by an
artificially
calculated.
vortex pair.
Imagine a very long straight elastic membrane of width / immersed in stationary fluid. Let it be acted upon by a distribution
of impulsive pressure, and let it bend transversely in the process in
such a way that its final velocity at every point, attained at the end
*
AERODYNAMICS
288
[CH.
is
<
Now
membrane.
round
is
lines coincident
constant.
Impulse
?Kl
(197)
More generally it can be shown that the component in any direction of the impulse which would generate the velocity field of a
vortex loop from rest
is
equal to
pXS
where 5
by
(198)
is
bounded
is
2co
8n
=q
move with
the
'.
fluid,
(199)
<?')
stationary, but will locally have the velocity \(q
have seen (Chapter II) an example of vortex sheet structure in
We
the boundary layer. The term is more particularly reserved, however, for a sheet of vorticity out in the fluid, separating two regions
thickness 8w
VII]
289
Three ways
and Disintegration
may
may be
in respect of
of Vortex Sheets
commonly produced.
a flat plate started from rest into
(1) Considering, for example,
broadside-on motion, the path-lines at an initial stage closely accord
with those of potential flow (Fig. 80). But their persistence at the
back of the plate calls for very high velocities near the edges, such as
would lead to cavitation there. Thus the flow must break away,
giving rise to surfaces of discontinuity which spring from the edges
and separate flow from the front of the plate from fluid in the wake.
This conception led Helmholtz and Kirchhoff to a theory of drag in
We
inviscid flow, which, however, we shall not attempt to follow.
note that vortex sheets must be expected to replace the surfaces of
discontinuity as viscosity
makes
presence felt.
The phenomenon is not, of course, confined to the normal plate,
but occurs whenever flow is asked to turn round a sharp edge. For
this reason alone the streamlines of Figs. 81 and 97 could not persist.
a body, an element
(2) In potential flow completely surrounding
the
front
to
close
of fluid passing
stagnation point arrives near to the
its
again during the second part of its transit, when it is moving against
a rising pressure. In a real case, the element enters and proceeds
within the boundary layer, and the viscous tractions prevent its
motion from obeying Bernoulli's equation. Kinetic energy gathered
in the first part of its passage soon flags,
and the
10
would
AERODYNAMICS
290
[CH.
Reverting to the fluid motion, a return flow near the rear part of
the surface of a body wedges the boundary layer away. The position round the contour where this occurs is called the point of break-
away.
It is
0.2
FIG.
113.
ISO-VELOCITY
REYNOLDS NUMBER
2-1
LINES
10*
(Reproduced by permission
is
magnified 8 times.
of the Aeronautical
Research Committee.)
fluid.
&
VII]
291
A
By
this is
effects of
is
even an
accumulations
As the production
1 60.
Karman
The most
motion
Trail
is the procession
usually
Consisting (Fig. 114) of a moving avenue
of evenly spaced staggered vortices, the two rows being of equal
strength but to opposite hand, it characterises the wakes of all long
known
as the vortex
street.
Cf. also
AERODYNAMICS
292
FIG.
[CH.
this theoretically, successfully calculating the layout of the procession necessary for stability, and also other matters to which
the
Kdrmdn
is
alternatively called
trail.
His results state first that if h is the distance between the rows
and / that between successive vortices of the same row
A//
=0-281
.....
U through fluid at
(200)
rest at a
The frequency
each row,
is
K
(201)
V
;
clearly
~=
and
long vortex is detaching itself from the other side of the cylinder
the
median
round
be
drawn
beginning to be left behind. If a circuit
section of the cylinder in such a way as to include the bound vortex
while excluding the free vortex, conceived as having just been left in
the wake, we find a circulation round the circuit. Therefore, a
'
'
VII]
293
is
This
will
exists in
for, if b is
method
the
maximum width
of section,
we
easily find,
by the
....
~=^/(/J)
(203)
for
From this we can deduce the variation of
for a given shape.
bodies of different sizes and the same shape at constant /?, but f(R)
remains to be determined experimentally for each shape.
~U~~l\
From
(200)
= 4-3.
= 0-281 =
/
1-21 b
is
giving the strength of the vortices for a given speed and size of
cylinder.
the
approximation to the drag is obtained as follows
of
of
motion
mean rate of change
impulse parallel to the direction
required to create the vortex loops from rest at the observed rate is,
from (198)
first
= 0-2-
1-7
Ub x
1-21 b
294
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
......
~Kh
=i
= ~b K h
Ju-ub-b
= 0-82.
Equation (204)
may
CD
==() '*
xl lxl
'
'
21
=
(
^-"
X 2V2
ul
0-281
/)
byCD
-O
1-588
(206)
number
is 0-96, approximately.
Thus vortex production accounts
for nearly the whole of the drag in the case considered, and investigation at other Reynolds numbers suggests this to be generally true for
Form Drag
VII]
295
The form drag of long flat plates normal to the stream is nearly 60
per cent, greater than for circular cylinders for R between 10* and
For the finer strut illustrated in Fig. 91, on the other hand, it is
10*.
95 per cent, less at R
lo 6
Thus form drag, when it is entirely
parasitic in nature, can be reduced greatly by suitable streamlining.
But when required for landing and slow diving it can be obtained
measure by exposing a long normal plate (Article 76).
If the body is of short length across the stream
a body of revolua vortex
tion, for example, such as a sphere or an airship envelope
wake may be produced, but it has a different form. We might have
in large
APPLICATION TO WINGS
163. Lanchester's Trailing Vortices
wing
of finite
span
is
each half rolls up about a roughly fore-and-aft axis to form downstream one member of a vortex pair. To a first approximation Fig.
106 gives the velocity distribution through a cross-section of the
wake far behind a wing, where the distance between these long eddies
is much less than the
span of the wing. They often partly form
close behind the wing-tips, and are then called
wing-tip vortices,
but the fully developed motion is a trailing vortex pair. Their
presence was inferred on theoretical grounds by Lanchester in the
course of his pioneering work on Aerodynamic lift.
Remembering that vortex lines cannot terminate or originate
away
AERODYNAMICS
296
[CH.
why
and
Lift
magnitude.
The high
give rise to
The foregoing
(c)
in the figure,
and
is left
sym-
(b)
(c)
perman-
(a)
R
FIG. 115.
VII]
297
metry. Let the circuits shown in Fig. 115 be in this plane. The
strength of the starting vortex is measured by the circulation
round any circuit SPQTS which encloses the vortex only. Since the
trailing edge of the aerofoil was to the left of ST in the figure on
But a circuit
starting from rest, ST has been cut by the aerofoil.
such as OSPQTRO may comprise the same fluid particles. The
circulation round it was originally zero, and still remains so.
Therefore, the circulation round the circuit OSTRO, or any other in the
plane embracing the aerofoil but not the vortex, must be equal to K.
The vortex lines of the starting vortex cannot terminate in the
We might perhaps conceive of their turning at each end and
fluid.
abutting on the aerofoil, although this would be difficult to imagine.
The foregoing proves, however, that they must be re-entrant, their
by
'
bound
'
to the aerofoil
diagrammatically in Fig.
116, all the vortex lines
being required to induce
a circulation equal to
of the aerofoil.
member
of
round
the
each
vortex
to
a two-dimensional aerofoil
FORMATION OF THE TRAILING
FIG. 116.
VORTEX PAIR OF A LIFTING WING.
was shown in Article 135
to cause the back stagnaThe hypothesis
tion line to be displaced towards the trailing edge.
introduced by Joukowski (Article 134), that for a steady state the
back stagnation line recedes exactly to the trailing edge, assumed
sharp, now receives experimental support since the starting vortex
ceases to form only when this coincidence is attained.
The aerofoil now having a circulation
midway along its span
combined with a steady forward velocity 17, it will have locally a lift
equal to pKU per unit of span. Elsewhere along the span there will
be a lift of intensity decreasing outwards because vortex lines leave
before the tips are reached, as indicated in Fig. 116. The tangential
159 (3) is now identified with the sheet
trailing vortex sheet of Article
of escaping vortex lines which continue to accumulate into further
A.D.10*
298
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
and
is
\
FIG.
117.
EXPERIMENTAL STREAMLINES 13
CHORDS BEHIND AN AEROFOIL (THE
AEROFOIL is SHOWN DOTTED AND ITS
SPAN = 3 x WIDTH OF FIGURE).
approximates to a length of
vortex pair. Thus Fig. 117
shows, as an example, the
* expath-lines determined
perimentally 13 chords behind the wing-tip of an
aerofoil of aspect ratio 6 set
at 8.
The vortex sheet
wa $ found in this case to be
nearly rolled UD. Again, the
- ~.
,/
,
, ,
full line of Fig. 118 gives the
'
mean
variation, experimen-
assumption
successive elements.
and,
angle,
We
assuming
ignore this
a horizontal
L_
FIG.
118.
rr-:
EXPERIMENTAL
DIS-
OF
VORTICITY
TRIBUTION
vortex pair, enquire what lift and
THROUGH
A
TRAILING
VORTEX.
drag this simplified system entails at
the aerofoil.
Distance from the
starting-point of the flight and from the aerofoil permits the flow
to be regarded as two-dimensional. Let / be the distance apart of the
vortices and 2a the diameter of each.
In calculating lift we neglect
the substance of the vortices, but cannot do so in calculating drag.
From Article 157 the impulse is $Kl per unit length or, since a
*
VII]
length
pX/Z7,
action
is
299
JL
= 9 KIU
.....
is
re-
(207)
we
is
find
E=foK \wciy.
(208)
Hence
/
^L \+y
pK>p<-
-y/
y
(209)
=2
|p
2n\
co
r 2 dr
o>
= K/2na*
giving
(E
+ EJU-
(211)
AERODYNAMICS
300
[CH.
generate the irrotational part of the above residual motion from rest,
the vortices being spread, wholly or in part, as a sheet at the wing.
This we leave to the special investigations of the next chapter.
A first approximation to the size of the vortices may be noted,
Uniform
size is considerable.
Lift
stream.
We now treat
ignoring the remaining part and its associated vortex sheet (Fig.
119 (&)). The circulation K' round the wing is then constant along
the span and equal to K, the strength of each wing-tip vortex. Let
*
{
Tragfugeltheorie.
Aerodynamic Theory,
f
II, p. 329, 1935.
VII]
301
than
slightly less
we
ignore the
calculating
for the
L =K'pU
and
for the
and
vortex
the
.2s
(a)
difference,
lift,
Then we have
2s,
lift
in
also,
diameters.
on the wing
rate of change
(212)
of impulse
= KpUl,
K' = K and 2s =
expressing equality
FIG. 119.
dl/dt
if
longer necessary
r
C
and then from
2K
(213)
Uc
(211)
(214)
2sc
as R.A.F. 15 and
6 at
difference
resulted
the
FIG.
120.
EXPERIMENTAL
RELATIONSHIP
IT.
larger
critical.
AERODYNAMICS
302
[CH.
aspect ratio showed 50-60 per cent, of the lift to be of this kind at
8 incidence. A slightly weighted mean of c/a was 13, or we may
If C L C D> refer to the uniform part of the lift,
take 2s /a
I/a =78.
we
find
from
(214)
= 0-061 CL
CDi
For future reference
it is
(215)
form
(1+0-15).
(216)
The induced drag for uniform lift is distributed between the vortices
same way as the induced velocity of the vortex pair (Fig. 121),
and since 2s =/ and the vortex
pair forms immediately, we infer
the same distribution along the
in the
aerofoil.
It is a minimum at the
centre of span, where the pressure
distribution will most nearly ap-
flow,
Induced Dra9
1
'
|
|
Centre
ntre of
FIG. 121.
Span
Wing
w&ng
tip
*|
DISTRIBUTION OF INDUCED
LIFT.
Lack of knowledge of
the tips.
the curl and spread of the vortices
at the tips prevents completion of
the figure, but small areas of
A great advantage of
aspect ratio in reducing induced drag becomes evident when it is
reflected that, for greater span, lift increases without increase of K.
Aerodynamic calculations involving a knowledge of the degree to
which the vortex sheet has rolled up, e.g. on tail-setting angle, are
complicated, and the assumption is sometimes adopted that the whole
part of the upper surface of an aerofoil.
of the
lift
is
uniform.
is
Alternatively
we may assume
that the
The argument of Article 164 is readily elaborated to include variation in the velocity of the aerofoil.
If, after a period of steady
the
is
the
motion,
increased,
velocity
original circulation becomes
insufficient to keep the back stagnation line on the
and
trailing
a new starting vortex
is
thrown
off
edge
during the time of acceleration.
VII]
303
This joins together additional vortex lines packed into the trailing
vortices, which are strengthened thereby, and increases the circulaA decrease of velocity produces the opposite
tion round the aerofoil.
result, a retardation vortex leaving the aerofoil to close vortex lines
no longer required in the weakened trailing vortices appropriate to
the reduced circulation. Such a sequence of events requires suitable
variation of the external force which constrains the aerofoil, whose
incidence is assumed constant, to move in a straight path in spite of
variation of
lift.
The same
approximately constant
is
air loads
W,
say).
When
we
increased from
is
to
/)
[/',
may
remain horizontal
pK'U'l
K'jK
?KUl
=W
U/U'
(i)
CL 'ipt/"S
where S
is
= CL iptfS =
W,
Q//CL
(U/Uy.
is
constant
(ii)
lift
along the
K - CL/[//
'
'K~~Cjf
agreeing with
When flight
(ii)
on substitution from
(i).
AERODYNAMICS
304
1 68.
[CH.
vortex assumption.
The deeply cambered rectangular aerofoil, 2 ft. span and 0*33 ft.
chord, was suspended symmetrically at 8 incidence in an enclosedtype tunnel 4
31'3
ft.
ft.
per sec.
meter shown
two
fine
tubes inclined at 46
30
20
u.
10
|*CENTRE OF
O
a
o
SPAN
~3c
-2c
DISTANCE
FIG. 122.
-c
Piercy, he.
cit. t
p. 227.
VII]
305
the
lift,
FIG. 123.
the constraint will be less owing to the short length of the aerofoil,
is only 10 per cent, of that for the side walls and
only 1 per cent, of the mean downwash, so that precision is unneces-
= -K
if w
BC
is
the
downwash
-v/j.
,
(cos a
+ cos
=
there
(a)
at P
An upwash
is
velocity
w
.
due to
BC
given by
AERODYNAMICS
306
(b)
A downwash
velocity
w,
(c)
An upwash
(d)
An upwash
The
total
wt
velocity
velocity
=w
AD given
(cos S
velocity
due to
downwash
wa
[CH.
by-
1)
is
given
by
VII]
307
for
'
curve to the observations is better near to and far from the vortex
than it is at intermediate positions, but upon the whole it is fair, and
K = 4-0
is justified.
shown as points
FIG. 125.
K=
4 and a
0-025 ft. as
obtained from (179) and (180) with
measured. It will be seen that the check was successful.
Let us now calculate the down wash velocity w' at the point F midway between the vortices and 0-9 ft. behind the centre of pressure of
BF by
the expression is
the aerofoil. Denoting AF
(4-67)*}
where the first term gives the contribution from the circulation round
the second that from the
the aerofoil, assumed constant and
the
third
that
from
their images.
and
vortices
In round
trailing
=K
numbers
this reduces to
AERODYNAMICS
308
w'
K.
4?r
(1-48 -f 3-58
0-51)
[CH. VII
=K
4-55
4rc
145
ft.
per
sec.
the horizontal component at F were 31'3 ft. per sec., the angle of
downwash there would be 2-7. A considerably greater value than
this is expected owing to the reduction of the horizontal component
in the wake, but not nearly so great a value as measured, viz. 6-1.
Hence, clearly, all factors have not been taken into account. This
If
of the aerofoil,
which
wake had
Chapter VIII
WING THEORY
169.
studies in
more
detail
wings of the
friction
drag
is
It follows that
sufficiently
form
removed
from the
critical angle.
Introductory articles
We
be affected much
will
On
AERODYNAMICS
310
[CH.
tion of circulation round its sections, i.e. the grading of lift intensity.
Both these quantities are at the choice of the designer within certain
tolerated.
170. General Equations of
Monoplane Theory
Take the origin at the centre of span (Fig. 126), and denote by
the circulation round the wing at a distance y towards the starboard
o
FIG. 126.
J TS
wing-tip.
The
circulation at
8y
is
K+
8y.
It is
assumed
centre of span.
the strength
ay
Trailing vortex lines arise in this way all along the span, and
produce a component of the downwash velocity, which is in general
Its value at any point is due to all the
variable along the span.
To
WING THEORY
VIII]
311
in pairs.
motion, and
is
to
of
lift is
8L
There
is
also
parallel to
C7,
?Kq Sy
.
an element
given
= ?KU
8y.
(ii)
a component
i.e.
by
SA = ?Kw
For the whole
U/q
= ~w 81
Sy
(iii)
aerofoil
p7
Kdy
(218)
Kwdy
(219)
to
= a + w/U
....
(220)
The above
uniform
is
mined and
Let
each.
K is indefinite.
-*(
1
,
AERODYNAMICS
312
[CH.
- log6
--
*27u
\a
The
'
Second Problem
'
of Aerofoil
Theory
as follows.
of the
L=IU
.....
(221)
EU
to
sum
m m
on
w w
lt
t.
By
a,
Kinetic Energy
W W
Article 119
I,
It is
Minimum
= m,
(w,
WJ,
-f
= m w + m^w
l
/,
Js
= m (w. - W.).
= const. = C, say,
(m^Wi + m^W
or
t ).
is
of
WING THEORY
VIII]
313
Therefore
--
+ m W + m*W
ww
(m w + w
(C
2 )*
=mm
l
The
(z>!
z0 a a
2 )
a ze> 8 )
2wjW 2 )
minimum
when w t
value
The corresponding
is
w
w
result for a
number
of impulses I lt I 2 7 8
11
W W
.,
12
and
2,
to
w w
2,
.,
=w
+h+
(w 1
- W + m (w - Wi)
+ m> (w, -W )+
lf
lt
l)
...
a constant.
have
=m
(wf
Wf)
+m
(w 2
PF 22)
+m
(w^
WJ)
(Lm) (2E
+ 2E -
(C
+M
.)
for
)'
(m w + m w
w
m (m + m* +
m
+
+
+
(m
wj +
+ w (w! + m + m< +
w
m
w
+
+
m^m^w{w
2(m
= m m (wt w + w^s
w +
=m
m m
2E
masses
let
= C,
We
.)
.)
.
wf
.
.)
2 )*
(te^!
8)
a minimum under
is
We
Therefore
this condition.
does
tion
is
to
its
plane.
314
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
such that
there
is
acceleration in a
...
E=
The
^Trpw's
(ii)
is
shown
in Article 120 to
be
elliptic.
On
the plate
<f>
is
given by
ws
sin
7)
(iii)
7)
==
- sin 37T\
....
2ws
(iv)
sheet.
Denote
by K
=
K 2ws
this circulation
From
(iv)
or
Substituting in
(i)
and
= K /2s
= PK,
(ii)
*-Pg*.'
175.
Elliptic
....
....
....
(222)
(223)
(224)
Wing-loading
WING THEORY
VIII]
given
away
316
elliptically, i.e.
the
lift
intensity at
We
is
by
(225)
note
= p-K.U
(226)
2*
= K /4s
w
Knowing
this velocity to
(227)
dK
From
we can readily
(225)
K,
y
;--T^=-
w
Again, since
is
its
<')
= K- f
dy
J
= Ko
-
-.
TC_
(229)
E =D
(227), in
Substituting for
Di
2XV7ip?7
(229a)
to theory,
itself, is
AERODYNAMICS
316
[CH.
176.
Minimum Drag
Aerofoil Formulae
x
From
4s 1
4s f
2s
-?-iT?=T
.....
(226)
~i P C7'S~pC7*
4s
From
(231).
2s*
= 2K/Uc,ior uniform
(229)
by
(230)
A _2D, A _n X ^ _~
'~~''"~~*
'
'
w
TT
~~~~
I
_JL_
A
rL
(9w\
^*iOOy
Substituting in (220)
=a
~C
(234)
These formulae are often employed to calculate changes consequent upon modification of aspect ratio. For this purpose we have
WING THEORY
VIII]
1/1
317
By
'
=(A-A')
differentiation of (234)
da.
I
~
1'X~
if
d<x.Q
2?r for
jt
ft
-"-+:
An
empirical correction
dC L jd<x.Q
to
put
where /
tc\
(236)
is
r
/.27r,
(235)
\r
C
f\
Examples
177.
The
foregoing
simple
are of outstanding
results
practical importance.
They
'
are often known as reduc-
tion formulae/
ing
examples,
their
many
upon
The
follow-
illustrating
applications, rest
certain assumptions ;
e.g.
and
rectangular
plan-forms is for the time
being regarded as negligible.
These are discussed after
further development of the
elliptical
theory.
(1)
at
10
FIG, 127.
full-scale
p. 91.
article are
Bell.
Loc.
cit. t
318
AERODYNAMICS
[Cfi.
AC^.
= C L*/l2n,
Aoc
= CJl2n.
