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b) Derive the Numerical Aperture of a Step Index Fiber (SIF) from Snells law
Most of the fibers are made up of glass consisting of either Silica (SiO 2) or
Silicate. High-loss glass fibers are used for short -transmission distances and low
-loss glass fibers are used for long distance applications. Plastic fibers are less
used because of their higher attenuation than glass fibers.
The glass fibers are made from oxides. The most common oxide is silica
whose refractive index is 1.458 at 850 nm. To get different index fibers, the
dopants such as GeO2, P2O5 are added to silica. GeO2 and P2O3 increase the
refractive index whereas fluorine or B 203 decreases the refractive index. Few fiber
compositions are given below as follows,
GeO2 SiO2 Core: SiO2 Cladding
P2Q5 SiO2, Core: SiO2 Cladding
The principle raw material for silica is sand. The glass composed of pure silica is
referred to as silica glass, nitrous silica or fused silica. Some desirable properties
of silica are
(i) Resistance to deformation at temperature as high as 1000C.
(ii) High resistance to breakage from thermal shock.
(iii) Good chemical durability.
(iv) High transparency in both the visible and infrared regions.
Material dispersion is also called as chromatic dispersion. Material dispersion exists due
to change in index of refraction for different wavelengths. A light ray contains components of
various wavelengths centered at wavelength 10. The time delay is different for different
wavelength components.
Negative sign shows that the upper sideband signal (lowest wavelength) arrives before the
lower sideband (highest wavelength).
A plot of material dispersion and wavelength is shown in Fig. 2.6.3
Estimate rms pulse broadening/km for good LED source with an rms spectral
width of 20nm at this wavelength.
Fiber Splices
A permanent or semi permanent connection between two individual optical
fibers is known as fiber splice. And the process of joining two fibers is called as
splicing. Typically, a splice is used outside the buildings and connectors are used to
join the cables within the buildings. Splices offer lower attenuation and lower back
reflection than connectors and are less expensive.
Types of Splicing
There are two main types of splicing
i) Fusion splicing. ii) Mechanical splicing / V groove
Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing involves butting two cleaned fiber end faces and heating them
until they melt together or fuse. Fusion splicing is normally done with a fusion splicer
that controls the alignment of the two fibers to keep losses as low as 0.05 dB. Fiber
ends are first pre aligned and butted together under a microscope with
micromanipulators. The butted joint is heated with electric arc or laser pulse to melt
the fiber ends so can be bonded together. Fig. 4.2.1 shows fusion splicing of optical
fibers.
4 b) Give comparison between LED and LASER diode considering the different
parameters.
5 Write a note on
i) Power launching versus wavelength
excess power loss in terms of the fiber numerical aperture. The optical power in the
fiber after the launched modes have come to equilibrium is,
Where,
P50 = Power expected in the fiber at 50m point based up on the launch
NA = Equilibrium numerical aperture
The power coupled into the fiber, when the light emitting area of the LED is less than
the cross-sectional area of the fiber-core is given by,
PLED = P50 (NA)
Where NA=NAin
Fiber optic transmission also supports analog links i.e. voice channels. The
performance of analog receiver is measured in terms of S/N ratio (ratio of mean
square signal current to mean square noise current).
The current generated at optical receiver by analog optical signal is given as
where,
Ip is primary photocurrent.
ID is primary dark current.
IL is surface leakage current.
F (M) is photodiode noise factor.
B is effective noise BW.
Req is equivalent resistance of photo detector and amplifier.
Ft is noise figure of baseband amplifier.
7. Derive an expression for the total system rise time budget in terms of
Rise time gives important information for initial system design. Rise-time
budget analysis determines the dispersion limitation of an optical fiber link.
Total rise time of a fiber link is the root-sum- square of rise time of each
contributor to the pulse rise time degradation.
The link components must be switched fast enough and the fiber dispersion
must be low enough to meet the bandwidth requirements of the application
adequate bandwidth for a system can be assured by developing a rise time
budget.
As the light sources and detectors has a finite response time to inputs. The
device does not turn-on or turn-off instantaneously. Rise time and fall time
determines the overall response time and hence the resulting bandwidth.
Connectors, couplers and splices do not affect system speed, they need not be
accounted in rise time budget but they appear in the link power budget. Four
basic elements that contributes to the rise-time are,
- Transmitter rise-time (ttx)
- Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD) rise time (tGVD)
- Modal dispersion rise time of fiber (tmod)
- Receiver rise time (trx)
------ (1)
------ (2)
where,
BM is bandwidth (MHz)
L is length of fiber (km)
q is a parameter ranging between 0.5 and 1.