Adding
12 shown.
It will be noted that contributions to C D of
form drag and skin friction, necessarily included in the experimental
This will be shown to be justifiable
values, are left unchanged.
within certain limits
the large decrease in drag at appreciable
lift coefficients due to
doubling the aspect ratio would be realised
for
in practice.
(2)
Fig. 128
plotted against
shows CD$
CL for elliptic
and
total
ness ratio
= 0-12.
OO4
0-08
Cj)
0-16
AND
sum
of
FIG. 128.
marked
by
wing alone,
assuming an airscrew efficiency of 80 per cent. Of this, 18 per cent,
could be saved by increasing A from 6 to 9. But a
speed of 180
m.p.h. would require 450 b.h.p. for the wing, and a decrease of only
4 per cent, could be achieved.
It must be borne in mind that structural
the
advantage of high aspect
ratio.
questions qualify
Full cantilever construction would
WING THEORY
VIU]
319
5 per cent.
The additional thrust h.p. that must be made available for
climbing is
0-05 X 20160 X 1080
33 '-
33000
At 5000
If
ft. pl7*
the
is
new
100-3
and
aspect ratio
U = 205-3/^0-862
which
will lead to
=
221-2 ft. per sec.
a saving of 33 thrust
h.p.-
-U 4 MO' 6
1
)
100-3
221-2
780
= 33
550
or
= 8-03.
range,
and that
it
AERODYNAMICS
320
on 25 ft, per
not excessive.
which
gust,
is
sec. for
[CH.
or 5-236, theoretically.
Consider first a craft of 60 m.p.h. minimum flying speed encountering the gust at 120 m.p.h., so that initially C L
1-28(60/120)*= 0-32.
The sharp increase of incidence comes to 25/176=0-142 radian
time to change, the lift of the wings is increased in the ratio 3-10
or 3-33, approximately. The wing of the higher aspect ratio is
the more severely stressed by the gust. Let us diminish the minimum flying speed to 50 m.p.h. and advance the speed range to 3.
Then
initially
C L =0-142,
Aoc
10.
'
for,
mentioned in
178.
(2).
span from
to
6,
according to
y
Then
6=0
when y
centre of span,
The
circulation
=
TT
s, i.e.
when y
cos
6.
and dy
= s sin 0^0.
is
= n/2 at the
expressed in a series
of Fourier type
K = 4sC7SQ sin nQ
*
An
alternative
method
is
due to Lotz
11)34.
(237)
May
WING THEORY
VIII]
which
in
for
values of n appear.
CL
is
and remembering
= 2A
p (EC
rt
This
result
(230) gives
MQ,
....
C L ==nAC
The
integral
where
321
first coefficient
(238)
lift coefficient.
It does not mean that C L oc A.
the
distribution
of
lift along the span, but in a
modify
which leaves C L constant. This distribution depends upon
8,
5,
manner
the shapes of the sections, their sizes and attitudes all along the span.
For an exact solution the summation should be from 1 to oo or at
least include a considerable number of terms, each relating to a
,
But the
particular outboard position, i.e. to a particular value of 0.
Fourier series often gives a good approximation when only few terms
are used the practical feasibility of the method depends upon this,
;
At any position
29
KU =C L6 pcU>,
or
2K
Also,
if
cL Qe
is
= C L9 cU.
the incidence
322
AERODYNAMICS
suffix
K=
[CH.
Ttt/coco
or from (220)
K - rct/c (a Now, on
substituting the
(237),
new
(cf.
variable
A vr
4sSC
rt
sin
n6Q
of
Article 140D) to
.
(239)
~).
= nc / a
[
<*.)
(241)
(239)
-- ^ nC* sin
n
7 -
sin 6
),
or
EC,
sin
nQ
=~
+ sin 6/4s
(~
4s
)
oc
sin 6
This
is
dCJda. than
practice for
But we
27c.
With
is
it,
which is in
constant and equal to 1/2.4 for a given
parameter
c/4s,
rectangular wing.
We
are
now
in
= 2A
and
and w,
(219) leads to
(SnC*
sin
sc
n6
sin
'
this reduces to
C w =7i4SnC/.
179.
The
ElHptically
By squaring
(238)
(242)
and substituting
in (242)
we
find
<
Now
the
sum
is
minimum
first
243>
C L is specified by d.
for a given lift when all
vanish.
The sum
will
then
WING THEORY
VIII]
323
reduce to unity, and thus the minimum possible drag coefficient for
varies
any wing is given by (232), as already proved, when lift
the
span.
elliptically along
The formula (243) is conveniently written
(244)
For
elliptic
value
minimum
theoretically possible.
either
Aeroplane wings are commonly, for constructional reasons,
With
rounded
for
or
tips.
straight-tapered, except
rectangular
been
have
Glauert,*
these
investigated by
plan-forms
square tips,
Betz f
using the method just described, and the rectangular shape by
distributions
load
Some
methods.
different
and others, employing
FIG. 129.
are illustrated in Fig. 129 for equal total lift ; uniform loading is
The
included, although this is not a practical, nor a desirable, case.
results relate to constant shape of section and geometrical incidence
along the span. The half-taper wing has a tip chord equal to
one-half its central chord, and its loading approximates to elliptic
as
loading. The distribution for a much sharper taper differs
much as does that for the rectangular shape from the ideal,
Both these loadings differ widely
but in the opposite way.
cit. t
p. 320.
AERODYNAMICS
324
OO8
[CH.
130 indicates
the
Fig.
theoretical variation of 8
with
OO6
for
rectangular
line),
O02
10
FIG. 130.
Fig.
shown the
uniform
result estimated
lift
with
^4
6,
where
131,
from experiment
in Article
for
also
are
166 for
a pointed wing.
The
cent, at
= 10,
which
0-08
is
006
.
planes.
SHARP TAPER
RECTANGULAR
004
taper,
002
the
central
chord
at
ratio.
Induced drag
this
aspect
is
then
loading.
Structural
cent.
10
only
per
greater than for elliptic
FIG.
131.
(*
This point
is
WING THEORY
VIII]
01
008
325
form
lift [cf.
OO6
(216)].
The conclusion
is
that the
OO4
ulae
Article
especially
O OZ 04
and
176,
changes
OO2
due
CK>
O8
to
FIG. 132.
-a +
CL
(1
(245)
T),
is
is
calculated in
The
for
The
with
and many
YH
aerofoils
slope of the lift curves for R.A.F. 38 and Clark
6 are 0-0752 and 0-0742 per degree. A number of good
aerofoils give a slope rather less than 0-076 at this aspect ratio and
The theoretical slope for a twoat fairly large Reynolds numbers.
dimensional slope
27i is
6-04
6/8
= 0-453
per radian
= 0-079 per
AERODYNAMICS
326
[CH.
degree.
good.
A marked difference
will
The angle
wing-tips.
dence was 6
typical for
100
FIG. 133.
DISTRIBUTION OF LIFT
experimental
(cf.
a knuckle of hoarded
yortex lines
in Other words, a
,.
.,.
,
discrete trailing vortex of some
strength exists near the trailing
Article 166).
Such a departure from theory
broken
line
nalises
on tapered wings.)
inci-
of
the difference is
incidences greater
;
'
was anticipated on
and with most wings the feature is present it has been found at
and the close-up vortices must occasionally be taken into
account in connection with the controls of aircraft. The peaks
of pressure reduction are situated on the rear
part of the upper
;
full scale,
to part of the
lift
lift.
WING THEORY
VIII]
327
ful in
some
cases
up
avoided.
BIPLANE WINGS
181.
of a biplane are variously arranged as illusDistance between the planes is called gap (see
NEGATIVE STAGGER
FIG. 134.
BEING
A,
<
Aerodynamic stagger.
<f>
geometric
stagger.
ddcalage.
The two wings interfere with one another in various ways, and
even in an orthogonal biplane at
have different lifts. Thus, cona
of
the
sidering region
atmosphere traversed a little time previously
by a biplane, we expect to find two vortex pairs of unequal strengths.
The induced drags of the wings differ from one another and from
that of a similar monoplane.
AERODYNAMICS
328
[Cfi.
lift,
but
more importantly by virtue of the external bracing so readily introduced. The drag and weight of the interplane bracing tend to offset
this advantage, however, and also to limit the amount of stagger and
gap that can usefully be employed.
182.
As
will, for
An = An +
The
A*a
+ Aii + Aii
(246)
WING THEORY
VHI]
are modified
by
(a)
(b)
329
We
other.
(6)
only,
and
intro-
w"
XT
8L 1==
w"
XT
8I
2.
This
AZ), lt
Therefore,
by summation
AA,I.
Ai2=A
Substituting in (246)
we
....
(247)
find
AB = An +
Ai.
+ 2A.
(248)
1 f
WiJL
An = Fr
UJ -*,
l9
(249)
AERODYNAMICS
330
[CH.
form
.
where a depends on
mean
O4
FIG. 136.
span.
(250)
Fig.
05
lift/span for
each wing by
\i or X,, so that
WING THEORY
VHI]
331
261 >
<
t ).
This
is
minimum
Aj
The value
of the
minimum
oj
lift
is
found from
(252)
when
QTo ^
is
(2H)
where the monoplane drag is for equal lift, and a span equal to that
wing (1) of the biplane. The factor to be applied to
DiM is always < 1, so that a biplane has less drag than a monoplane
of equal lift and span.
This result neglects, of course, the parasitic
of the longer
In the biplane of
we
is
find
(/A)i
(LJD,),
on substituting
lift/drag ratios.
= Si/(Xi +
si/(X, +
aX,)
aX,)
for AJ or X,
But
The
is
disposition of
much
184.
It is therefore useful to
above minimum
is
not
note that
but flat/
'
critical
Examples
To
wings are 30
ft.
and 24
ft.
ft.
AERODYNAMICS
332
==
'
Tip
For
6-ft.
gap
<r
Xa
X,
whence L l
tl
span
=M
96-3 Ib.
1907
0-23)
(1
0-96
have
ft.
ft.
96-3
also
and 30
We
lift
x 8100
X 22500
[CH.
0-8
15
- 5-76
12
7-20
Ib.,
La
== 48 Ib.,
+ 0-64
__ 85
^
*
'
= L>
is
X 24
La X
30
>
aa
ia
tl
stagger,
= 60 Ib.
= 25 Ib.
We note a reason for diminishing the chord of the lower wing, but
that the difference in loading is rather excessive. It might be more
42-2.
We
56-2, X t
practical to make X a
f X lf so that Xj
Ib. for
made up
as
D n = 37-6 Ib., D
aa
== 21-2
Ib.,
D + D2l = 27-1
ia
Ib.,
1013 Ib., it is found that for zero stagger the lift/drag (induced) ratio
of the upper wing would be increased by 4 per cent, and that of the
lower decreased by 8 per cent.
The loss associated with the new loading could be recovered by a
small increase of gap. The only drag then affected is that mutually
induced. It is easily found that, to decrease this by the small
required amount,
gap of 5 ft. 4 in.
185.
cr
must be reduced
when
where XB
is
the
total lift
CT) '
(255)
WING THEORY
2-065
L^G =
cr
333
when
Si
=s =s
is,
from
1-52 (h/s)
*
-f-
/LJ'~\
(^5oj
AM
/Y/i-i-*.
(257)
From
Hence
CD*
= -*r
C LB
(1
<r)
(268)
TC/IB
lift
coefficient
and aspect
make
The
the
To
are then different, however, for equal span.
be
must
of
the monoplane
the same, the area
doubled,
lifts
lifts
whence we find that the drag of the biplane, supporting the same load
at the same lift coefficient and having the same aspect ratio, is greater
It will be noted
a)/l.
then
that the monoplane
1/V^ times that of
the biplane. Let us determine the aspect ratio of the monoplane
which will lead to the same induced drag at the same lift and lift
in the ratio (1
span-grading of lift is
coefficient.
^M^^L.
A*
Example.
For a gap-span
+ a"
ratio of 1/6,
A M = 0-663 A B
= 0-653
This can
8s
whence
334
AERODYNAMICS
2s M
1-143
2s B
The chord
of the
[CH.
monoplane
is
the greater
by
75 per cent.
Incidence.
lift
coefficient
ratio.
is
evidently
increased to
-a +
CL
(I
a)
(259)
approximate formula
is
0-025
-----
Aa
Example.
A = 6, a
= 0-053 CL
For
loading
ratio 1/6 it is 0-082
elliptic
increasing by
factor (260).
1 86.
--- c L
<
X gap/span) 2
(A
(260)
v
'
some 30 per
for
General Remarks
forward wing
is
easily
shown
other.
Zeits. f. ang.
Math.
u.
Mech.,
vii,
1927.
WING THEORY
VIII]
335
greater incidence for a given lift coefficient. They also neglect the
experimental value of the maximum lift coefficient, which is the
lower for the biplane and affects choice between the two in
practice.
is
is
Alternatively, the
The
constraint
is
by the
from the
if elliptic
lift
loading
is
of these vortices
is
determined
For example
of the aerofoil.
Whence
assumed.
'=?
in this case
.....
(261)
The upward
where C
is
4?c
tf
'
4C
or
IK.
= |SC7CL
But
AERODYNAMICS
336
if
[CH.
Substituting
S
- W ----C
L U.
1
(262)
This result has been obtained without use of (261) and applies to
aerofoil, i.e. assumption of elliptic loading is unnecessary in
the present connection.
any
have
finally
~C
...
Similarly
(263)
tion.
O8
>
proportional
to
lift
only.
O6
triplane
model,
of
method
153 for
square or rectangular section, the numerical factor 0-125 for the
T
oz
of Article
tunnels of
H,
H
/B
FIG. 136.
changed.
Fig. 136 shows
the variation of this factor,
which
is
denoted by \T for
9
The whole
when
this variation
WING THEORY
VIII]
foregoing approximate
method begins to be insufficient and the form of the
distribution of
337
ao-
to have an
appreciable effect.
The
Examples.
upper
curve of Fig. 137 would be
expected from an aerofoil of
R.A.F. 38 section, of 4-in.
chord and 24-in. span, at a
VD
10
S/C
=
04
02
06
08
10
FIG. 137.
drag coefficient leading to the lower curve for free air conditions.
Incidence would also be increased for a given C L e.g. at CL
1-0,
,
Aa= 0-0066
radian
=0-38.
What
aspect ratio would a model of the same chord require for the
to coincide ?
Comparing (263) with (235), we have, disfree
air
conditions
tinguishing
by the accent
two curves
is_i/a _JA
8C~7cU A')
or, since
!_ 8a
-i
~
~A
By
(230)
6*
~~
Ac*
*8o
_
~"
6*
5-4.
Thus an aerofoil of
2, c
1/3, gives A
chord and 21-6-in. span in a circular-section tunnel of 4-ft.
diameter would give through a limited range of incidence the same
lift and drag coefficients as an aerofoil of the same section but aspect
Substituting a
4-in.
AERODYNAMICS
338
[CH.
less
representing, as already mentioned, a final variation of usually
than
per cent.
188. Open-jet
Tunnel
When
ate image system, which differs essentially, however, from that for an
enclosed tunnel of the same section. Whereas in the latter case the
criterion determining the image system is cancellation of velocity
components normal to the walls, with the open jet it is that the
pressure at the surface of the jet shall be constant and equal to the
entails that the tangential velocity at the surface of the jet be reduced
to its value in the absence of the aerofoil. Thus tangential, instead
of normal, velocity components due to the aerofoil are to be cancelled
U the velocity
just within
velocity u,
v,
By
there.
Bernoulli's equation
Hence
po
$>Uu,
is
to
biplane of zero stagger. The tangential velocity component due
the combination evidently, from symmetry, vanishes at the surface.
The normal velocity component there is doubled, so that the surface
is
slightly bent,
but this
WING THEORY
vni]
339
FIG. 138.
s
B --s
B +.--L
a*/s
(B
----- ------+
fi
a*/<
r 32
r a2
vanishes.
Thus the
artifice of
and
rests
This method
upon experimental
justification.
other investigations
The correction formulae for enclosed tunnels
to
of
the
same sections, provided the sign is changed,
apply
open jets
and also that the aerofoil is rotated through a right angle.
If, with the last proviso, a small aerofoil is tested in an open-jet
tunnel and also in an enclosed tunnel of the same size and section,
the mean results should give the free air coefficients and incidence.
:
DOWNWASH AT
TAIL PLANE
plane of
340
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
may
their
lift, e.g.
by trimming
tabs), but
it is
This
is
achieved
be adjusted
(or
- K
47cC7
The
XL.
+ *n
A/(s''
(264)
coefficient
Assume
factor
K/2nUs
2s.
We
= CJZnA.
then have
~
from
(231),
while from
Then using
(226)
s/s'
s'
= 4/w,
(236)
= s to represent
Then we have
'
n*A
tail
WING THEORY
VIII]
giving for
4=6,
341
= 0-46.
lift
But
it
should be
coefficient slope of
2n
in
correction,
and
error
is
190.
downwash
As
aerofoil
lines are
supposed to be
concentrated.
The constraining
;
simplifications
plicated.
0-24
CL
(266)
an enclosed tunnel
for
section C,
A.R.C.R.
&
Aerodynamic Theory,
ii,
1935.
AERODYNAMICS
342
means
[CH.
Let a be the radius of the jet or enclosed tunnel, 2s' the span of
the equivalent aerofoil of uniform lift,
the circulation round the
simplified vortex system, wv the velocity at x due to the images of the
FIG. 139.
vortex pair,
circulation
wa
round the
aerofoil.
=w +w
a.
It is
Thus
w
(I)
W/WK
=J
at
far
downstream, where
wa
vanishes.
Let the distance of the image of each trailing vortex from the axis,
which passes through the centre of span, be^. Then^y
a f/s' and
K
2=.
=* K
*'
rca*
From
Fig. 139
(u)
WING THEORY
VIII]
343
and therefore
^=1(1+ cos Y
= %IV(X + y
where cos Y
Turning to
wa
contour of side
an equal
H*
= Tea
H enclosing
AB
aerofoil
indicated
an
)-
H = ai/n
or
(Fig.
.+
.+
boundary a square
.+
+..
(iv)
of the
....
is
139)
140 for
tunnel (cf.
in Fig.
enclosed
(iii)
area, so that
1
.4-
4-
4-
and
rows
in-
extending
finitely.
If the
images in the
rows were continuous and
two-dimensional conditions
the velocity at x
FIG. HO.
due to the real vortex
would be decreased by the walls in the ratio (cf. Article 155)
held,
_
sinh (nxjH)'
Since an image of length 2s' occupies each length
of the rows, we
assume as an approximation that this constraint is to be reduced
by
the factor 2s' /H.
The
velocity at x due to
AB in free air is
K47T*
(Fig. 139)
2 cos p
1
2
where cos p
s'/Vfc' + x ).
Applying the approximation gives
and
since
w*
^^^^
=
n
Ks'/H*
nxHJi
Hence, using
-^
w
(iv)
and by
(i)
-nx/H
and (iii)
= j| + cos Y + 2 cos p
1
~
Lx^n/a
f
sinh (nx/H).
sinh (xi/n/a)
1
J
1.
J
(267);
v
NAMICS
[CH.
Kdrmdn and
Burgers' results
shown
FIG. 141.
1 91 A.
Application
Referring to a monoplane in
free flight, let e be the angle of
downwash in the neighbourhood
of the tail plane and a the inciusual problem is to determine rfe/^a from an
estimate of rf /rfa the corresponding quantity measured in a windtunnel experiment with a model. Let the working section of the
tunnel be enclosed and have a cross-sectional area C, and let the
area of the aerofoil be S. Then (ii) of the preceding article can be
,
^_
~~
~U
5
*
Ll
as
experiment.
Then
e
and
de
fa
de
Wa n +
4C
(i)
don
WING THEORY
VIII]
345
of the
by
(263)
'
8C
and substitution
for dC^/da.
8C
rfa
from
error
ds
dy.
ds Q d&Q
d(x,
BS rfCL
da,
4C
lift
....
'
da.
curve
is
known
accurately for
remembered, however, that dCL jdu. is less for a biplane than for one
of its wings separated as a monoplane.
Accordingly, de/da. is less
than double its value for the monoplane. The factor 0-8 may be
applied for aspect ratios in the neighbourhood of
6.
Chapter
VISCOUS
IX
common
(Article
modern
tion of form drag and the small lift coefficients normally in use, skin
friction is of paramount importance.
is now turned to the force arising within the boundary
from that due to pressures transmitted through it,
as
distinct
layer
these
two
forces are not, of course, independent of one
although
If the surface of the body is Aerodynamically smooth in a
another.
Attention
sense that will be explained later, the force arising is a pure skin
But the slight roughness
friction, as introduced in Chapter II.
of surface of many aircraft bodies is not
and
negligible,
introduces additional drag of the nature of a finely divided form
The two components together constitute skin drag. For
drag.
the present we assume sufficient smoothness to avoid the second
component.
On
cult,
reinstating viscosity, calculation immediately becomes diffiof our new study is that analysis alone cannot go
and a feature
far.
Mathematical complexity arises essentially from the fact
that the flow within long boundary layers at aircraft speeds is for the
most part turbulent (Article 21). On the other hand, corresponding
very
CH. IX]
VISCOUS
aircraft.
than
is
347
PIPE
FLOW
194. Parallel,
i.e.
aircraft, neither
is of interest, however,
partly as an introduction and also in
view of a practical use to be deduced by semi-empirical reasoning.
In experiments with long pipes, fluid is commonly supplied to the
mouth or inlet in an agitated state. Initial disturbances usually
develop along the pipe into turbulent flow, but in some circumstances
they are damped out. The run of pipe required to achieve damping,
subject
when
this is possible,
is
is
some
wind
'
of Article 24.
compared with
their
may
Draw Ox
be neglected.
perpendicular to them. If
the flow is steady, the
streamlines
are
every-
FIG. 142.
is
j*.
AERODYNAMICS
348
[CH.
face
is
\i
there
a resultant traction
is
LL
9y
direction
is
8y.
is
The
8y), or
Hy.
^S
(u
is
steady
- P^ = 0.
|i
r
dy*
On
integration
= fy* + Ay + B
(i)
Z\L
From
these
= 0, B =
PAa /8|ji.
u
(4y
Substituting in
- A').
(i)
(268)
8{j.
The
For
its
distribution of velocity
mean
is
parabolic, as
shown
in the figure.
we have
value u
= T1 f*
AJ
/3
W^V
J ==
rr- A1
12 p,
-A/2
v
(U);
The propulsive force on the whole mass of fluid per unit length and
breadth of the plates is
PA, and must be balanced by the traction
on the two plates. Hence, if T * is the intensity of skin friction on
either plate,
2r
PA
or
T
Alternatively,
we can
= -iPA
(iii)
if
in this case
* It was not
possible to use this symbol for the friction per unit area in Chapter II,
but the change is now made to a nomenclature which is international. Suffix
for the boundary value is omitted where no misconception can arise.
IX]
The
349
is
2p
pfi
R = wA/v.
The
vorticity
du
<
Py
1?
*
away from the
from
axis,
'
'
(1V)
maxima
it,
%Ph/y. at the
be
the
the
channel
formed
between
plates.
plates
supposed fed
with fluid in an irrotational state, vorticity is seen to be generated by
the action of the boundaries and viscosity.
tional to distance
rising to the
If
The above
For the same
coefficient associated
-"5-1
'
(270)
'
'
pressure is constant over each section of the pipe ; its gradient in the
Consider unit
direction of flow (Ox) is an absolute constant, P.
and external
internal
of
of
a
shell
thin
concentric
length
cylindrical
radii r
and
+ Sr.
is
The propulsive
2nr
8r.
pressure gradient
of the internal and external tractions comes to
is
steady
Integrating
u==-~r*
Alogr
+B
(i)
350
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
PD
0)
(271)
The
The propulsive
force
D/3
filling
R=
the pipe is
.
nD
at the wall.
^=1
196.
PD
<
272 >
steady
a nipple at each end of a central length of a long
pipe
and connecting to a pressure gauge, accurate measurements are easily
By fitting
and Aeromechanics, p
37.
IX]
made
351
by
number
143 are
mean
-2
,(273)
-3
(272T
-4
2-5
FIG. 143.
TURBULENCE.
Reynolds number
others.
2000.
is
The
The
362
AERODYNAMICS
stream.
[Cfi,
is
pressure drop.
Pipe flow is often employed to calibrate anemometers intended for use very close to a boundary, e.g. the surface of
an aerofoil. In such cases it is important to approximate
closely to
the calculated velocity profile, when a very generous transition
is required.
If large critical Reynolds numbers are desired,
great care must be exercised to free entering fluid from even such
small disturbances as convection currents. In some
Aerodynamic
length
speeds
by an
aspirator method.
197. Turbulent
is
not
times the mean, and the gradient at the wall being steep.
The simplest empirical formula for the friction coefficient (Blasius)
is
~
pw
and holds
as far as jR
10* as
shown
in Fig. 143.
R=
(273)
v
'
more general
10 6
but at
= 0-0395
jR~ 1/4
= 0-0395
pfi'/V' /)-
1'4
(i)
we assume
=u
where a
(yl*Y
l-24fi (y/a)
/4
n/4
(i),
find
1/4
Now it may be
(ii)
we
(iii)
IX]
in
is
independent of
353
a, it
-J=
and
=\
(274)
O
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS FOR STREAMLINE AND TURBULENT FLOW
FIG. 144.
THROUGH
PIPES.
find
12
v. 136, 1932.
354
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
avoid the anomaly we suppose the velocity profile drawn in accordance with (274) to hold only from near the axis to the edge of the
laminar sub-layer, and to be joined to the wall by a straight line
having a slope dictated by the known value of T (Fig. 144).
PIPES
198.
WITH CORES
Annular Channel
Some problems
of practical Aerodynamic interest are conveniently studied in a qualitative manner, both analytically and
experimentally, by considering flow through a long pipe fitted with a
core that extends through its entire length. The core may be so
small compared with a pipe of convenient diameter as to represent,
= \d.
and a
and
To evaluate A and
B we
for the
mean
4
have
whence
velocity
f
D/a
for
*
narrower annuli.
Piercy, Hooper,
article is
and Winny,
Phil.
Mag.
(The subsequent
IX]
greatly reduced
by small
cores,
a more or
355
less periodic
motion of
swaying type setting in, owing probably to small variable eccentricity, which increases resistance (such secondary motions often occur
in flow through other than
'
Thus
lence).
lower
upper
in Fig. 145.
The
in this figure
illustrates a basis of ap-
as
shown
broken
5OOO
4000
and
speeds occur
critical
'
2000
line
that
is
1000
often
proximation
used when, as in some applications to Aerodynamics,
it
is
sought to correlate
results for pipes and channels
of different sections.
This
O-2
0-4
06
d/D
FIG.
145.- CRITICAL
REYNOLDS NUMBERS
curve
the
derives
critical
vary as the hydraulic mean depth, defined as the ratio of the crosssection of a stream to its wetted perimeter.
For annular sections
it
this ratio is evidently (D
for
a
is Z)/4
so that the
d)j
pipe
;
d),
only.
199. Eccentric
some
be described
* Proc.
Ray. Soc.. A, v. 123, 1929.
briefly.
356
AERODYNAMICS
FIG. 146.
[CH.
(By permission of
the Phil.
Mag.)
Fig. 146 gives the velocity contours for steady flow in a typical
case of eccentricity. The flow is notably reduced
through the
constricted side of the channel, its maximum velocity
being
only
30 per cent, of that on the open side. The resistance is 12 per cent,
less than with the core centrally situated.
A similar obstruction to
flow through the passage between two bodies is often encountered in
Aerodynamic circumstances beyond means of calculation, and the
gap
is filled
Fig.
in
when
small.
there
part
its
diameter,
for
varying
When
Eccentricity-i- Pipe
FIG. 147.
negligible.
Experiments show
the effect of cores to be less
marked
in turbulent than in
streamline flow.
In the absence
extending
strip
IX]
within
an
elliptic
357
The
pipe.
Comparing the
total friction
VARIATION OF FRICTION
148.
ACROSS A THIN FLAT STRIP WITHIN
A PIPE OF CONFOCAL ELLIPTIC SECTION (LAMINAR FLOW).
FIG.
of the cylinder
first
When
is
compound motion
equations of motion. The matter is illustrated for steady twodimensional flow, parallel to the Ay-plane.
Let u, v be the velocity components parallel to Ox, Oy of the
The component velocities
centre G (x y) of any small fluid element.
t
at
an adjacent point Q
(x
8x,
-\-
8y) are
du
_
Bv
ox
du
dv
(i)
oy
AERODYNAMICS
358
shift the origin
to
G and imagine it
to
[CH.
centre of the
element.
the vorticity
=^ex
(Article 39).
cy
du
dv
fdv
du\
....
(n)
equations
give
(i)
8v
(iii)
and we note that the last terms express rotations such as a rigid body
might possess, which again cannot affect internal friction.
It appears, therefore, that the stresses due to viscosity are
associated solely with that part of the motion which is expressed by
the terms in
along Gx,
(iii)
Gy
involving
'
of this
a, b t c.
If
$u l9 Sv l denote components
motion of distortion
'
rS'
It is
now
directions
y
angles
8x
lines
such
drawn
i.e.
right
that
all
parallel to
or
tion
contraction.
and
Gy',
1
make an
oc
FIG. 149.
them
let
angle a with
are
component
If
a',
rates
Sw/ ==
a'S*',
8v/
= 6'Sy
(v)
Ix]
8/
= 8*
= 8y
cos a
cos a
+ 8y
- 8*
359
sin a,
sin
'
V1 '
and
8w/
8v/
Substituting for
8!
cos a
8/,
8v l cos a
= 8i
= 8^
cos
oc
cos a
+
-
and 8v/, 8/
8*'
= a'
=V
8v t sin a
8u t sin a
8v t
8*!
sin a,
..
'
in (v)
(8* cos a
(VU)
sin a.
from
(8y cos a
(vi)
8y sin a),
8* sin a).
=
=
+
+
Comparison
+
+
a
b
= a'
= a'
Finally,
(vii)
^^
a,
a.
(lx ^
shows that
+
+
cos 8 a
sin
c == i ('
we
and
*')
6'
sin 1 a,
J'
cos 1 a,
sin 2a.
= 0'
= a'
a
c
+V
=0,]
cos 2a,
sin 2a.
(275)
being
Reference to Articles 24 or 194 shows that
6-0,
a
=a
cos
2oc
= 0.
a'
=-
6'
=c
principal axes
(cf.
Article 26).
AERODYNAMICS
360
FIG. 150.
r\
element at
become sloped
as at
an angle 4
at
St.
But
dy
simultaneously with the motion of distortion, the element has
possessed an angular velocity
interval this has rotated
it
^
.-?.
.-.
By
St.
dy
is
sign compression.
It will
pl
from
Using
2jjui'
fx
requires us to write
-p
(275), so that
(34),
pxx
of Article 26
we then
2{jic,
(2[jia'
+ p)
sin 1 a
find
IX]
2{ju*'
cos
Now substitute
for a, b t c
2<x
of stress
361
p.
2{jia
is
(ii),
obtaining
(276)
dv
The
first
(A.
203.
are
now
in
two dimensions
easily constructed.
whose centre
parallel to Ox,
element
is
Du
__
Dt
Dv
du
du
dx
l)y'
dv
~~
(i)
dv
Dt
l)x
dy
3px
-Q? 8y
normal
while
dy,
*
8x.
stresses
on
the tractions on
The sum
of these
is
dy
the force on the element in the x-direction, and must
equal the
product of its mass and acceleration in this direction, i.e.
or
Du
dx
Similarly
A.D.
(ii)
12*
Dv
l)t
~~~dy
9p^
AERODYNAMICS
362
Substituting for
M3t ,
Du
Dv
_~
=
from
etc.,
3*w
[CH.
(276)
dp
a*
~~
a^>
/31 ?;
*
**
a*w \
Making use of the equation of continuity (61) to reduce the righthand sides and substituting from (i) for the left-hand sides, we have
finally
"
du
du
dp
= VV w -- 7T'
I
(277)'
dp
1
where v
v
= ---^ 7
8^
\-
a*
= -.
8y
These equations
eliminating p by
use of (61) and
and
may
cross differentiation
(65),
For example,
and subtracting, and making
vorticity
-I +!-"*
Or again they
(278)
<|>
Dm
Dq
__
q*_
~~
+ wq_
13*
_'_2
+vV /,
^v' rt r
M(
7r
^+v
ye
9q\
80 ;.
Vq
+f
(280)
3te;\
ae/
* The
equations (277), in generalised three-dimensional form, are fundamental
to the theory of motion of real fluids and were evolved by Navier, Poisson, de
The simplified demonstration given is taken from an
Saint- Venant and Stokes.
Another proof on similar
article by the author in Aircraft Engineering, Jan. 1933.
It is also of interest to
lines has been given by Prescott, Phil. Mag., March 1932.
derive them in terms of molecular motion, as discussed by Jeans, The Dynamical
Theory of Gases.
IX]
all,
363
and no
Formula
Aerodynamic
force follows
exist.
FIG. 151.
The curve
T 8s
cos 6 (pxy
Substituting for
^
oy/
pxy
8s cos 6
(sin* 6
+ pyy
+ sin
from
- cos
8s sin 6)
8s cos 6
6 (p xx
+p
yx
8s sin 6).
(276)
0)
21
8y>
v ;
(i)
AERODYNAMICS
364
Now adjacent
to the boundary
dx
a
5-
5 = (cos 6 ~ + sin 6
dn
^
dn/
a
+ cos 6 os
- cos
Let q
---h sin
dn
\/( w2
v *)
0)'
dn
becomes
(i)
-- sin 0-r-a*A
sin 6 cos
dn/
(ii)
dn
^ e th e
resultant velocity.
dq
^udu
vdv
dn
q dn
q dn
Hence
cos 67;
cos
= 0.
dv/ds
8
6
(sin
v
-4-
>
ds
on
dn
sin 6
oy
[CH.
=q
sin 0, v
Differentiating
g'
cos
0.
Sub-
(ii)
is
not hold.
It is easily verified that
may
be
left as
an
exercise.
They come
X
to
'
VISCOUS
IX]
365
FLOW
*P
'
'
~r=-?tr
da
d*q
^+- -^-5-
(n)
the
first
= Ar*.
(ii)
n(n
1)
Ar"~*
+ n- rn ~ l
r"
is
A and B
where
constant.
or the product qr
It will be seen that the flow
is
tion
round a
=
= q/r = B/r*
Bx
is
d
i
By
indeed irrotational.
AERODYNAMICS
366
[CH.
du\
dv
2fjto)
(Hi)
M=
(27cfT
r) f
_ rf/2
7tpia>o^
is
coefficient
The above
result
moment just calculated must be the same for all coIf this were not so, some shell
axial cylindrical surfaces in the fluid.
of fluid would gain or lose angular momentum, which would be
where
is
do*
^C
dr
r*
Applying the boundary conditions evaluates C and E, and substitution gives (283).
This case is readily deduced from the preceding article. Let the
outer cylinder be of diameter D. Then the boundary conditions
now determining A and B are the same at the inner radius but q
when
= \D.
Hence
>'
rfi
IX]
and substitution
367
q = Ar +
Bjr
gives
? ~~
co <ft
IT
/>*
\
4y\
>-<?/
The
rotates
moment
coefficient
case of the inner cylinder being fixed while the outer one
is solved similarly.
207. Curved
We
M=
giving a
is
Flow
in
Experiment
by Rayleigh, ignoring
viscosity.
If
it
m ~
(
Vt
<7i
stable
its
Y*
if
or
f if
new
V-~
radius,
is
AERODYNAMICS
368
i.e.
if
[CH.
If this
Steady flow
criterion.*
may
if it is
not familiar.
Rayleigh's investigation may also be applied in principle to
explain a striking phenomenon that is observed in front of stagnation
Turbulence
WIND,
Low Velocity
1-0
f
FIG. 152.
similar
phenomenon
is
points, at least
Taylor
v.
223, 1923.
IX]
369
out farther.
is
damped
Fig. 152 shows the region of instability and, for comparison, that
of time-average velocity reduction in front of a strut.
The enlarged
view gives contours of mean amplitude of velocity variation, as
208.
and
in Article
To make
difficulty.
use of
them
have
If the velocity be very small and the viscosity large, all the terms
on the left-hand side of (279), having to do with the inertia of the
fluid and not its viscosity, may be neglected, reducing the equation
to
V 4^
(286)
is
view.
Another approximate form, taking considerable though incomwas introduced more recently by
Oseen it is
vv
where
4
<J>
t/v*
(m*x)
(287)
&
AERODYNAMICS
370
209. Prandtl's
[CH.
is
small,
flow.
(288) follows equally for curvilinear and unsteady
theoretical justification exists for the experimental result.
Turning to the first equation of (277), we find that the first
Thus
term
the
second
with
comparison
v
This is the only simplification that can be made in
term
9*w/3y*.
usual circumstances, and the first equation therefore reduces to
I dp
d*u
du
du
/^v
289
v
v ^r
+
"^r
^~
a
dx
dx
a
of
w, viz.
9 a /9#a , is negligible in
dy
3y
--/p
On
then proportional to
v or >
more
generally, to
The flat
VISCOUS
IX]
up
to
10*
371
even in moder-
approximation in a
Although, for reasons stated in Article 208, this
general way.
FIG. 153.
(Figs
FIG. 154.
AT
R=
* to Oseen's
Society.)
4,
REYNOLDS NUMBERS.
interest to notice
v. 140,
1933
372
AERODYNAMICS
The drag
coefficient is
[Cn.
1-4839
(290)
~y
z\.
\t\,j.\.i
figure
FIG. 155.
The linear scale perpendicular to the plate is magnified ten times. Comparison
with Fig. 154 illustrates the growth of a boundary layer with increase of Reynolds
number.
The drag
now
exists
is
very thin.
now
At
coefficient is
large Reynolds
given theoretically
by
e~**dz
V7TJI
(291)
whose values
integral.
x, y, is
the formula
may
A,
and
= 3-64Vv*/t7
(292)
A
c
This result
3-64
(293)
IX]
373
boundary layer to
The drag
range.
Topfer) comes to
CD
= 2-656/Vfl
....
(294)
and is only some 6 per cent, less than mean experiment through
the range R
10*
5 x 10 5
On the same basis as (293) the thickness at the trailing edge of the
boundary layer
It thickens
is
given
by
as in (292).
way
method
212.
which
Method
The flow
is
of use in
of Successive
some more
difficult cases.
Approximation
assumed to be steady,
R =
is
C7c/v, c
du
+v
dx
are
Su
=v
dy
=v =
3a
.
at oo.
* Zeits.
f.
I
Math.
(296)
v
'
dy*
u. Phys., 1908.
7, v.
21, 1936.
U,
374
AERODYNAMICS
u lt
If
v l are
known
as
first
[CH.
approximations to u and
the
v,
equation
3# a
-^c#
+v
3w 2
l
=v
dy
d*u.
-
3y*
tion u t
A corresponding second approximation to v, viz. v a can
then be obtained from the equation of continuity and the boundary
conditions.
Repeating the process gives a third approximation.
Successive approximations will not in all problems exhibit the
convergence necessary for success, so that application of the method
is tentative.
But if they do, a sufficient number of reiterations
secures what degree of accuracy may be desired in the solution of
.
(296).
We now make
the substitutions u
U
= u/U, V = v/U,
on the
Also,
,
Y)
For
this
so that the
plate, while at oo
co-ordinates x,
to
^
8*
?*
dy
=
3%
.
'
3y
3l dx
3*
3w
3w 3|
""*
3y
whence
also
35 3^
__ "
=
3i
3w
3Y]
3^ 3^
"~"
/'R
IX]
We
equation in %
In terms of the non-
article the
and y
a
'
and on transformation to
8*
,
v)
it
<.
1
376
=v
**,
8y
3y
becomes
tinuity,
3*
dy
and transforms to
=0.
(298)
Hence
Wn-i^Substituting for v n _
(299)
(300)
-~|j?
= /_!
(5)
~/
Integrating once
or
Integrating again
-
C.
(301)
AERODYNAMICS
376
Since un
since
[CH.
5=0,
evidently
= 0,
and
at oo
if
An
>-*>
,t
(302)
Fn
Denoting by
In terms of the
new
or from (301)
^n
rrA/
= V-V
7-o
C Jo \
Hence
(3 4)
214. Evaluation
We have to
assume a
first
Then from
(301)
and
(304)
(302) gives
....
^
S.-^-fV*
V^Jo
^C D1 = 4l(nR) == 2-257 I?1
1'2
is
(306)
1/2
.
2 10, it appears that the second approximathe asymptotic solution to Oseen's equation. Tables exist
IX]
377
(299)
gives
and from
(302) again
*
A*
Jo
'
by*.
Proceeding in this way, we find that we can summarise the results
of successive calculations as follows
2
'
/'_Y
/^
AVT/
\3fc
Writing
=$
we
find,
44
2-734
'
a result which
for
*
is
made
of the
little
'
'
'
(3
6)
method.
378
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
(full
line)
positions
to be
along
given for
the
plate.
1-2
N? OP Approximation
BIG. 156.
is quite close, although mean results
suggest a
curve.
small
At
or
close
to the
slightly steeper
Reynolds numbers,
nose in any case, the dotted line will represent fact. At the nose
Reynolds numbers
itself
is
complicated.
of
Measurement
of a plate or cylinder
IX]
379
1-ft. chord in a stream of 100 ft. per sec. three-quarters of the entire
It is seen that,
velocity change occurs within a film 0-012 in. thick.
to estimate the boundary value of the gradient directly, measurements require to be made within one or two thousandths of an inch
projection.
Calibration
Example.
observed within it is 0-143 in. water head below the static pressure
at a section 18 in. upstream.
Show that the velocity indicated
to
between
the centre of the pitot tube
a
position midway
applies
and
its
outer
lip.
w==
60
R =
TC
17-5
X
x
0-01
=17-5
0-02/0-000159
ft.
0-01
=2
is
0-01
per
^
sec.
the
mean
2
.
velocity
Assuming
6
8r*/D
is
&
15
C.,
laminar.
ft.,
centre
380
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
from
ft.
ft.
ft.
per
the pressure in the tube corresponds to this position,
a
that pressure
0-0101 in.
pw
\ x 0-105 Ib. per sq. ft.
water head above the static pressure across that section of the pipe.
If
sec.
Now
from
= 0-53 Ib.
(272) T
per cu. ft.
8pw'//?
Hence at
a distance
= 0-153
position,
stream,
in.
The
water.
is
0-153
0-0101
P =32pw /&
PD/4. Thus
1-5 ft.
increased
is
static pressure is
by 0-795
Ib.
determined
per
in this
216.
Karman's Theorem
let
3aw
p
9y
du
dp
dx
pw
dx
du
-f pv
(i)
dy
=v=
when y
is
Considering this
the same as the
=
=
du/dx
while u
also,
= U,
the
first
when y
= 0.
side,
for
we have
(ii)
It is readily
= -^z\
udy-
iu')
VISCOUS
IX]
Hence
381
finally
(Uu
dy
-A^
(307)
3*
if
varying
cancelling out.
with
we have
x,
Pv ^"
CXjv
udy
~~
3
p -*r
result
important
be
established
in
may
another way by considering
u*dy.
OX J
This
A
.
(3070)
The
Sx A and
dx
equal the rate of
t8x
is
must
increase
^-momentum
of
This rate
within.
is
(see
u*dy
figure)
f
p
J A
u*dy
J B
pi/
J
VA
Hence
-*
~"~^
*~"
f
A
"
~
~~~
fH
-^
(308)
Now
of the
it is
when
it is
desired to
AERODYNAMICS
382
[CH.
velocity)
layer.
_ J_
-
tU*
0-049
mean
boundary
A
f
r2
).lu
=0
and
where p
is
is
0-493
0-0005
Ib.
per
ft.
Finally
T
*
It should
10-*
[0-20
0-32 -f (0-493
X
is
^5)]
= 0-0026.
approximate only.
VISCOUS
IX]
383
When y
whenjy
A,
u/U
=A
= 0, dufdy =
B, giving B in terms of
so that, in terms of A and A,
4C7/A
.....
__
pt7-7'~A
Since the pressure
constant for a
is
.1-
(i)
dx
P t/
Substituting from
and
W
....
reduces to
\u
where
f(A)
0-1071
0-13574
0-07624*.
(iv)
friction
dx
'
J\/i)
Integrating
A
Finally, substituting in
(ii)
'
r7o
oU
The
correct
===
and writing
L*
J\
)J
Rx
for
7#/v,
*
\)
immediately from
Cn
^U dx = 2-656
is
tail,
and
differentiating
/2
-,
i.e.
(vii)
one
384
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
with
able
(vii),
it is
1J, giving
B =
| and T/pt/*
= 0-324/f;-
1' 2
,
an error
of 2\ per cent.
The nature
of the approximation
is
further illustrated
by
cal-
With A
1/a
The result can only
4-64J?7
with (295), since u/U tends to 1 asymptotically
roughly be compared
with the accurate profile.
is
1^
in greater error.
The table below gives the results of evaluating by the above
method some suggested alternatives to (i). y is written for jy/A
.
The
foregoing
method may
easily
Number
R>
CD
as representing
= 2-80 #~
1/2
....
scales.
*
Page, A.R.C.R.
& M.
1508, 1933.
(309)
conditions at large
IX]
385
R
log
OK>
FIG. 159.
Ex-
a thin
flat
a smooth stream) and shape of nose (large for a sharp leading edge)
SL
vV
o
FIG. 160.
DC/C
PASSAGE TO TURBULENCE IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER OF A FLAT
PLATE.
the flow within the boundary layer becomes unsteady near the
The Reynolds number, based on the length c of
trailing edge.
the plate, at which turbulence just sets in, varies from 10* to
5
10 8
A.D.
if
13
As speed
is
further
AERODYNAMICS
386
[Cfi.
is
It is
Detection of Transition
fine pitot
tube
boundary
amplifying
set.
form developed at the N.P.L. for use in tunnels, aerofoils are coated
with an emulsion containing china clay and sprayed before a test
*
scales are not given in the figure, since criticisms can
Dissertation, Delft, 1924
be directed against the numerical accuracy of these early results.
f Winny, Ph.D. thesis, London, 1031.
J A.R.C. Report Ae. 2608, 1944.
;
IX]
387
with nitro-benzine, which has much the same refractive index and
makes the white coating temporarily invisible. The nitro-benzine
evaporates more quickly in turbulent than in laminar flow, and thus
first reappears under turbulent parts of the
Other expressions of the device are also employed.
boundary
layer.
mean
where
(310)
On
Now on
(iii)
gives
(310) reduces
it
to
388
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
A'^- 0*86
Integrating
/4
A =0-235
/*
or
(313)
and speed.
This result should be compared with (295), which may
similarly
be written A = k'x*. The turbulent part of the boundary
layer
increases in thickness much more rapidly along the
plate than the
for constant fluid
streamline part.
220. Total
We
first
Drag Coefficient
assume the boundary layer to be turbulent throughout.
To obtain the
Using
(313), (312)
becomes
Now integrating
'xf
0-144
where
R=
Uc/v.
This drag coefficient is much greater than that for streamline flow
at the same Reynolds number.
4-9 x 10 6
Taking for example R
when different conditions would make the boundary layer laminar
l! *
or turbulent, ^/R
0-0038 in the
700, R
13-74, and C D
former case and
0-0104 in the latter.
In the general case, as we have seen, the front part of the plate
has a streamline boundary layer with a low mean drag, while the
'
is
'
IX]
'
To apply through
'
0-148
3400
1/5
where again R
389
(315)
Regarding experimental determinations of skin friction in turbuit may be noted first that v. Kdrman's theorem will apply
when u is the time-average velocity (we have also to include an
integral for the time change of momentum within the slice of
boundary layer, but this evidently vanishes). Measurements will
1
usually be made with a pitot tube. Since this is a pw instrument it
is quite clear that the pressure within the tube will be greater than
that appropriate to the time-average velocity, but examples show
lent flow,
is
of
0012
(314
0008
0-004
FIG. 161.
390
AERODYNAMICS
(294),
a practical range of
(309),
through
be described shortly.
[CH.
(314),
in Fig. 161.
and
The
Numerous
may
compared.
R =
up
least
an unsuitably shaped or
it is obtained
simply by
n? 11
X4.
(Falkner)t
^
C
D
0-0612
-^
....
(316 A )
Reynolds
obtaining
under favourable conditions with smoothly constructed and finished
wings in flight. This starts at about the extremity of the range for
the simple formula (314), the accurate application of which therefore
tends to be restricted to wind tunnels and crudely
designed or
manufactured wings and other aircraft surfaces, especially those
exposed to the turbulent slipstreams of airscrews. It is desirable to
assumed. Much larger transition
numbers
could
be
in the absence of initial turbusecured
Reynolds
lence
by means
of a decreasing
pressure along the plate.
*Blasius, Ziets.
smooth
VISCOUS
IX]
Momentum
391
Thicknesses
profile
boundary
u be the
surface
is
distance
to
8,
say,
E78
\Udy
JWy,
i.e.-
/ v \ 1/2
where x
is
is
The
equating
it
to pt/ 8 0.
Then by
Article 216
y.
is
called the
momentum
thickness.
(iii)
AERODYNAMICS
392
[CH.
(307) gives
dQ
W^'d*
and
(vii)
Combining with
(iv)
and integrating
e
v/
(~r
3\Ux)
2 / v
and eliminating x
\Ux/'
pC/
'
'
'
(v)
()
gives finally
2>
Form
of
(vi)
made
Karman's Equation
written for U.
Kdrman's equation
form*
'
9 U*
where
H=
Now
dx
'
Qdx*
"
'
8/0.
Nikuradse
among
variation of
paratively
noticed that this value for turbulent flow is much smaller, as would
be anticipated from the change in shape of the velocity profile, than
*
f
IX]
393
that for laminar flow, which is found to be 2*59 from the preceding
article, assuming constant pressure.
and other
Adoption of an appropriate constant value for
assumptions enable (i) to be employed in an approximate manner to
to obtain estimations of practical utility, as wiU be described later.
We may conclude with an illustrative calculation based on
Falkner's drag coefficient for turbulent flow along a flat plate with
l/7
constant pressure, viz. C D
We have
0-0612//?
l/
0-0131
whence, on integration
-
and
= 0-0153
/ v \ 1/7
(
\Ux/)
8 follows immediately.
It will be observed that the procedure
is here inverted.
of Article 219
222.
the skin friction with laminar flow round cylinders of aerodynamicSuch calculations stop at breakaway
ally interesting sections.
transition
should the latter occur before condior
at
(Article 159),
This development of boundary
tions for breakaway are reached.
left
to further reading, which may
be
however,
must,
layer theory
begin with the references given below *; the literature is compendious
and specialised, and only a few brief remarks will be made in this
book.
In the solution of the boundary layer equations for laminar flow
over curved surfaces, an assumption must be made as to the
Skin
distribution of pressure, and three alternatives are available,
friction will be most reliably estimated from pressures that have
been determined experimentally. As already illustrated, these
differ little from those of potential flow in the case of thin streamline
cylinders, which can always be obtained, or approximated to as
closely as is possible in experiment, by the methods of Chapter VI.
Differences
owing
become
large,
A.D.13*
AERODYNAMICS
394
[CH.
becomes
The
still
more involved.
curves of Fig. 162 give the distribution of skin
laminar boundary layers of the flat plate, the
circular cylinder,* and the ellip-
full-line
dicated
BREAKAWAY
TAIL
INTENSITY OF SKIN
FIG. 162.
FRICTION.
Flat plate;
(a)
Elliptic cylinder
Circular cylinder,
Circular
experimental
(d)
cylinder,
Blasuis-Heimenz solution with potential
flow pressures ;
Circular cylinder,
(e)
Piercy, Preston and Whitehead solution
of fineness ratio 3
(6)
(c)
As the
curtailed,
until
soon it extends only a short distance from the nose. Over almost
the whole profile of an aerofoil, therefore,
only approximate solutions
of the equations can be found.
Of these the oldest and best known
is that due to
Pohlhausen, but, though still in use, this has been
superseded for some time where accuracy is required. One of the
solutions
is
is
due to Falkner.f
The
of technical importance,
*
t
On
Loc
cit.,
p.
393
IX]
395
breakaway.
ties
AUDIBLE LIMIT>
OVER 60
._ AUDIBLE
MAX
WIND
FIG. 162 A.
TURBULENCE
IN
completely
turbulent flow and a constant pressure. For further remarks on
the assumptions involved in such applications of this equation,
reference may be made to an article by Prandtl.J
The method will
be explained in application to laminar flow.
*
t
Aerodynamic Theory,
p. 369.
396
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
Kdrmdn
dQ
where
H=
2-59
at a distance
point.
r=
v)
60
-'
to
whence
or *
2
H being
W^
T 2)
2[i
0\
f*
Jo
\u)
dX
'
'
(il)
ascertainable function of
evaluated, whence T/pC/ 2 follows from (vi) of Article
in accordance with what assumptions are made.
Although
x, 6 is readily
221 A
applicability is restricted to small pressure gradients, it is nevertheless of interest to employ the method to estimate the distribution
of skin friction round the circular
The result is shown as
cylinder.
curve (a) in Fig. 162B, the pressures for potential flow being
implied
in the simple formula for Q/U taken from Article 108.
The curve
The
(b) represents the most recent solution for these pressures.f
into
solutions, taking variation of
account, duly yield a position of laminar separation, which the
above first approximation fails to predict. This phenomenon
occurs in a region of rising pressure and retarded flow, where
IX]
397
2Vft
(bl
90
30
120
60
ANGLE FROM FRONT STAGNATION POINT
FIG. 162s.
(a)
from
flat
plate
(b)
Correct solution.
CF
defined
by
CF
'
'
made
Frictional drag/lpt/'E ,
of the
* Gdtt.
Ergebn., Lfg. 3, 1926 Jones (Sir Melvill). A.R.C.R. & M., 1 199, 1928 Page,
Falkner, and Walker, A.R.C.R. & M., 1241, 1929; N.A.C.A. Tech. Kept., 394, 1931;
Relf and Lavender, A.R.C.R. & M., 597; Jones and Williams, A.R.C.R. & M.,
1804, 1937.
;
398
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
0-008
0-006
0-004
0-002
FIG. 163.
(1)
(4)
EXPERIMENTAL FRICTION
Thin wings
and
(5)
(2)
airships
(6)
IN
of
Curves 1 (N.P.L. and Gottingen), representing ordinary symmetrical aerofoils of 5-6 per cent, thickness ratio, follow fairly
well the transitional drag curve for the flat plate realised experimentally by Gebers. Still thinner aerofoils show a smaller friction,
friction
thick sections
IX]
399
On looping a thin string round the nose of the model giving curves 4,
C F changed to curve 6, the entire boundary layer becoming turbulent.
Curve 6 agrees in an average way with tests on another model
(N.A.C.A.) with turbulent boundary layer. The same change can
be effected for any streamline body by means of a turbulenceproducing screen located upstream, and cannot be avoided with an
Another matter of importance emerges from the many experiments of the above kind that have been carried out in various
If a model is suspended by a wire attached in a
laboratories.
laminar flow region, a notable increase of friction occurs, though
We
insufficient to accord with a wholly turbulent boundary layer.
conclude that a wedge of turbulence exists behind the wire, while
A
at laterally displaced positions the flow remains streamline.
if
similar effect is caused by sharp longitudinal edges or ridges
;
the edges are widely spaced, the strips of turbulence will have
limited lateral spread, though the increase of total friction may be
considerable.*
It will be appreciated that through a very wide range of R tests
on the same model in different wind tunnels with different degrees
t
Mean Motion
Article 2 ISA.
effects
(3)
of
AERODYNAMICS
400
[CH.
Now let
added
u,
mean
v'
the
fluctuations, so that at
u
It is
(317)
similarly.
f be the
P uv )
(pxx
= u 4"
if
t;
',
the
mean
= v + v'
bar, u'
= =v
f
.
tions
uu
= u*
4"
2S'
Similarly,
uv
we
Substituting in (317)
-f-
= uv
u'u'
4-
= w*
4- u'u'.
**'*>'
find equations of
mean
motion, the
first
being
3w
p
Ji
ai
$" ~
p"
'
ptt
w/)
~P m ~ P M/U
')
318 )
8>i
225.
Eddy
Viscosity
Although
found, it is
that through the bulk of the flow the former are comparatively unimportant and may be neglected. This has the disadvantage that
we cannot approach the boundary, where viscosity predominates,
Roy. Soc.
IX]
Px*> Pyy>
401
=-
stresses.
pV
Thus we
(i)
du
V=^-
(u)
the eddy, or sometimes the mechanical, viscosity. Calculation from experimental data shows e to be much greater than jx, as
expected, and not a physical constant.
e is called
supposed
immunity cannot be
Meanwhile,
it
is
Hence
ryx
=-
pvV
=-
du
pi/.
(iii)
its
is
pro-
if
magnitude
remain constant under given physical conditions.
;
whence
402
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
= -
dx
It is not yet
pu'.
dz u
.
-j-i.
v
(320)
'
dy*
227.
Kdrman's
Similarity
Theory
....
r=7i
*u/dy*
where x
is
a number.
Substituting in (319)
,
'
<
321)'
of this result
is
M2
>
bar)
r
*i* =
-
(duldyY
<
*-*$>-
828 >
It is not yet
but v.
justified,
to radius,
^llog |
(324)
* Proc.
Roy. Sac., A. v. 135. 1932.
f These results are taken for the most part from a paper in the Proc. Internat. Con.
f, App. Mech. (Cambridge), 1934, to which reference should be made
original
;
publication
was in
1930.
IX]
403
const,
V/>V/(T O /P),
whence
/(Wp)
--
/,
(
10 g
+
,
const.
(326)
article, v.
V(2/C F )
Making use
is
log (7?C F )
+ const.
(326)
of experiment
1/VC F
where C F
=-
= 4-15 log
lo
(RC
(327)
An
preceding article is that for turbulent flow through pipes the quantity
um ~ u
t
where um is the maximum
:
FIG. 164.
TANCE.
0-5
AERODYNAMICS
404
[CH.
sumption requires the profile across the section of the mean velocity
to be exactly the same even in two such dissimilar cases.
A
number
may
Reynolds number it begins to depart from this law, finally approximating closely to a velocity-squared law. Increasing the grain size
causes earlier departure and a higher final C F
.
Formula
resistance
(325)
is
inappropriate for
is
(328)
clear.
;
IX1
405
Although
TO
may
much
then be
Fig.
165
view
qualitative
general results of
||
ments so
surface
in
a
the
gives
of
experi-
far published.
is
aerodynamically
it exerts a
pure
smooth, if
skin friction
i.e.
its
if
smooth-turbulent
law.
With
high-speed aircraft
this entails a lacquer finish,
but roughness has little
FIG. 165.
QUALITATIVE ILLUSTRATION OF
ROUGHNESS EFFECTS.
(1)
wavy
(4)
or partly
very rough.
may
*
f
1933
J
AERODYNAMICS
406
10
At about these Reynolds numbers with speeds
neighbourhood of 200 m.p.h. the permissible roughness
the drag to be a pure skin friction is so small a grain size as
1C
'
'
in the
for
[CH.
0-0005 in.
If k is the size of each of the granules which may be regarded as
constituting a completely rough surface, of chord c, kfc is the
'
relative roughness
number/
'
'
logio
iC F
= 0-188 / Iog
(
k
10
\
.
10),
/
(329)
in progress.
A
per
ally
model
sec.,
similar
conditions.
would be
6-3
10 8
approximately.
is
R<
now
>
10 6
on the model, but is beginning to present diffiAt small lift coefficients the induced drag of
to
tends
and
it is
vanish,
wings
frequently necessary to add conto
tunnel
measurements
of the drag coefficient
siderably
extrapolated
is
culties
easily ensured
on the
aircraft.
IX]
407
Before small-scale measurements can be extrapolated, it is necessary to know, in addition to full-scale roughness, the effective initial
turbulence of the tunnel stream. Thus, taking two extreme cases,
5 x 10 5 the model boundary layer might
Fig. 163 shows that at R
The turbulence
especially apt
on
AERODYNAMICS
408
tunnel Reynolds
expected.
It is also
hoped
[CH. IX
give an
flight
'
'
effective
tests
by some
can be
critical
Chapter
IX A
230 A.
Profile
Drag
The
result is
'
sional conditions.
of laminar
hood
*
of
million.
Experimental details
1937.
409
1766,
AERODYNAMICS
410
[CH.
04
0004
FORM DRAG
C D (FORM)
FRICTION
02
0-002
10
15
5
THICKNESS (PER CENT CHORD)
FIG.
166A.
20
25
R=
10
aoio
Ot)06
regarded as representative of
good normal aerofoils in tun-
R-10
nels of
2xl07
moderate turbulence.
figure will
PIERCY AEROFOIL
in the
010
the
later.
0004
005
in
be referred to
015
0*20
THICKNESS RATIO
"025
FlG. 165B.
&
profile drag.
M No.
1852, 1938.
IX A]
411
The
curve
10 million.
later.
At
0012
(b)
the change
normal
aerofoil,
from
close
behind
the
change
of
O2c
<Mc
O6c
0008
favourable conditions
line).
(full
about
half
this
above
0006
OO04
0002
0-2c
04c O6c 03 c
FROM MOSE
DISTANCE
FIG. 165c.
improvement.
2308.
The Problem
of Reduction
upon
AERODYNAMICS
412
[CH.
drag is likely to be large. The curves of Fig. 165c (a) have been
extended to illustrate this. Displacing the transition point from
0-2 to 0-6 chord behind the nose, for instance, may be expected to
halve the skin friction.
arise, however, in applying the principle.
minimum drag cannot be carried to excess
for
the
profile
Re-shaping
without introducing other disadvantages. Moreover, the practical
standard in
feasibility of the method calls for an exceptionally high
the construction and surface finish of wings. The most promising
form of method (b) incurs pump and duct losses which have to be
minimised, and depends in the end upon the mechanical reliability
Various
difficulties
is
Method
(a)
subsonic speeds.
at the end of the chapter.
Early Example
In applying method
(a)
only just anticipates the former and occurs as far back from the nose
as is possible without incurring penalties in matters other than
drag.
first
principles
is
rather
beyond the scope of this book and the conformal methods introduced in Chapter VI, or other means, can be employed to shape
wing profiles in such a way as to yield far-back positions of this
;
breakaway.
is less
perfectly under-
stood.
its effect
on
transition.
flat
IX A]
413
may
number by 40 per
tion Reynolds
effect
1-8
cent.
qualitatively similar
be expected in
number
not
less
in the stream.*
of
C DO
being
less
flat
plate
in
normal
This
is
To measure
*Relf,
AERODYNAMICS
414
[CH.
restriction
of
of
maximum
lift
deficiencies.
Joukowski family.
Experiment
to determine
drag.
is
in
effects
416
IX A]
will
and wing-loading.
lift
coefficients
and shows
at
(c)
in the figure,
by the addition
of suitable
* So far as is
yet generally known, the development of laminar flow aerofoils
during the war was pursued (i) at the National Physical Laboratory, (ii) in America,
and (iii) in the author's temporary research school at Cambridge, The paper by
Relf (loc. cit, p. 413) may be consulted for a description of (i), where it appears
that Goldstein evolved an approximate method, based on Thin Aerofoil Theory, of
calculating profiles which would reproduce pressure distributions specified beforehand from experimental or analogous considerations for the reverse process, the
potential theory of the arbitrary profile, reference may be made to Theodorsen and
It is understood that (ii) relied to a
Garrick, N.A.C.A. Report No. 452, 1933.
considerable extent upon experiment in laminar flow wind tunnels.
Preliminary
Piercy, Whitehead and
descriptions of (iii) are contained in the A.R.C. Reports
Ae.
1942
Ae. 2246,
and
and
1941
Ae.
Whitehead,
1890,
1889,
Garrard,
Piercy
Ae. 2266, 1943. The procedure in (iii) was to employ the exact method
1943
mentioned in the text above for the potential flow calculations, so that all the wing
and suggestions for
profiles belonged to a single, though very extensive, family
shape variation were derived largely from mathematical investigations of the
;
boundary
layer flow.
AERODYNAMICS
416
Characteristics of the
new
[CH.
by means
diagrams of the velocity ratio q/U, i.e. the velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer expressed in terms of the undisturbed velocity.
This system is adopted in the following figures.
of
is
sections,
'
Curve
aerofoils.
//
A//
/f"-\^
'
lift
both at favourable
The
coefficients.
differ-
^/<^\
is
ro
characteristic.
tions of the
The
marking
posi-
letters
lift
coefficient
is
NOSE
TAIL
FIG. 165E.
by curve b is progressively
reduced and ultimately suffers a reversal near the nose, as indicated
at c.
Laminar flow can survive a small localised reversal of a
strongly negative gradient, the boundary layer re-attaching itself
to the aerofoil surf ace after brief separation, but in such circumstances
as are depicted by curve c laminar flow is impossible over the major
Curve a would also become modified to a
part of the profile.
forwardly peaked form, and in practice there would be little to
choose between the two sections at the higher lift coefficient.
Curve d in the lower part of the figure refers to the under-surface
of a laminar flow section and again differs essentially from the
corresponding curve / for a normal section. Curve e applies to the
laminar flow section at an unfavourable lift coefficient. But the
lift coefficient for the
unsatisfactory curve e is now less than that for
the satisfactory curve d. For skin friction to be a minimum, the
velocity curves on both surfaces should be of the type b and d.
Thus the favourable range is determined by the interval between
the values of the lift coefficient at which the reversals shown near
c and e first become appreciable, the former as incidence is increased
and the latter as it is decreased. Outside this range the profile drag
reverts rapidly to normal.
IX A]
417
magnitude of the
negative pressure gradient must be sufficient not only to overcome
disturbances caused by slight roughness or inequalities of the wing
surface but also to provide for change of incidence.
23oF.
Examples
of
Shape Effects
To
may
of improving the symmetrical section distinguished by the thin fullline in Fig. 165F.
As will be seen from the corresponding velocity
FIG. 165F.
is
its
magnitude.
probably signifies
can be investigated by calculating parts of the velocity curves
418
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
is
two associated
blunt, raising
IX A]
419
The consequent
165o.
FIG. 165G.
surface
curve
is
increased.
much
the same pressure gradient, and the lift would be more or less
evenly distributed over a large part of the chord. In order to
minimise the moment, lift is added forward of the quarter-chord
point and subtracted aft of that point, a change that clearly requires
2300.
control,
is
ailerons.
from
'
'
Breakaway
results
tired
AERODYNAMICS
420
[CH.
only breakaway
is
boundary
figure).
FIG. 165H.
But
fraction of the
and
reliability of the
methods by which
230!!.
Many practical applications of boundary layer control
have been concerned with the delay of stalling. This aspect comes
within the purview of the present chapter since stalling usually
results from a rapid forward movement of breakaway, preventing
which not only maintains lift but also avoids large increase of profile
drag. The result may be achieved by suction methods or, as we have
*
Aerodynamic Theory, vol. Ill, p. 117
arbitrary potential flow can be generated
'In
all
by the use
421
IX A]
member would be
FIG. I65i.
pumps and ducts. For small profile drag, the complete wing
should comprise a sequence of long laminar boundary layers interrupted by short lengths of turbulent boundary layers, and a series of
small form drags. The external flow is not entirely irrotational but
contains turbulent layers of vorticity, one of the effects of which may
be to produce fluctuations in the boundary layers, calling for
for
Prediction of Lift
The advent
of
tails
renews interest in
means
of predicting the
two
be
422
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
breakaway
and unequally on the two sides of the aerofoil.
Another method has accordingly been proposed * which is founded
upon considerations affecting the wake only, so that all the vorticity
from the aerofoil is included, and is related to the requirement f
that the circulation round any circuit enclosing part of the wake
only and cutting through it at right-angles must be zero. The
application of this method to an elliptic cylinder of fineness ratio
c:
shape and thickness of the wake are found to affect the problem only
negligibly and, as an approximation, the thickness is assumed to be
IX A]
423
and the edges of the wake to be parallel to the streamThis involves that, along the wake, the velocities at its edges
separation,
lines.
At
depend upon K.
the figure the full-line reproduces the lift curve so calculated and comparison is made with a wind-tunnel experiment on
the cylinder by Page * at a Reynolds number of 0-17 million. It
will be seen that the stalling angle is predicted with some
accuracy.
Again, the difference at smaller incidences is partly due to initial
(b) in
HIGH SPEEDS
230}. Compressibility effects at subsonic speeds have already been
discussed.
Experimental evidence suggests a progressive increase
of C DO but also that the increment is small until the critical Mach
,
number
is
approached. Minimising the increment is of little
importance compared with that of delaying the occurrence of shock.
The shock wave forms near the position of maximum velocity, before
moving backwards with an accompanying change of the pressure
distribution over the profile.
The
reduce the
culated.
The
low
Camber
Maximum
1-18
..
1-23
1-28
1-33
position of
*
A.R.C.R.
&
M. 1097, 1927.
Ph.D.
thesis,
London, 1939.
AERODYNAMICS
424
maximum
theoretical
for the
is
1-15,
Thus there
thickness and camber.
about 1-14.*
is
a drastic reduction of
But
minimum
[CH. IX
is
The
effect
is
explained
qualitatively as follows.
at a velocity
velocity of sideslip
yaw
(6)
FIG. 165K.
ty
sin-* (v/7),
and with a
We have
v.
U=V
cos
<I*
Mach number
in the ratio
V/U
I/cos
0.
be increased
is
very
moment on a
side-
rough.
however,
6
by the use
of
1-14
exaggerated sweep-back.
on
this basis.
Thus with
Chapter
The
Ideal Propeller
we concentrate
'
'
y
h h2
_
FlG
160
8T
A.D.-
-H*
P 8S,K,(F,
425
V).
AERODYNAMICS
426
[CH.
momentum
Then, on
considerations, since
T = pSF
(F5
V).
pSF
is
the mass
(i)
its
back.
T^Sfa-pi).
(ii)
we
have
IfV*
=*
Remembering
this
Substituting in
(ii)
T
Comparing
i P S(7f
this expression
with
(i),
F').
i.e.,
==
\(V9
(iii)
...
result
V)
(330)
It is usual to write
Fo
7(1
a)
(331)
a being called the inflow factor. The addition to velocity at the disc
is aV and that at the vena contracta 2aV.
.
Useful work
craft, together
is
its
X]
to
the rate
E at
427
E
by
(i).
Hence the
y)
is
F')
= \T (V +
s
V)
given by
_
~V)
^
~lTa'
'
'
(332)
The result shows that, other things being equal, efficiency decreases
becomes concentrated. To express this conveniently,
define a thrust coefficient Tc by T/pF 2D 2 when
(iii) becomes
as thrust
and
(332) gives
1
Y]
-^T=-
....
(333)
0-109, whence a (1
93-9 per cent.
7]
= 51-2, giving T =
= 0-065. Then (332) gives
and pF2
a
istics.
233.
The Airscrew
The
AERODYNAMICS
428
[CH.
producing which outer parts are more effective than inner, owing to
their greater speeds
over an appreciable area surrouiiding the boss
the thrust will, in fact, be zero. Thus we now have to take into
account variation of the intensity of thrust with radius, called thrust
grading.
Considering any concentric annulus of the disc, of small
solidity, the distribution of thrust round it is periodic, being concentrated only over the blade dements, and the flow through any part
;
it pulsates.
For the purpose of calculating the flow, we assume,
however, that the thrusts of the several blade elements included in
the annulus may be regarded as distributed uniformly round it, and
deal with a mean flow at the given radius.
This is equivalent to
assuming a large number of very narrow blades.
Let the airscrew make n revolutions per second, or its angular
Each element at radius r (Fig. 167), traces a helical
velocity be fi.
of
But the
air at
subject
pIG
the disc
is
and
inflow,
1(i7
airscrew,
certain rotational factor
to
6,
defined
by a
air
is 26fi.
Of
this one-half is
<f>
The
is
derived from
exerted
its lift,
perpendicularly to its path, while torque arises partly from lift and
partly from drag, which acts parallel to its path. High lift/drag
ratio makes for efficiency, and blade sections are shaped like those of
wings and set at suitable incidences a to their helical paths.
increases rapidly towards the boss, and the whole blade forms a
<
= +a
on
r,
for so
do a and
in (334).
<f>
(336)
an airscrew as
this
429
D is its
where
diameter.
By varying the throttle opening of the central unit of a threeengined craft, we could clearly vary the effective pitch of the central
airscrew through a wide range, and in fact geometric
pitch has no
Aerodynamic significance. Such variation is readily carried out on a
model airscrew in a wind tunnel, and thrust measured for all values
of V/n.
It is then found that thrust vanishes for one
particular
value of V/n for a given airscrew, no matter what V or n
may be.
This unique advance per revolution is called the
experimental mean
It is greater than P, because a will be
pitch.
negative, assuming
cambered blade sections. The airscrew must advance a less distance
per revolution, and the difference is called slip, although sometimes
slip is reckoned from P.
It is convenient to define
The nonpitch, etc., in terms of D.
dimensional parameter V/nD is denoted by /.
TV
.
all losses,
whether inherent
in
(336)
propulsion or
the
to
234. Modified
Blade Element
Theory
Fig. 168 shows
the circumstances
of a blade element
chord c and
span 8r at radius
of
r.
Its
velocity
resultant
is
ex-
ttr(l-b)
pressible in alter-
native
FIG. 168.
ways,
e.g.
W = V(l + a]
Let
$R be the
cosec
resultant force
it
<
= rii
(1
exerts, inclined
b)
sec
<f>.
(337)
AERODYNAMICS
430
[CH.
lift 8L
(SD/SL), 8Z> being the
Writing 8T', 8Q' for the thrust and torque of the single
element, from the figure
direction of its
drag.
XT'
= Sfi cos
whence at radius
(<
+ y),
W=
's
sin
+ Y)>
(<
(i)
V*T
j
QS<?'
l-b
1 + a
'
tan
+Y
(<
"
)'
assumption, since
* for
can be ignored.
2
tan y
lift)
= CLipPF (c8r),
should be
= C D /C L
conditions
it
in this
is
span
is
Chapter IX.
this understanding we proceed as follows.
elements at any radius and, if 8T,
has
With
screw
ST
$Q
&Q denote
their
or Fig. 168
= B (8L cos
SD sin <),
= rB (8L sin + 8D cos
<
<ji).
</>
(i)
A .B-bladed air-
=B
diminishing 8r indefinitely
(C L cos
<j>
CD
sin <pftpW*c
(339)
(340)
^ = rB (C L sin + CD cos
<f>
<f>)
\$W*c.
thrust
Fig.
rt
01
431
O-3
0-2
0-5
r/D
FIG. 169.
with
W,
until c
is
is a maximum when
45, approximately,
YJ
then
whence maximum
being negligible in comparison with
y
the
blade
at
In fixed-pitch
occurs
efficiency along
J/2n.
r/D
r
is
V
small
for
250 ft. per
this
condition, e.g. taking
practice
little
25
of the
and
n
and
D
10
0-16,
sec.,
ft., r/D
r.p.s.
thrust occurs there.
The efficiency of the complete airscrew is
increased by decrease of n, or increase of V, keeping n constant, i.e.
by increase of pitch well towards TC. Practical disadvantages exist
differentiation that
<f>
</>,
AERODYNAMICS
432
[CH.
it
and the
i.e.
of form drag
and skin
friction.
That
this
is
The
on each blade
force
factors.
FIG. 170*
X]
433
'
resolved into vortex rings and longitudinal vortex lines, the first
producing axial velocity, and the second rotation in the slipstream.
With non-uniform circulation along the blades, the whole slipstream will be a pack of such systems. Radial velocities are dealt
with later on.
Now for a lightly loaded airscrew disc we may neglect the contraction of the slipstream.
clear,
axial disturbance,
it is
from the theory of Chapter VII, that the velocity at any point
downstream.
231.
tendency must be exactly balanced by an equal and opposite induction there by the trailing system.
Just behind the disc, however,
rotation about the axis in
induce
the
blades
the circulations round
to the equal rotation
added
is
therefore
the opposite sense, and this
a narrow loop B
follow
if
we
induced by the trailing system. Thus,
this spin is
(Fig. 170), it is set spinning at the disc, and exactly half
the
circulation
due to the trailing system. Again, by Article 140K,
it
round this loop of particles cannot change as passes along the slipstream, so that, as the influence of the blades decreases, so must that
Hence the spin caused in the loop
of the trailing vortices increase.
when at the disc, by the trailing vortices only, amounts to one-half
from
by them
far
vena contracta.
Summing
up,
if
AERODYNAMICS
434
236. Approximate
Momentum
[CH.
Equations
m=
to thrust
is
2aV.
the
a)a.
dr
Again,
=m
momentum
(i)
is
26fi,
so
momentum, 8Q
a)b.
.(ii)
is
2t
= CL cos
C D sin
= C L sin< + C D cos<V
<
<f>\
2q
a == Bc/27ir.
Then equating
(i)
W from
In similarly equating
+ a)a = BtcW*.
= fat cosec f
(ii)
(342)
W =V +
2
(I
it is
(341)
(337)
Then
to (339) gives
4rcrF 2 (l
Substituting for
a)
cosec
<f>
Or
(1
b)
sec <.
-1
= Gq cosec
2<b.
/,
q and
<,
and graphical or
trial
(343)
the interference
and
error
methods
X]
suitable
435
method
is
described
article.
thrust grading
is
expressed non-dimensionally as
dkT
__dT
=
~dr
d(r/D)
_dT
~"
I
'
47r
~dr
pnf&
'
plSD
'
for dT/dr,
dQ/dr from
W in terms of Q.
Then
(345)
/ r\ 4
die
and-
=87*1
sec*
(1-6)'
(^J?
jl
#.
(346)
for the
The
=.-. cot (# +
TC
(348)
Y).
Simpler expressions for t and q than those so far given are suffiC D /C L the first
Since tan y
ciently accurate for most purposes.
written
be
may
2t cos
Hence
= CL
<f>
cos y
sin
<
sin y).
2t
= CL cos
2q
- CL
(^
+ y).
.
Similarly
These approximations
(cos
fail
sin
when a
(<f>
(349)
+ y).
AERODYNAMICS
436
incidence for either zero
lift
or the
stall,
and
[CH.
for root sections
which
238.
and
(343).
Having
a series
Then
a> b,
at once calculated
and the
results
is
usually
attempted).
The particular case relates to two-thirds radius of a 2-bladed airscrew of 9 ft. diameter used on an aeroplane whose top speed is 160
The pitch/diam.
m.p.h., the airscrew then turning at 1200 r.p.m.
ratio is 1-5, so that tan
1-5 -f- |TU, or
(2n JZ))
D(P/D)
35-6. The chord at r
3 ft. is 0-754 ft., so that a
0-08.
Zero lift for the section occurs at
2, while its lift coefficient slope
is 0-10 per degree.
1
1*2, y
Up to C L
subject to a minimum
C D =0*010. These aerofoil figures have already been duly corrected
=
=
to infinite span.
taking 10
less
TABLE
It
VIII
x]
The
at
437
O03
0-4
FIG. 171.
1-6
The numbers
efficiency
efficiency
438
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
uniformly along
all
or under control.
in the
last
full
power
maximum
is
critically important.
Apart from
climb
and
maintenance
of
altitude
with
substantially improving
it
double
thrust
failure,
partial engine
may approximately
during
the early stages of take-off, and enable full power to be used with
increase of efficiency at heights where decrease of density would
altitudes,
pitch
X]
439
We
1-0 or 1-5.
For simplicity, the supercharged engine
giving P/D
of 800 b.h.p. is assumed to maintain its power at constant revolutions (25 r.p.s.) up to 11,000 ft. altitude.
The most important
per
sec. respectively.
From the engine data we find that the constant torque exerted by it
2800
Ib.-ft.
= 0-71,
density
0-73 the
during climb at the smaller pitch it is 80 per cent. At J
with
the
is
67
but
the
efficiency
larger pitch
only
per cent.,
torque
coefficient required would be more than the engine can
manage.
640 thrust h.p. is available during low-level climbing and 688 at
high speed at 11,000 ft. where, however, the estimated velocity is
356 ft. per sec. Again taking account of the density, 580 thrust
the larger
h.p. would produce the same level A.S.I, at low altitude
would
be
used
and
the
would
slow
down
a
little
and give
pitch
engine
less power, but probably more than sufficient to maintain the A.S.L
Provision of a third pitch would improve maximum speed at low
;
altitude.
Static Thrust
To
engine
that
still
= 550
with an
b.h.p./27m
1/4
AERODYNAMICS
440
from
Fig. 171,
giving n
1388
T
= 0-0269
at
Then
17-3.
since A^
= 0-133
from the
figure,
= 1-0 Q
= 22-3 and T = 2077 Ib.
Ib.
= 0-0269
we have kQ
1-5)
whence
fc
first
[CH.
P/D
=0-0151,
Thus the
(fc
When
a blade
<f>
8r'= SR
If
=
=
....
= 27U0/P
approximately
11
16-6
P(ft.)
2880
1644
3070
1169
(Ib.-ft.)
T(lb.)
showing an improvement
of the original airscrews
nearer to that state.
completely
(350)
stalled,
No mention
in the slipstream.
Though
made
of radial
small in
components of velocity
these attain con-
its interior,
its
momentum
equations
number
Looked
a
require
of
at
factor,
momentum
the
number
v.
and a
closer solution
by
X]
441
Goldstein.*
The simplest way of viewing the results is to conceive
that the diameter of the airscrew is effectively diminished by tip
losses, so that
coefficients.
theory to determine
et
(351)
This gives the curves in Fig. 172 for two, three, or four blades,
effect
becomes important
0-8
O-4
for large
1-2
P/D
ratios
at
1-6
1-O1
D
0-8
0-7
EFFECT OF TIP LOSSES.
FIG. 172.
The numbers
score
Thus
pitch.
4 per cent.
tip losses make at least three blades desirable with high
It
then be necessary, however, to increase solidity,
may
This question
much reduced
it
friction
is
easily
will
low P/D
is
at
* Proc.
Roy. Soc., A, v. 123, 1929.
442
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
0-72
would not be
wind tunnels, f on
air-
and
in
following
The
flight.
description
is
The symbol
will
sound.
06
FIG. 173,
07
THE COMPRESSIBILITY
STALL.
;
with
little
Glauert's formula
change of
compressibility
*
(3)
stall
M increases,
aerofoil section
As
C\
and
this
variation
is
When
efficiency.
sets in, as illustrated
M = 0-7
to
in Fig. 173,
0-8 the
several
x]
443
At
M = 0*8,
M=
minimum
'
maximum
'
velocity
ratio
thus
(Chapter VI) should be employed
a 10 per cent. Joukowski section has
;
and pitch
05
M at
FlG
large.
tip
17 3A.
444
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
an airscrew from
first principles.
The exercise loses part of its
engineering value unless an attempt is made to fulfil a prescribed
specification, and, to avoid disappointment, approximate analysis
should precede detailed work on a proposed design.
D = 43
-~
is
by
and by 15
2a)
(where
is
circle to r
= JZ), and
is
1-2
a
pF S
fall
linearly to zero at r
\D.
tip
T is
(cf.
Forward
tilt
relieves
Fig. 167).
This leaves
X]
still
445
as
is
consistent with
stiff-
towards
but unavoidable
ness, especially
the tips,
thickness
whether
doubtful
it
the
to
close
boss makes
0-032
0-024
to
attempts
worth while.
gives the
at
R=
Fig.
174
0-016
minimum C D
10*
for
mathe-
0-008
maxi-
from
0-1
0-2
0-3
04
Thickness Ratio
FIG. 174.
the
leading edge
(a considerably farther back position is preferable).
Stresses.
Radial stresses in a blade result from (a) bending due to
centrifugal force, (c) bending due to centrifugal
These are calculated separately for a number of radii and
Aerodynamic force,
force.
(b)
fibre stresses, of course, from the bendapproximation to (a) is found by neglecting twist and
integrating, from the radius r considered to the tip, the element
moment C L %pW*c$r(r
The least second moment of area
r ).
is
of the section is used to determine the fibre stresses,
(b)
first
self-evident,
at rQ only if the centroids of sections
(c) arises
nearer the tip are displaced from a radial line parallel to the
The moment is resolved into components
disc of revolution.
about the major and minor axes of the section, and only the first
is
considered.
AERODYNAMICS
446
[CH.
helicopter is
blades.
method
of achieving the
is
inclined
flight,
'
'
hands of
mance
its
rotor
lift
first
is
are to be
In the theory * of the autogyro the lift Z and drag
obtained from the axial thrust T and a component of Aerodynamic
*
Glauert, A.R.C.R.
<&
x]
447
which acts in the plane of the rotor away from the wind.
These are determined by the necessary condition for autorotation
The following usual nomenclature is adopted
the torque Q
0.
force
R = radius
[A
constant)
6,
<= blade
and
helical
angles as before
fy
= angle
B,
between blade
and direction of
motion viewed in
plan
or
k,
H = T or
or kx
= Z or
X/pF'S
Cx
In Fig. 175
(a),
C, or
or
this
direction,
is
in
the
the
the opposite
and
(W
= V sin
FlG
u.
T = 2pSvV =
This gives
X sin
2pS(7
sin i
u)\f(u*
V* cos 1
i).
X cos1
t)
(i)
AERODYNAMICS
448
[CH.
mately, on neglecting
u* in
comparison with
W=
For a
single element, of
lr
+ V cos
sin
by
fy.
(ii)
chord
^=
'
rpW'cq
(iii)
have the meanings defined by (341). Now an autogyro rotor is of very fine pitch and, though untrue at small radii, is
a small angle over important parts of the blade. Treating it as small
throughout gives the approximations
where
and
</>
2t
= CL
2q
- CL +
<f>
CD
=6
Now
3(0
$,
of equations
= 3<(0 - $ +
(iii)
JC D
reduces to
-JL-
<
<t>
= ypcQ
[3|jLl?e(r
R\
cos
sin ^)
COS
^*
3[x
Sil1
+ ^'^ COS
Q'
pcn
7?
4
[
(i0(l
+ |X cos sin ^)
+ iC D (i + f X cos
(JL
sin
<|j
8
iX cos
i sin'
<!/)].
Now as the blade swings round and 4 varies through TC, clearly
the terms with sin ^ as factor will give zero mean torque, but the
X]
term with
sin*
<|*
Thus
factor |.
449
by
for the
= B 9 c&R*[- ^6 - f +
and for a solidity = BcR/S
Q
(*
JC D
(1
X* cos* i)]
or
cos*
T =
cr(8
f (i
(352)
|6X* cos*
(353)
as approximations.
Similarly
i*(CD
(354)
The
dition
essential con-
gives
(355)
of
airscrew
work.
kz
(a).
left
to
O -'
1
40
further
reading. Glauert
shows first that a
AUTOGYRO CURVES.
FIG. 176.
These are typical only and do not refer to a parThe broken line represents a complete
ticular rotor.
trimming of
craft.
suffi-
(NOTE
A,
JC. k t
f
JCf .)
H
an autogyro (though this is not true of a
and
that
the
alternative
helicopter),
flapping must be rather worse.
The analysis indicates on this account rather better performance
than is to be expected in practice. Typical curves are shown in
Fig. 176 indicating that
maximum CL
15
first
occurs at a
little
lift
at
short of 40
45.
Experi-
AERODYNAMICS
450
[CH.
to
augment
its
value
by reduction
of
which
is
Wheatley and
Bioletti,
at
all.
Chapter
XI
The subject
motion character-
so that
The
at their experimental
mean
pitch,
i.e.
when
its
We
AERODYNAMICS
452
[CH.
Otten
a gross drag coefficient, which is often based on the frontally proflat plate/ area.
Particular idiosyncrasies are
met by adjusting the coefficient.
With glider drag known, the performance of an aeroplane in a
standard atmosphere is readily forecast by taking due account of its
airscrews and engines. Important interference occurs between
airscrews and fuselages, or engine nacelles, a matter that is studied
in a specialsection.
Assuming reciprocating engines, their rotational
speed becomes a significant variable.
The advent of jet propulsion promises some simplification of the
'
jected, or so-called
and operational
efficiency
of view.
is
and
usually written
CD =
Cpf
-f-
CDO>
term on the right being the induced and the second the
This form is suitable when tests have been
coefficient.
made at flight Reynolds numbers, e.g. when C.A.T. measurements
are available and the craft is small and slow.
Except in such
circumstances, however, a more useful subdivision is
the
first
profile
drag
CD
= C m + CD
whose
(friction)
+ CD (form)
(356)
term can be obtained by subtracting from the gross drag an experi* A.R.C.R.
&
XI]
453
mental form drag (Article 230), but when, as is usual, the data do
not exist, an estimate can be made of one or other of the two components of profile drag. It will be assumed that only the friction is
subject to increase
by roughness.
not confined to aerofoil surfaces, although for
others the first term will probably be negligible. With bluff components such as wheels, the last term swamps the others, and an
The formula
is
Drag
Induced drag can be neglected except on the wings, tail plane, and
fin-rudder unit, although with a very large body this may not be
Its calculation is treated in Chapter VIII, but the followjustified.
remarks are made.
additional
ing
It is convenient, in the case of a biplane, to determine the equivalratio, the equivalent monoplane being defined
same lift and induced drag as the biplane. Denote
use suffix M
lift and drag by L and D, span by 2s, and L/2s by X
to distinguish the equivalent monoplane, and 1 the longer and 2
for s t /Si.
Now
and write
the shorter of the biplane wings
Dm = DiEt the induced drag of the whole biplane. Hence from
(251) and (252)
ent
monoplane aspect
as having the
=V+
+ 2orX X
= xLH Then,
X.
JJL
(i)
through by
(i)
since L^
1
X^ and substitut-
ing
or
i*
= - <S{3P(\* - 2a[x +
1)
2#(<ifjL
1)
1}
\L
= 2sM
is
(357)
AERODYNAMICS
454
[Cn.
This result can be plotted in several useful ways with the help of
One of these is shown in Fig. 177 which exhibits, amongst
other matters, that
Fig. 135.
the biplane
is
efficient
when
,/!,!
most
s 2 /s 1
(Arti-
Once the
tion of
lift
distribu-
between
wise,*
cal
induced
drag
immediately
from Chapter VIII.
follows
FIG. 177.
however,
partly to
and
allow for
irregularities
of
lift
to the
249.
Form Drag
and 501
XI]
Q-2c
04C
455
04c
02c
-THICKNESS:
R:
10 7
X 10 7
which the experimental data generally available are not yet sufficient.
Special tests can easily be made in a laminar flow tunnel, the twodimensional conditions required enabling good Reynolds numbers
to be reached, but few of these tunnels exist.
Fig. 178 summarises
results of Squire and Young's calculations of the form drag of normal
wings, which may be used for laminar flow wings provided maximum
thicknesses are only moderately displaced backward
evidently the
;
These data can also be applied to tail-unit sections with the same
but allowances necessary for aileron, elevator and
rudder angles, excrescences and roughness are commonly considerable and should be determined by test.
What has been said of aerofoil surfaces applies in principle to
With these a tunnel test is usual, but form drag is
fuselages.*
If the shape is a very good one and free of exdifficult to infer.
crescences, a repeat test may be carried out after fairing in the wind
screen, which commonly has a large form drag, and the whole drag
then measured will be an upper limit to the skin friction. Form
drag is otherwise caused by wing roots, the downwash field, the tail
restrictions,
The first is tested principally for pitch and yaw inlarge one.
the second only at zero incidence. Wing roots, tail
creases
surfaces, and a model tail wheel may be offered up in the second case
to give some idea of the interference drag on the body.
;
It will
tail unit,
and fuselage
all
have
456
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
different
little
250. Parasite
Drag
is
parts of an
all
not,
though part
TABLE IX
Drag at optimum
incidence referred to 100
Component
.....
....
......
Fuselages
Best, high speed
:
2J
Exceptionally good
Average
Square section with protuberances
....
.
Ib.
m.p
h.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
*2J~4
4-6
....
.....
....
....
....
0-07 P,
0-16 P,
Ditto
Ditto
Shrouded aileron
slot
Non -retractable
....
....
....
....
....
undercarriage
Single-engined craft.
Twin-engined biplane
Small craft, cantilever
,,
,,
,,
tripod
,,
inferior
wing span
affected.
1-4 Ib.
20 Ib. (small craft, 6
11-14
Ib.
per sq.
area of tyre.
Ib.)
ft.
of projected
medium-size engine
Exhaust pipes, ditto engine
Radial engine cooling drag with ordinary
External
0-07-0-1 P,
Ditto
0-2 P,
Ditto
Add 15 per cent, to min. drag.
Add 12 per cent, to min. drag of
0-18 P,
including
interferences,
40
Ib.
oil-cooler,
cowling.
10 Ib.
*
Remarkably low drag of this order appears to be realised in some recent flying
boats by (a) very careful shaping, (6) reducing the beam of the hull while lengthening
the forebody to maintain planing surface (Gouge, lecture before the Roy. Aero. Soc.,
December
1936).
XI]
457
of the resistance be
is
Reports
Curve
length
(1)
-f-
010
O05 4-4
4-6
4-8*
50
52
log* (VT/V)
FIG. 179.
5-4
Fineness
Angle of Yaw
15*
it
to be
AERODYNAMICS
458
[CH.
wasteful.
The
strut of
Its
weight
causes an additional drag w/r. If
is its drag, the criterion for
is
that
be
a
minimum.
The central cross-section
efficiency
w/r
of the strut will be required to have a given minimum moment of
t
D+
(5).
interest is
log w l?
CD X
10
.4-1
.
3-00
4-2
4-3
2-58
2-14
for struts.
4-4
1-72
4-5
1-34
4-6
1-02
little
struts
and
wires.
XI]
252.
The Jones
Analysis of a
fine lines
459
Efficiency
number
of first-class
monoplanes of exceptionally
and smooth
'
TABLE x
that
account for more than one-half power and that induced drag
is very small at top speed (it would be substantially increased, of
course, at cruising speed or with a heavier wing-loading).
Various different meanings are commonly attached to the term
One, which will be distinguished as the Jones efficiency,
efficiency.
depends on the valuable conception of the streamline aeroplane* and
friction
is
defined as follows
'
where
Y]
Soc.,
May
1929.
AERODYNAMICS
460
[CH.
merit
mum
not in use
(d) mathe(c) reducing engine losses by ducted cooling
matical design of every contour to reduce form drag to a minimum
of the manner of joining one part to another to decrease
(e) study
interference increments and finally (/), in the case of craft of small
;
Drag
The number
Reynolds numbers
and various small corrections are then usefully taken into account.
When a large number of rather similar craft are dealt with, however,
for these conditions separately, since variation of
when the type is inefficient, comprising a host of parasitic resistances whose scale variations are quite unknown, labour is saved by
assembling the drags in two groups those dependent on incidence
and those which are not. Analysis shows that variation of the first
or
tail plane,
may
usually be
XI]
461
expressed as a function of
ACJA^Ci., the difference in lift cobeing reckoned from that for top speed. The form of this
function depends on the type of craft, and, unless directly calculated
for a given type, must be suggested from
experience. Examples are
efficient
given by Kerber.*
AIRSCREW INTERFERENCE
tance,
and consideration
performance calculations.
to conform with the actual velocity field in which it works, modification of blade angles will be necessary to allow the engine to develop
full power.
We first neglect all aircraft parts other than the nacelle
or body. Experiment shows that the form of the results obtained
in these simplified circumstances is retained with the
complete craft.
if
determination
of
is not
coefficients
Alternatively,
experimental
available,
we
shall
results
by
additional
calculations.
forms an
Aerodynamic Theory,
v.
V, 1935.
AERODYNAMICS
462
[CH.
Again, with both tractor and pusher type airscrews, the body is
situated in a field of augmented velocity, increased by from aV to
with a
case
and from
We
If
for no energy loss could be caused by the body, and the residual slipstream would be unchanged by it. We infer that the thrust of the
airscrew
must
introduced.*
S its maximum
cross-sectional area.
It is
assumed
T*
= _ T
I
kp (S/S
'
(359)
e)
f).
(i)
XI]
463
Next,
if
slipstream velocity
S,,
we
Da
But
Ta
F (1 +
a) 5,
2aV
or
2a
Hence
2a*
=T
a/9
V*Se
Da/D =
To take
(1
2a)
- + 2TJ 9 V*S
1
section of the
factors,
by the appreciable
we write this
:
>....
Finally, collecting from (i)
shielding reduces drag by kb D,
and
2v
^e
where C D
for the
body
is
(iii)
we have
= D(l-k +
b)
(iii),
(ii)
specified
on
(kt
S.
+ #,)
(360)
(36,)
Alternatively
say.
detail.
full b.h.p. of
the engine.
form to ensure
from
appears
experiment
of airscrew
It
464
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
The simple linear relationship (362) (see Fig. 180) has been realised
experimentally on many occasions during the past thirty years,
and it has been found to hold
2
Da
derivation.
Definition of the
coefficients is slightly
modified
With
its
this un-
Ta //>V 2 Se
position,
1-04,
FIG. 180.
0-83,
= 0-86, B =
A =
B = 0-93.
In a more
Whilst
this
Some
B=
a strip of wing of
approximately maximum chord and, at a little
distance, possibly one-third of the tail plane area.
With a singleengined aeroplane, the slipstream affects, besides the
the
fuselage,
wing
if
non-retracted, part of
XI]
466
the undercarriage, together with certain struts and wires in the case
of a biplane.
Actually, the question of precisely what components
of the after-part of a craft are affected is somewhat doubtful, for
slipstreams are found to wander. Associated with this question is
it
jection
downstream
assume that parts affected lie in the proand that the additional
velocity
mum cross-sectional area of the body is 16 sq. ft., and its drag
without airscrew 166 lb., so that C D
0*18.
In order to use J for
kpt we substitute Sa for S, in (359) and, taking Sa
64 sq. ft.,
obtain
= 0-86
method
of Article 242,
we should
find
+ 2) = r/1'2 x 115 X 64
x 550/220 = 600 this would give
a(l
and
since
T=
240
(1
+ 20) =
out of slipstream)
114 (other parts within slipstream)
and the total increase due to airscrew interference is (51
= 601 lb.,
+ 24)/(166
AERODYNAMICS
466
[CH.
balanced by extra pressure drag. Much greater airscrew interference would occur, of course, at maximum climb.
is
are
following
'
'
of
polar
CL
assumed
~ CD
for the
1-0
=
=
J
V/nD
against
propeller
working
rected
craft
at
for
the
diameter
of
r.p.s.,
cor-
on the
and a maker's curve
to
position
the
(e.g. Fig. 181 (a) ) of
b.h.p. of the engine against
n at sea-level, often called
the standard b.h.p. Other
for total
symbols are L,
lift
and weight,
T for
thrust,
ALTITUDE
10
IN
15
20
THOUSANDS OF
25
F-\/o-,
Article
81)
FT
stitute
for
n^a (cf.
V and w,
when
r
C
r\
(i)
XIJ
=
and
(ii)
467
Equation
(i)
assumed as
is
in level
H=H
engines
.f(h)
.....
One formula
is
in use for
(363)
supercharged
__
<
364 )
(363)
is
(365)
ner
275
(366 )
These last formulae depend only on the engine and airscrew, and
hence corresponding values of n and V are known, whatever C L or C D
may be knowing /(A) for a particular engine, we can construct for a
given airscrew a family of curves of V against n or /, one curve for
each altitude, which will represent the best that the engine and airscrew can do.
Now, turning to the aircraft, unless the angle of climb is steep
;
W
or in terms
of coefficients *
(367)
CL
(368)
Thus the next step is to plot a curve of k^/}* against /, which follows
immediately from the airscrew data.
Level Flight. The formulae may be used as follows. Choose a
value of K\/cr and obtain CL from (i) and C D from the polar. Find
a
Read
T // from (368) and then / from the data curve mentioned.
Jfc
* Modification for
will
be apparent.
1-6
1-2
0-8
CL
04
CHM O08
0-12
CD
(M6
O2
0-5
(W
07
0-8
0-9
AIRSCREW CURVES
(P/D-1-0)
64
ENGINE CURVES:-
SEA LEVEL
OTHER DATA>56
TOTAL WEIGHT- 10 TONS.
ENGINES: 2-800 BHP.
1700
r.p.m.
AT
G.L.,
48
/ H MAX~ "/"MAX
AS IN
(NORMALLY ASPIRATED).
S/2D
5-0
40
DHIFT.
32
20,000
FT'
24
14
FIG. 182.
fiT,
22
18
26
power
468
of the
two
engines.
30
CH. xi]
469
off
and
airscrew.
Also, from the family of curves mentioned under (366) we can plot
a family of curves of the same quantities
n^/a, for the
f(h)/n
engine.
&
are
Examples
marked
in Fig. 182.
Intersections
satisfy
(r.p.m.)A/cr
900
1500
1300
100
300
fry
the requirement
Hf\
thrust h.p. required, and
:
5.000
200
FT.
10,000 FT.
be
may
intersections
1700
150
200
Since
corresponding
V and n
now known, we can
flight values of
are
for
a
find,
instance,
unique curve of n^a
F\/cr, each point on it
representing a particular altitude
an example
IVcr
ct
E
100
-CEILING
is
given
in
noticed that n
as
183,
Fig.
50
20.500 FT
ceiling is
will
be
falls
away
18
14
increases.
FIG. 183.
corresponding value
of
30
22
182.
60 m.p.h., approximately.
and thence k^. But the value of V gives definite values of C D and
Hence v is calculated from (367) rewritten in the form
CL
_
~
This calculation
and assumption
2kT
(369)
AERODYNAMICS
470
[CH.
There
having
may sometimes be
V in
m.p.h.,
place of J.
260. Another arrangement * of the foregoing process will be
2
described briefly.
Instead of k^ and &Q we employ Tc
T/pF /)*
T = &T //
Jc
since
TF/550
= TJ# or T
pF
D =
2
7jfc
H pw*D
5
,
as
Now for any assumed value of n we can find &HO with the help of
the maker's engine test sheet, and thence J from the curve of &HO
J,
n for
finally obtaining V, so that repetition gives a curve of V
sea-level.
Different curves are required for other altitudes of
interest.
To
find these
we
and
airscrew.
Turning to the
sufficient
approximation, clearly
and putting
= drag as a
=tC^
(370)
~ V
ship
n^/a^V^/G/DJ.
(371)
Repeating this process gives the curve required, which holds for
all
altitudes.
(372)
The method of the preceding article is known as Bairstow's (cf. Applied Aerodynamics) and the present as the Lesley-Reid, N.A.C.A.T.N., 302, 1929.
XI]
471
because
is
affected
by
The
slipstreams.
following discussion
and the effect of
is
known constant
For the
V=
chosen altitude.
Then row
JnD, row
we
It is
now
to calculate
and
D =
ff
is
wing-tip vortices. If test figures are available for the wings, row
9 will be devoted to the CL 's, row 10 to the lift/drag ratios of the
-~wings, row 11 to their total glider drags (W
L/DW ), and row 12 to
D =
Z)w
D
C DO and row
it
Alternatively, row 8
12 Z)
CDO |pF 2 S.
may give
472
AERODYNAMICS
[Cfl.
For
between cos 1
and unity
will usually
change
is
T = D = D + D P1 +
[1
4(a
')],
which
may
that
Z) P2
XI]
473
On
To some extent
and
jet- airscrew
combinations.
261. Take-off and Landing
Runs
IJL
prior to take-off
W dV
L).
(i)
(i)
ldF_FW_2
~~
g
dt
g dx ~~V
and
defined as
November
VL.
1927, or Liptrot,
Handbook of
AERODYNAMICS
474
(ii)
[CH.
simplifies to
Integrating
off at
speed
first
to find
t',
V
,
0, when
Integrating alternatively from x
take-off velocity F, to find the length of run
V=
'
(373)
'
'
to
= x'
oc
'
'
<
at
374 >
greater value is allowed over bumpy ground, for the energy then
dissipated in the shock absorbers is supplied from the engine)
.
lift coefficients
and lift-drag ratios are so much larger at,
incidence near the ground than in free air, that an aircraft
be well clear before reaching its normal stalling speed. Tests f
But
85).
say, 15
may
Unfortunately,
effects in different
variation in pilots'
*
different
aircraft
evince
these
non-calculable
out by Tomotika, Nagamiya, and Takenouti, Tokyo Repts. 97, 1933 and 120, 1935.
t
Rolinson,
loc. cit., p.
122.
XI]
that
it
Where
shall clear
there
475
is little
Many
efficients
of the
are high
when
Force co-
retardation is
undercarriages permit
greater on slightly rough ground, leading to less run, provided the
wheels hold the surface. In a difficult high-speed case the angular
and vertical motions of the craft after first touching must be worked
out from instant to instant in connection with the proper design of
the shock absorbers, smooth ground being assumed but variations
;
Aerodynamic
craft require
262.
oil
an
aircraft of the
of non-stop flight
is
is
usually sufficient,
it
of fuel per b.h.p. (H) per hour, and is assumed for present purposes to include lubricant. The rate of variation of the gross weight
in regard to distance % flown through the air is dW/dx
CH/V.
Ib.
We reckon
= WV
CW
Integrating on the assumption that the coefficient of
constant, and changing the log. from base e
*
*
An
= 863-5
log
loF
is
kept
(375)
by Fairey
(Sir
AERODYNAMICS
476
where Wi
the
is
initial gross
weight and
[CH.
minimum when
mum.
is
(hours)
dWjdt
in the air,
we may proceed
~*~CH leads to
as follows.
The equation
dt
CW
60
'
88
where S
376Y}(L/D)
the wing area, the factor 60/88 taking account of
is
Hence
in m.pJh.
V being
*-=
<#
550
maximum
giving for
maximum.
When
this is
Again we note
10
15
20
FIG.
184.
25
10
0-8
0-6
0*4
0-2
THROTTLED B.H.R/NQRMAL
THE AVERAGE ALTITUDE VARIATION is FOR NORMALLY ASPIRATED
ALTITUDE (THOUSANDS OF
FT.)
XI]
477
first
AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY
efficiency now to be discussed differs in nature from
that described in Article 262, being the aeronautical adaptation of
262A.
The
Let
be the total weight of an aircraft, including its load, and
% the distance traversed horizontally through a still atmosphere at
and % as of equal value, the useful
a true air speed V. Regarding
The work done
result achieved is expressed by the product Wx.
are incurred in
losses
is
Dx
but
the
D
Aerodynamical
drag
against
the
D.
If
T
thrust
a
propulsive efficiency YJ takes
providing
of
these
additional
account
losses, the total work done is
separate
71
L~~
~ WV D
TT/ij
W (tons)
x V
(m.p.h.)
b.h.p.
'
of
an
aircraft
jet or
by
L
n*ii.
1
...
AERODYNAMICS
478
[CH.
'
'
and
ton-miles per b.h.p.-hour
is seen to be closely equal to
y) A
proportional to 'ton-miles per gallon/ In early days of heavierthan-air flying, TQ A provided a target of 100 per cent, which was
difficult for aeroplanes to surpass.
But this position has long ceased
to hold,
between
In the
figure of merit,
Thus plotting
This basis
is
and give weight to high speeds. The family of curves for various
sizes has been prepared by scaling down known data for large
airships.
It has also
mately as
and
is
L \^AB,
of the
air
is
equal to
'- "
Thus the maximum L/D
l/2^/AB and
is
___
__
8,
at
feathered to give zero thrust, and then adding 8 per cent, to the
theoretical minimum for the induced drag leads to the following
:
(AB)W=
1/36;
A = 2-16/w F, = 24-6^
F = 1300 w/a
per sec.)
1/2
(ft.
where
(m.p.h.)
2
;
XI]
479
and 50
40,
speeds
power, of aeroplanes
With airscrew
effects
excluded, these rates will differ little from maximum rates of climb.
Let v be the rate in feet per minute. Then approximately
V_
if
is
Writing k for
V */w
VQ
__~~
(LfD) max.J
550 LZ/D
by
(ii)
~~
Wv
33000*
AERODYNAMICS
480
50
100
[CH.
200
150
300
250
W=
to 40 lb. per sq. ft. increases the ton-miles per gallon by about
16 per cent, for the same initial rate of climb, in spite of the top
for
maximum
values
by
glider
L/D and A.
They
geometrical shape.
L/D
against
may equally
CL
be
YJ
'
TJ
73
b.h.p.
XI]
481
on giving
Hence the
by the factor
2(LfD) max.
__
/F
y +~~7~7y +
\v)
Z>!
\yj
Lf
ll
2fT/
2}
plv
fW
L/D!
giving
0-972(L/Z)).
weight and a
lift/drag ratio.
Turning to climb at
to
>
A.D.
Wv/QOVQt where
16
Z) a
482
AERODYNAMICS
glider drag
the factor
[CH.
"*"
Thus, writing
J!_\
60 F /-
2LD
max
drag by
we
readily find
60 F
For a
applies,
and with w
Putting v
1500
ft.
series
to which Fig.
F=
per sq.
and/ =
min. gives L/D = 14-7. The
20
Ib.
per
ft.
184A
2, closely.
maximum
to 0-944 X
17,
whence
it is
as already described.
By
Article
==
W, T
=D
b.h.p.
for straight level
tons >
Yj\/a
x v
b.h.p.
PV
Let any point A on the efficiency curve subtend at the origin the
with the Fr axis. Then the value of C required
angle
by the
and
A
is
to
wing-loading
speed specified by
equal
(tan 6) xfy, the
XI]
483
FIG. 184s.
scale of
7)
speed for
a radial line
air
and that
of
Vy
t
units of length.
known
found by drawing
tan" 1 Cy/x to intersect the efficiency curve. More generally, information regarding the power units enables CV to be plotted
against Vi in Fig. 184B as a sequence of curves, one for each
4
so
for
any
altitude
correction for
AERODYNAMICS
484
[CH.
m.p.h.
/~
l~\
17
4^o^
ft
L
Hence
WThe
7)
as
tan
6.
Bv
altitude
of speed.
In this form
it
will
be
the
KK)
300
MILES PER HOUR
200
FIG. 184c.
400
500
XI]
486
As an example
improvement
illustration.
AERODYNAMICS
486
[CH.
(L/D) max.
~~~A
16-5
w
(ii)
Table X, p. 459.
consist of eliminating roughness,
(2) Let the first improvement
tractor airscrews, non-ducted reciprocating engine cooling, and an
suggests a reduction of
exposed tail wheel. Inspection of Table
cent.,
i.e.
to 0-0072.
Reynolds number
Another consequence is
for the normal wings
'
C DP
'
Hence
ment
Vv
mph
C DO
FIG. 184D,
whence
(i)
0-0104,
gives (L/D)max.
23-4.
XI]
487
Efficiency curves for the three cases can be constructed from these
data very rapidly, as described. In Fig. 184D the percentage
increase of TQ A /TQ for the two improvements is plotted against the
indicated air speed. Normal wings are retained for the dotted
curve, and two alternative locations are shown for the local increase of
efficiency due to laminar flow wings, the one to the left in the figure
being suitable for high altitude flying. The extent of the alternative
favourable ranges is conjectural and remains matter for design.
The
more
effective
263.
is
earlier
example of
FIG. 185.
900 sq.
ft.,
minimum
488
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
modern
points of
Aerodynamic
performance follows
interest.
minimum
Turning to rate of climb, the type is greatly inferior to the aeroplane class, owing to very poor efficiency at the forward speed giving
maximum reserve power for climbing. The L/D of a complete autogyro is then little more than 5, and consequently even an inefficient
aeroplane of the same weight and power climbs twice as fast.
Maximum climb will be found to occur at about two-thirds speed, as
with aeroplanes.
At greater speeds the L/D of the rotor rises, attaining a maximum
(say 8) just before top speed is reached. At present, the resulting
decrease of rotor drag approximately offsets increase of parasite
drag, so that over-all L/D is ultimately little less than at maximum
XI]
489
climb.
efficiency
in prospect.
evitable, but
no more
aeroplane.
vide the most efficient and the safest means of high-speed transport
that at present it is possible to conceive.
In this duty we have
seen
that
the
cannot
already
airship
compete. A similar disability
arises with the autogyro from the fact that disc
loading must increase
high-speed
aeroplane
demands
large,
prepared
aerodromes,
tion.
more
efficient
further developed
available,
it
is
can-
le*
AERODYNAMICS
490
[CH.
level flight,
pilot,
The
The
altimeter
written
is
jet propulsion,
a pressure gauge,
correctly
273
Po
'
'
'
TABLE B
PlPo
ff
Vt
N\/G
b.h.p.
-y/a.
XlJ
The
original data
491
pressure, density,
flight,
diately follows.
satisfy Table
TABLE C
hA
V,
Time
t
The aneroid
rate of climb
is
to hA
(min.)
differ
by
otherwise the records may be plotted and small changes read from
the curves. The nature of the correction required may be visualised
the altimeter,
po
This equation
may
of climb
is
A/*A <r',
given by
dh
a'
dhA
dt
dt
492
AERODYNAMICS
follows
by summation.
is
[CH. XI
Article 81).
(a)
Fig. 186A.
standard conditions.
which
is
also plotted
standardises
The speed
is
from Table B.
maximum
maximum
speed under
read from
speed performance.
extends the method to climb.
Simple development
Chapter
XII
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
264. Complete discussion of aerial safety
stability
mass.
hands of the pilot, and depends upon the provision of controls which
The third
will remain adequate in rather extreme circumstances.
is
with
concerned
consideration
specifying what
Aerodynamic
accelerations are to be expected from the response of a craft to
disturbances (such as gusts) or the reasonable exercise of its controls,
so that the structure may be designed to have sufficient strength.
After introductory articles, we shall proceed, in the first place, to
rigorous study of inherent stability in straight flight. The theory
and application of the method are due, following pioneering work by
Lanchester and others, to Bryan,* and to Bairstow f and his
collaborators at the N.P.L. As shown by the dates given, the theory
one of the oldest of Aerodynamics. But, though not difficult
is
AERODYNAMICS
494
[CH.
to the
large number of
any, first occurs and from what causes.
factors affect stability, and all must be retained in the examination
But several are of little importance, and may
of a border-line case.
if
265.
The motion
resultant force
C.G.
We
of the C.G. of
approximately downwards
in
normal
flight
Ox
495
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
FIG. 186.
denoted by
and positive
Moments are
(<\>)
these
about Ox
angular
(rolling),
displacements.
M about
Oy
(pitching), JV
about
arise.
of
yaw =
Damping
v/V.
Factor.
Let
be the
initial
real part)
Assuming the motion to be
damping
w will have decayed to
at
which
the
time
us
calculate
damped, let
== M, or
\ii.
Taking logarithms, log
is
called the
factor.
0-69
For the disturbance to be damped, the real part of X must be negative, and then the time to half-disturbance varies inversely as the
damping factor. If the motion is unstable, the time to double
disturbance follows in a similar way.
AERODYNAMICS
496
If
[CH.
X be complex, let X
If
=A
e (*
+ iB
Then
iB.
e"(cos Bt
+ i sin Bt)
and, as
increases, 4*
is
W = Weight of aeroplane.
c).
jx
lift
Jc
necessary,
though
insufficient,
condition
for
longitudinal
complicated.
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
497
'
C.G.
is
Aerodynamic centre
only
For equilibrium at
Tail
V and
X -^-=-
lift
4- bk*.
AL, O
pF*5c
On assuming
Article 87)
ra' (a
a,
e)
km0
+ ba(a
On
T#' (a
a,
*)
).
be represented by an
ba(<x,
(i)
Existence of a righting moment requires the L.H.S. of (i) to increase more rapidly with a than the R.H.S., i.e. differentiating with
respect to a
'(^l
\
or from
(i)
ds
~Tj >ba
'
'
t^
(11)
again
i.e.
>
a,
oc
e.
Equilibrium-^
(iii)
zero
resultant
moment and
on
this
equilibrium
account.
The
apparent
or
dihedral
a, is
first
by
QC O
geometric
increased
(<x
being
e,
the effective
give
for
dihedral,
only when
the wings are at incidence a
FIG.
187.
'
<*t
to
e will their
moment
vanish.
AERODYNAMICS
498
It will
be seen that
de/dv, constant.
is
(iii)
[CH.
However, from
(ii)
the righting
moment
is
propor-
tional to
and the factor within the brackets is about 0-65 for normal monoplanes and 0-5 for biplanes (Articles 189, 192), so that S' must be'
increased on this score. The same principle holds for tail-first
aeroplanes, an old type recently revived and improved, but their
'
forward stabilisers work in an upwash which, in contrast with downwash, increases efficiency (usually by some 7 per cent.).*
It is to be noted that the simple idea developed in this article,
though useful in connection with certain compact types of craft,
cannot be applied directly to modern high-speed monoplanes, in
which the unstable moment of body and engine nacelles alone may
easily exceed that of the wings. f
The Short
267.
Oscillation
of pitch
and
pitching.
Oz'
;
z'
components increase to
and w + 8w.
Resolving
FIG. 188.
*
t Cf.
J
U+
in
is
the
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
499
U and
du/dt,
when
dw
The increase
downward force
of
2
pF S
is
# Aa, while
Aa
= w/V.
Therefore
.
The angular
acceleration
One moment
is rf?/^.
in this direction
is
2
plane by IqfV, and amounts to
pF S'/ a'(lq/V) in the sense of a
Hence
to the present approximation
increasing.
.
"
dt
(i)
and
(ii)
iik 2
da
vci
From
these follow
two expressions
dw
~~Vdt +
Differentiate
T---
= w dkm
(iii)
__
for q
~~'
~yl
and substitute
dP
'
/w dkm
\l T*
for dq/dt
""
yjtf
dq\
Vc
dt)
from
(v),
(V)
obtaining
(378)
where
__
/T0'c
(x
Au
#\
//
(vi)
C
v\
/T<W'
.^^_
^^m\
obtained for
q.
AERODYNAMICS
500
damping
factor
[CH.
whence
The form
The motion
is
>
= - tf
X/F
JF
268.
is
the
damping
if,
and 2n/(}V
factor
is
Examples
The following
M,
SIS'
klc
He
a'
dk m !da
5ft.
10
1-0
2-8
0-28
1-6
-0-12
From
(vi)
we
= 0-0378, = 0-00062.
find
73
Hence
-=
X/F
The time
2-64
sees.
of
0-0189
a complete
The damping
0-0162*.
oscillation
factor
27c/(0-0162 x 146-7)
2-77.
X 146-7
0-0189
or
sec.,
< 0-1
t.
decrease in
damping
are
increase of
(JL,
i.e.
increase of
wing loading
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
501
may
wind
again.
stopping the
The airscrew
axis,
fall
which
Aerodynamic force
is
and
lift.
it
It is
The motion
is
* Aerial
Flight, v, 2
"
:
Aerodonetics," 1908.
moment of inertia,
502
and
AERODYNAMICS
kinetic energy,
craft increase
which
is
W(V +
by u. The K.E.
by WVu/g, and
increases
u)*/2g, i.e.
Wh + WVu/g =
Owing to constancy
conservative.
by h while speed
from WV'ftg to
[CH.
0.
(i)
of kL
= W(V + w)VF = W + W
8L = L-~W=-W. 2gh/V*
Lift (L)
or
increases
2u/V
.
(ii)
..__)
2g/
Form
of
the
Oscillation.
= 7^2 -V = 0-138
From
V.
(i),
u/h
(380)'
v
= g/V = constant,
also simple-harmonic, 90
out of
phase with the vertical displacement. Let u t be the maximum
the semi-amplitudes of the motion of the
velocity variation and x lt
C.G. of the craft relative to axes moving
uniformly with velocity V
and periodically coinciding with axes fixed in the craft. We have
xl
1*^/27* or, since n x
gh^V and from (380)
is
V2 -times
FIG. 189.
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
503
changes would evidently occur. Other damping arises from incidence changes, here excluded. It is not necessary for the
phugoid
oscillation to exist
its
place at high
speed.
270.
Classical Equations
We
asym-
- g sin
0.
g cos
+ X. =
+Z =
M. = 0,
(i)
W
=
W
,
(i)
are
Equations
appearing along Ox, Oz, and
These are found, as in Article 267, to be
no longer
about Oy.
satisfied, accelerations
+ Wq = duldt +
dU/dt
Wq,
dW/dt
Uq,
dq/dt.
Each
by u
first
order
we have
along Ox,
for example,
- g sin
becomes
+ X. - g cos
6.
+ uXu + wXw + qX
AERODYNAMICS
504
and the
first
[CH.
(i).
equations
(381)
and an appropriate
add to the last equation a
in detail later
We
also
might
term representing an instantaneous movement of the elevator
a fourth equation might be framed for the propeller thrust.
Equations (381) determine u, w, q as functions of /. Any two
variables may be eliminated in turn in the usual manner, and a
differential equation of the same form results for u, w, or q, viz.
;
f(D)
(u,
w, or
= 0,
q}
u^
u^
u^
X2 ^',
-X
M
etc.,
may
\-Za
Ma
expansion
this
equation
A^ + B K +
Q
where the
tions of
gcosd a -l(Xq
g
sin
X5
X(Z,
-W
+U
a)
(382)
9)
XM,
be arranged as
may
CX +D
whence
etc.,
-X.
- Z.
On
"ku
+E =
(383)
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
605
occurs
___
75
/"*
T"\
T~\
/QQ*A\
T^ 271^
The demonstration
coefficients.
is
It is convenient,
X M
The
named
is
it
>
X=A
makes
for clearness
When U
changes
mX =
%X ?
mXu - w-
--
UQ
Jc
D pU
S provided
f
Hence
2fcD p[7
S.
CD).
Now
time
Xu has
in the non-dimensional
tg
system
=,
(385)
W/gpVS.
* Loc.
cit., p.
381
....
of
(386)
AERODYNAMICS
506
[CH.
and the
....
sec. if
p^W/gpSl
as in Article 267.
The
significance of
(z,
of size,
coefficient
jfc
Qt
R pF S
2
cos OQ
(387)
= W cos
by
.
lift
(388)
coefficient, and, if
F*S
F
'
(cf.
will
'
'
by
gravity.
Finally,
moments
= _ mXJpVSl.
B=
kBml*,
form
coefficient,
of longitudinal stability
(382)
becomes
~~
JI
^'
(391)
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
507
**
>u
fife tan
X
**
mw
=
X)
(392)
(393)
*mq
Expansion gives
which
in
ff
.....
),
still
rather involved.
It is
lt
(XB
The
first
lX
CJ
X"
+ - ll
~ ll
X
(395)
may
take
oscillations.
negative.
the approximation in (395) the conditions for
stability are
and (C 1D 1
seen that
[JL
might be included.
(396)
is
altitude.
new
is
X=X'* pf
= f/t.
(397)
AERODYNAMICS
508
and we have,
if
is
or
[CH.
= 0-637
ENGINE-OFF STABILITY
274. Force Derivatives
increase
ze>
- mZ - L +
...
IS)
D.
(ii)
Z and X,
called the
as follows.
By differentiation
of
~~
(i)
~~"
8w\
V\da
whence
This result
is
simplified
ately small incidences
by the
Proceeding in this
#u
way we
2k D
find
(398)
zw
while
it
>
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
Moment
275.
509
Derivatives
One moment,
vanishes in gliding
ut
easily determined
Another,
flight.
mw
is
by experiment, or can be
calculated roughly, in
favourable circumstances, on lines indicated by Article 266. If
Tcm is the coefficient of resultant
moment, we have
Mw
__
__
and now
if
9M
AB pF2 5/
3oc
dkm
kB l
do.
__
'
kB pVSl
we have
tail contribute,
clearly,
from
Article 266
m = Fz
~~
d~)
~~ ba
'
'
40
mq and m^.
276.
The
a more or
less
transverse
its
C.G.
are
in
are obtained
complete model
axis
through
Two methods
use.
The model
be oscillated freely
means
of a spring and
by
the logarithmic decrement
may
of
amplitudes of successive
swings. Mechanical friction accounts for some of
the
observed damping,
but is allowed for by
repeating the experiment
in still air. In the alternative
forced
FIG. 190.
oscillation
AERODYNAMICS
510
[CH.
maximum synchronous
vibration, the amplitude (0J and period (t) of which are observed.
If v denote the damping due to the wind, Vj that due to friction, and
0! the
vt
it is
A.|.
(401)
two quantities
reason is
with other variables kept constant. But in the experiment a varies
as well as q.
Moreover, the time 8t taken by a change of downwash
8s due to change of wing incidence to travel from wings to tail is so
considerable that the tail meanwhile changes its incidence appreciNow q results almost entirely from the tail, and downwash
ably.
&=
ljV
we
find Sa
(l/V)
and
Iq
dz
tail
incidence
is
increased from
Iq/V to
Iq
ds
i.e.
to be decreased
by about
this conclusion.*
Finally,
is
'
by the
one-third.
(403)
=
*
^-
Aerodynamic Theory,
vol. v, p. 51.
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
whence
<m
=/
511
....
r-rTfl
(404)
M + M (de/d)
Since q
(402).
d and a (when q
de
= 0) = w/V,
Hence
=m
The
effect
derivative
277.
is
(rfe/rfa)
.....
(405)
this additional
to
Example
of
H
12
It is
dkj
a"
k^
*D
*t
0-075
0-258
0-025
0-1
assumed
0-35
(400)
and
mw =
We
3(0-333
Neglecting
of (394)
m^
0-65
= 0-2 m
=
&R tan
0-15)
=l.
kL kD /kL ==
approximation
in gliding flight.
we find for the approximate stability coefficients
also have to a
&D while mu
close
B =
2kD + a + m = 3-05,
=
am + \wiw = 4-4,
C
=
D m {2ka - 2^(2^ E = 2i>.klmw = 0-32.
l
is
Hence
1)}
3jxfcD
ww
== 0-36.
AERODYNAMICS
612
Routh's discriminant
B^C-iPi
is
ZV
BI*EI
[Cfi.
= 4-83
3-05X
2-98
0-13
by
+ 4-4=0
or
The period
1-525
because
tQ
1-525
17-6
\ A/9-30
1-44*.
is
13-8/^pF
(sec.)
v
'
= 5-2,
The time to
1-2.
tQ
1-44
half-disturbance
is
% sec.
278.
nearly.
(set.)
Similarly, the
is
common
factor in
units
^407)
;
,
is
Li~ii
- J_
(406)
= 2-47tV'4-4/0-32 = 28.
2CV
to'
evaluating to
this gives
(sec.)
damping
= 27tf VC
phugoid
4X
0-36
2
1-2
X
is
3-05
XOJ2 =
19-36
0-69/0-0131
= 53 sees.
Luw
^Y
(408)
g
that simple and preThis result should be compared with (380)
to
be
of
the
is
increased
estimate
by the factor under
period
liminary
the radical. A rough formula for the second term of this factor in
the case of a monoplane having unimportant pitching moments
from the body and engine nacelles is easily obtained from (400) and
;
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
613
Thus,
fib), where /3 will be of the order 6.
(404) as (0/(ji)/(0-65
a
craft
of
considering
given weight and shape, moving the C.G. back
may soon produce a long period. If w vanish, no oscillation will
Then
occur.
moment
is
of inertia
no longer
is
likely to
make
amplitude.
279.
up to
The
able.
flight
incidence, but errors then begin to become apprecimethod ceases to be useful near the stall. Nothing
or 10
may become
Tail Level.
on account
'
obviate the
first loss
except
by
tail-first
conflicting
in
regard
to
tail
at
large incidences
through passing into the wake,
decrease of downwash failing
situated
effects
are illustrated in
191.
Fig.
10
FIG. 191.
A.D.
17
20
Incidence
AERODYNAMICS
614
[CH.
With wings having very sharp taper, stall may set in from the
* and the above transition be
delayed. Sharp taper is also
associated with a concentration of downwash behind the central
tips
part of the span. Tail location for biplanes is governed by the fact
that the lower wing usually stalls late.
It will be deduced that a rather low position for the tail plane is
usually preferable from the present point of view. However, this
In regard to
iv ,
Moment
Derivatives
stability
at large incidences that elevators
of normal size soon fail to be able
normally takes
trated in Fig.
the
192.
m + m^,
form illusNear the
has
but
little
is
20
10
of
the
wings.
may
Incidence
VARIATION OF m q WITH
INCIDENCE (TYPICAL).
FIG. 192.
First
approximations
damping
and long
moment
Instability
K+
a)
and
factors
of
to
the
the short
The large increase of drag at stall tends to keep the phugoid stable,
and the trouble is seen to be concerned with the short oscillation,
normally so strongly damped. The question is intimately concerned
with the shape of the lift curve at the critical angle, i.e. on the
violence of the stall.
from the
it
sets in
trailing edge
38 1. Level Flight
It is by no means certain that an aeroplane which is satisfactory
when gliding will maintain stability when the engines are opened out
*
516
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
The
summarised
below
further study
t
gliding, vanishes, thereby reducing the stability coefficient
Several important changes affect the tail plane, assumed to lie in
the slipstream. The first is an increase of downwash, which is
.
volved
mw
which
to estimate
if
*--7-2P*
Besides
its
effect
on
mu
tail
plane increase
mu is
dT/dV
formula for xu to
'
'
'
(4 8)
gliding
j-p
'
'
(410)
two
282.
cases.
High Speeds
On resolving
for the
to be proportional to kD as a first
a
result
that
may be compared with a remark at the
approximation,
end of Article 269. It is somewhat unfortunate that stability, from
the present point of view, decreases as the craft becomes more
speeds.
efficient.
Putting a
is
616
AERODYNAMICS
On kL
[CH.
by that
of
and stability, as
more determined
speed attains high values and
methods
allowance
is
elevators.
284. Climbing
DI and
result
is
The
positive
is
seen to diminish
is
to decrease the
the decrease
is
of
Xo^W /*
1
1
*
If
we
y =
define
.c//i
(412)
is the Aerodynamic
where k is the radius of gyration, so that
but the
centre, we find that mw and mq will depend on
Q and Y
The question of stability can be exhibited
other derivatives on kL
by plotting curves against Qt Y as co-ordinates, kL and
being
Routh's discriminant
supposed constant. The composite curve
jR t
o and E 1
0, will represent a dividing line or boundary
between stability and instability.
If, for example, we assume (400) and (404) to hold without an
(JL
A.R.C.R.&M.,
1118,
1921
517
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
monoplane
in
which a
= 25 =
lie
kL and
JA.
But
kL
The broken line indicates the approxima.
tion to
R!
given in
\
Crossing
(396).
towards the right in the
figure means that a dithe
occurs,
vergence
shaded
curves
being
towards the stable region,
and
and both C 1
X
FIG. 193.
E =
B =
F=
FIG. 194.
great
altitude,
El
given
by
Gates,*
who
boundary curves
for
A.D.
17*
518
AERODYNAMICS
[CH.
LATERAL STABILITY
286. Introduction
From a mathematical point of view, the conditions for asymmetric stability are, with little error in normal flight,
formally the
same as those for longitudinal stability. The quite different relationships between corresponding derivatives, however, change the
physical aspect completely.
The aeroplane is conceived to be flying straight in its plane of
geometric symmetry when lateral balance is disturbed. The
this
past the
It
stall.
is
and the
tail plane,
(b)
and yaw.
Thus
be apparent that
fins in
Lv and
v.
Secondary
fins
modern
types,
(a) and (b) alone, however, are at the designer's
in
disposal
regard to stability ; they are adjusted to take secondary
fin effects into account and the latter will be omitted from discussion
for clearness.
It is
important to
is critical.
equivalent
balancing of
fin surface
A craft left with positive roll sideslips to the right, and the
yaw produces lateral forces on the
fins.
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
519
(comprising the actual fin and the rudder) turns the craft into a
right-hand turn suitable for the existing bank. The left-hand wingtip now moves with excess speed, and asymmetric lift may increase
fin
both bank and sideslip. The resulting spiral flight is seen to follow
too strong a directional stability in the static sense. On the other
hand, much too far forward a position for the C.P. of the lateral
forces
spinning dive.
considerations
No
definite result
it is
not occur in a craft that was prone to spin. The latter defect being,
however, uncommon, the oscillation is usually present, and may, on
occasion, become noticeable, when sufficient (though not too great)
static instability exists, together with an exaggerated dihedral.
this as factor
U,r
'
dr/dt
-W p-g
-E
dp/dt
-E
cos 0,
X<,
= vY + pYp + rY,
= vL + pLp + rL
(413)
= vN + pNp + rN,
dfy/dt and r = cos
dfy/dt while
dr/dt
dp/dt
sin
p = d<f>/dt
we can substitute for $ from
in which, since
d<f>/dt
(f>
cos
<
<h
cos
r sin
way
(414)
AERODYNAMICS
520
[CH.
-sin0 -X(Y,-C7
x-y.
**v
XM
XL,
-N..
-KE
X2V
XlE
XL,
(415)
X*C-->JV,
-x'-K
(Jt*
nf
/
,/
X
_
z,
*V
AR tan
X (^f
,\
|x
(i
-^
(416)
W
n
z
y,
m
by which
is
yv
of zw9
yp that
of xqt etc.
Wind Axes
case, so that C7
yp = y = 0,
f
=V
(416)
reduces to
I.
XnA
which expands to
X4
X3
C t X'
Bt
C,
>t
= p + n +y
(=
approx.)
- l,np + y p + n - tin,
=
= %(/A - 4^) - jin (^ - iL tan
- tan (/^ - ^,)}.
= P*L{ft*r l
(/^fir
pt
v (l
r)
Glauert,
loc. cit.,
p. 493.
(394).
(419)
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
The
aircraft is stable
ZV
BfE*
521
if
= Bf D
t
in
is
normal
p,
to be divided out.
approximately, enabling the factor (X
lp)
Associated with the spiral disturbance a small root occurs, closely
of value
EifDi, which can also be extracted.
There is left a quadratic, representing in usual circumstances the
To a first and rather rough approximation this
lateral oscillation.
is
Xi
7?
#2
i=s0
7r
#2
(420)
The magnitude of the damping factor calculated from this approximation errs on the wrong side for safety. If the quadratic has real
roots,
it
290. Discussion in
The condition
Terms
for
of the Derivatives
lv
and
....
n,>l,nv
is
The
first
(421)
two
More
(nr
- np tan
>n
9 (l,
is
stability
is
little
tan
f)
more
(422)
difficult to secure
during climbing.
The quadratic (420) is easily investigated once the stability coefficients have been evaluated in a given case.
That it should have a
pair of complex roots will be found to depend on nvt if positive, not
exceeding a small fraction of /. This value must be reduced considerably if the oscillation is to decay quickly, though it need not
become negative, i.e. static directional stability may not be necessary.
Change of sign of
Article 93.
*l
near the
stall
in
AERODYNAMICS
522
291.
[CH.
Example
Some
^
8
*L
'
1-
lr
lp
-2
-I
**
nr
Vv
Va
flight
J5,
C,
/;,
*.
6-46
5-79
15-38
-0-67
is
6-46
15-38
(15-38)
(6-46)'
0-67,
damped.
approximately
Xa
+ 0-9X +
we have
2-4
or
0-45
1-45*.
less
8L
If c
(f)
an element
and & L
may
rolling
- fy)
(F
moment
4 9 VrkL cy*ty.
=f
where
s is
we note
that
P
M
^Jo
Otherwise, consider-
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
523
whence,
(r)
= 2pFri LO Sy;.
Finally
~~ ~~
~~"W
which y
Wfe^
elliptic
|s.
analogous to
CONTROLS
293. The functions
of
Aerodynamic controls
in steady flight
under
first
maximum
the consideration that small elevators deprive the pilot of the means
of quick recovery from accidental stall, caused, for example, by the
sudden failure of an engine with a high thrust line. The ailerons,
greater lift exerts the greater drag. The yawing is corrected by use
of the rudder.
The necessity for this correction may be overcome
by a spoiler operating on the depressed wing, but synchronous rudder
movement appears
*
Relf,
to have
become
& M.
809, 1921.
AERODYNAMICS
524
[CH.
duced to prevent
hinge
elastic flutter.
is
control surfaces of
(b)
strength,
to
operate
controls
quickly
Stalling
FIG.
195.
(a)
(c)
FRISE TYPE
AILERON
gust
is
'
variables.
when not
in use.
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
'
625
rudder
is
commonly
In normal disturbed
flight,
though
power of the
ample
correct
by
slow spiral
control
by
divergence
may
it
is
&
528
AERODYNAMICS
and long
[CH.
much
the
known
The
narrows, large centrifugal couples tend to lift the nose of the craft,
and in some cases to increase the rate of spin rapidly. At a large
incidence, in the neighbourhood of 45, the elevators may not be
able to check this tendency. The rate of descent then decreases,
but the rate of spin increases from perhaps 20 r.p.m. to 60 r.p.m.,
and the only chance of control lies in the rudder. Detailed analysis
must be left to further reading, but has not yet proceeded very far.
dynamics
maximum
is
likely
SAFETY IN FLIGHT
XII]
527
to be called
factor.
lift
Thus the
may
beam
like a
its
photographed on a moving
is
A'B'C'D
and the
a typical
centrifugal force,
Fig. 196
film.
is
Time
FIG. 196.
Each of the
loop
C, spin
intervals A, B,
;
B,
g.
Even
AERODYNAMICS
528
[CH. XII
A growing
be unstable.
lift
if
relative wind.
To
number
will suffice.
use of the
method
The labour
of solution
of operators introduced
is
greatly reduced by
the theory
by Heaviside,*
A.R.C.R.
&
May
1936.
AUTHOR INDEX
The numbers
Abbot, 406
Ackeret, J., 264
Aihara, T., 253
Beavan,
Busemann,
A.,
266
refer to pages.
Gray,
W.
386
E.,
H
Hagen, G., 350
Handley Page, Sir
Hansen, M., 385
F.,
161
Houghton, R., 6
Howarth, L., 393, 421
Hugoniot, 116
Hyde, G. A., 106
Imai,
I.,
253
D
Diehl,
W.
S.,
Douglas, G.
Dryden, H.
Drzewieki,
454
P., 442,
L., 412
S.,
443
430
Eiffel, G.,
68
629
AUTHOR INDEX
530
Keune, 224
Klemin, A., 528
Kutta, W., 221
Lachmann, G.
Lamb, Sir H.,
V.,
498
Langley, 68
Lavender, T., 397, 623
Lees, C. H., 352, 357
Lesley, E. P., 470
Levy, H., 604
Lindsey, W. F., 262
Lilienthal, O., 68
Liptrot, R. N., 473
Littell, R. E., 262
Lock, C. N. H., 106, 430, 446
623
Reynolds, O., 60, 350, 399
Riaboushinsky, D., 254
Richardson, E. G., 290, 369, 379, 395
Rolinson, D., 149
Routh, E. J., 280, 505
Rubach, 291
Saph, 351
Schlichting, H., 405
Schoder, 351
M
Maas,
Van
der, 452
Maxwell,
J. C., 29,
32
Mines, R., 44
Mises, R. v., 234
Munk, M.,
Thomson,
328, 498
N
474
Nazir, P. P., 162, 514
Nikuradse, 392
Nagamiya,
T.,
351
G. A., 442
Phillips, H., 118
Piercy, N. A. V., 44, 53, 151, 212, 219,
Pannell,
J. R.,
Perring,
W.
415
W., 212
Pohlhausen, K., 394
Piper, R.
R
W. J. M., 116, 188, 267, 426
Rayleigh, Lord, 32, 58, 117, 188, 253, 367
Reid, E. G., 470
Young, A. D.,
Rankine,
Zijnen, 386
89, 395,
396
SUBJECT INDEX
The numbers
refer to pages.
Atmosphere, standard, 16
isothermal, 13
Atmospheric tunnel, 71
Autogyro, 446, 487
of aerofoil, 296
Accelerometer, 527
Ackeret's theory, 264
Actuator, 425
Acyclic flow, 171
Adiabatic flow, 37
Aerodynamic
Autorotation, 160
Balance, aerodynamic, 82
Balloons, 8, 18
Bank, angle of, 167
Bernoulli's equation, 35,
186, 251, 426, etc.
Biplane, 123
smoothness, 404
Aerofoil characteristics, preliminary, 89
shaping, 207, 210, 215, 219, 225, 414,
417, 423
testing, 80, 106, 335, 413
theory, 194, 237, 259, 309, 412, 424
velocity curves, 416
Aerofoils, Joukowski, 203, 221
Karman-Trefftz, 210, 219, 224
Blockage, 108
Boundary,
26,
364
layer, 52, 219;
control, 419
et seq.
Buoyancy,
8,
18
439
163,
Breakaway,
static thrust,
50,
definitions, 327
factor, 330, 454
of least drag, 331
theory, 370
40,
438
Chattock gauge, 6
Airships,
631
generation
of,
296
persistence
of,
248
366
SUBJECT INDEX
532
Circulation
and
contd
lift
wind, 148
diagram, 492
Complex
464
flap, 134
flat plate, 99, 370, 385, 387,
variable, 180
398
normal
velocity, 181
plate, 198
parallel walls, 280
Constraint, tunnel, 108, 113, 276, 304,
66,
335
166, 245
152, 158, 161,
of, 44,
Continuity, equation
Controls, 119, 129, 133,
623
Convergent flow,
514
Density, definition,
of air, 2
of hydrogen and helium, 8
of water, 6
variation of in air flow, 37, 103, 116,
247, 253, 259
with altitude, 17, 67, 490
Derivatives, 505, 608, 614, 521
Descending flight, 146, 155, 158
Downwash,
components
of, 66,
D
Damping
364
424
wing, 315
Endurance, 476
Engine failure, 145
performance, 466, 471, 476, 485
Equal wing biplane, 332
Equipotentials, 164
Equivalence theorem, Munk's, 328
Equivalent monoplane aspect ratio, 463
Experiment, methods of, 61, 68, 304,
378, 386, 407, 509, 526
at high speeds, 103
Experimental mean pitch, 429
Fairing, 68
Fin, 119, 146, 454, 518
Fineness ratio, 176, 211, 467
Flaps, 133
Flat core in pipe, 356
Flat plate glider drag, 452
Flat plate boundary layer, 372, 388, 392
friction, 373, 383, 386, 388
'
'
SUBJECT INDEX
633
Flow over
Karman
trail, 292
Karman-Trefftz aerofoils, 210, 224
approximate formulae for, 211
Kelvin's theorem, 248
Kinematic coefficient of viscosity, 59, 67
Kinetic energy of irrotational flow, 192
minimum, 193, 312
of slipstream, 427
of trailing vortices, 299
Gap, 327
Gas laws,
13, 15
theorem, 259
508
Gliders, 148
Gliding, 146
H
Handley Page
slot,
161
43, 379
Hydraulic analogy, 254
mean depth, 355
Hydrostatic equation, 5
Hyperbola, inversion of, 212, 225
Hyperbolic channel, 186
Laminar
373, 392
wings, 412
sub-layer, 353
Landing conditions, 132
run, 473
128
and
488
elliptic,
Isothermal flow, 37
314
on
rolling
moment, 523
M
Jet constraint, 338
propulsion, 142, 452, 484
Joukowski transformation formula, 203
aerofoils, 204, 221
approximate formulae for, 206
Mach number,
64, 103,
423
angle, 262
Maxwell's law, 31
Maximum velocity ratio, 220, 417, 423
thickness location, 206, 210, 215, 219,
414, 418
SUBJECT INDEX
534
Mean camber, 224
motion, equations
of,
399
Minimum
Moment,
pitching,
239, 418, 495
92,
119,
152,
233,
Monoplane
219
34
static, 2, 17,
coefficients of, 75
rolling, 158, 162, 495, 522
yawing, 146, 168, 495, 623
Momentum
strut,
thickness, 391
theory, equations of, 311
theory of viscosity, 27
Non-dimensional
Normal
O
Open jet tunnel, 74, 97
constraint, 338
Operational methods, 528
Orthogonal biplane, 327
Oscillation, see phugoid, short,
Oseen's approximation, 369
for flat plate, 370
Oval cylinder, 1 75
etc.
R
Range, 475
Rankine-Hugoniot law, 116
Rankine's method, 187
vortex, 267
Rarefied air tunnel, 104
Rayleigh's formula, 68
Rectangular aerofoil, 323
Reduction formulae, 317
Relative density, of air, 17, 44
of aeroplane, 496, 506
'
Parachute, 57
Parallel flow, see laminar
Path lines, 24, 189, 274, 282, 287
Parasite drag, 77, 137, 456, 460
Performance, prediction of, 451, 466,
471, 482
reduction of, to standard conditions,
148, 489
Phugoid oscillation, 501, 507, 512, 525
Piercy aerofoils, 207, 212, 219, 225, 410,
413
approximate formulae
for, 215,
and
vorticity, 51
at supersonic speed, 114
-static tube, 43
tube, 41
fractional,
379
227
407, 410
Second problem, aerofoil theory,' 312
Sesqiii-plane, 327
Seventh-root law, 352, 387
Shock stall, 113, 262, 442
wave, 106, 112, 115, 262, 266, 423
Short oscillation, 498, 507, 512, 625
Singular points, 198, 216, 286
Sink, 168
Slip,
absence
of, 25,
350
of airscrew, 429
Slipstream, 425, 463, 465, 472, 480
coefficient,
reduction
of,
transitional,
on wings, 411
389
SUBJECT INDEX
and
et seq.
sink, 171
Span-grading, 323
-loading, 315
Specific consumption, 476
atmospheric, 20
coefficients, 504, 507, 511,
520
Stalling,
63,
67,
485
U
Uniform
lift, 300
Upgust, 319, 528
Upward wind, 148
494
Velocity amplitude, 368, 395
defect,
T
Tail angle, 210, 214
efficiency,
513
210,
point, 386
Symmetric
535
403
of,
27-31
636
SUBJECT INDEX
W
Wake
blockage, 108
effect
on
on pressures, 393
tail plane,
513
-making
resistance, 65
Waves in water
Wind axes, 495
effects
on
channel, 256
flight,
148
Yaw,