B0 is bandwidth of 1 km length fiber
------ (3)
where,
D is dispersion [ns/(nm.km)]
is half-power spectral width of source
L is length of fiber
------ (4)
where,
Brx is 3 dB bW of receiver (MHz).
Signal encoding uses a set of rules for arranging the signal symbols in a
particular pattern. This process is called channel or line coding.
The three basic types of two-level binary line codes that can be used for
optical fiber transmission links are the Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) format,
Return-to-Zero (RZ) format, and the Phase-Encoded (PE) format. In NRZ
codes a transmitted data bit occupies a full bit period. For RZ formats the
pulse width is less than a full bit period. In PE format both full-width and
half-width data bits are present.
The simplest NRZ code is NRZ-level (NRZ-L) is shown in figure 8-7. For
a serial data stream an on-off signal represents a 1 by a pulse of current or
light filling an entire bit period, whereas for a 0 no pulse is transmitted.
The minimum bandwidth is needed with NRZ coding, but the average
power input to the receiver is dependent on the data pattern. For example,
a high level of received power occurring in a long string of consecutive 1
bits can result in baseline wander effect, as shown in fig 8-8. This effect
results from the accumulation of pulse trails that arise from the lowfrequency characteristics of the ac coupling filter in the receiver.
SET-2
1 a) Explain the Ray theory of the optical fiber with the help of a neat sketch.
The speed of light depends upon the material or medium through which it is moving.
In free space light travels at its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103
miles/sec. When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by
laws of reflection, refraction.
Reflection
The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface
at some incident angle 1 from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be
reflected from the surface at some angle 2 from normal which is equal to the angle of
incidence. The below figure shows law of reflection.
Refraction
Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light
ray changes its direction at interface. Refraction occurs whenever density of medium
changes. E.g. refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will
appear as it is bent. The refraction can also observed at air and glass interface.
When wave passes through less dense medium to denser medium, the wave is
refracted (bent) towards the normal. The below figure shows the refraction
phenomena.
The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in
different mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass.
Refractive Index
The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of
different densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials.
Refractive index is also known as index of refraction and is denoted by n.
Based on material density, the refractive index is expressed as the ratio of the
velocity of light in free space to the velocity of light of the dielectric material
(substance).
The refractive index for vacuum and air is 1.0 for water it is 1.3 and for glass
refractive index is 1.5.
Snells Law
Snells law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media having
different indexes of refraction.
Let the two medias have refractive indexes n1 and n2 where n1 > n2.
1 and 2 be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. Then
according to Snells law, a relationship exists between the refractive index of both
materials given by,
Critical Angle
When the angle of incidence (1) is progressively increased, there will be progressive
increase of refractive angle (2). At some condition (1) the refractive angle (2)
becomes 90o to the normal. When this happens the refracted light ray travels along the
interface. The angle of incidence (1) at the point at which the refractive angle (1)
becomes 90 degree is called the critical angle. It is denoted by c.
The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (1) at which the ray
strikes the interface of two media and causes an angle of refraction (2) equal to 90 o.
Figure below5 shows critical angle refraction
When the incident angle is increase beyond the critical angle, the light ray does not pass
through the interface into the other medium. This gives the effect of mirror exist at the
interface with no possibility of light escaping outside the medium. In this condition angle
of reflection (2) is equal to angle of incidence (1). This action is called as Total
Internal Reflection (TIR) of the beam. It is TIR that leads to the propagation of waves
within fiber-cable medium. TIR can be observed only in materials in which the velocity
of light is less than in air.
The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light
gathering capability. Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light
accepted by fiber. The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to be
entering the fiber and hence there is relation between the numerical aperture and the cone
of acceptance.
1 b) A silica glass fibers has a core refractive index of 1.5 and the cladding refractive
index of 1.45 calculate
i) Critical angle for the core- cladding interface
ii) The NA of the fiber and
iii) Percentage of light collected by the fiber.
2 a) Discuss the cutoff wave length for a step index fiber. Determine the cutoff wave
Length for a step index fiber to exhibit single mode operation when the core
refractive index and radius are 1.46 and 4.5m respectively with the relative index
difference being 0.25%.
4 a) Explain the following briefly i) Single mode fiber joint ii) Multimode fiber joint
is optical field confinement factor or the fraction of optical power in the active layer.
is effective absorption coefficient of material.
g is gain coefficient.
h v is photon energy.
z is distance traverses along the lasing cavity.
Lasing (light amplification) occurs when gain of modes exceeds above optical loss
during
one round trip through the cavity i.e. Z = 2L. If R1 and R2 are the mirror reflectivitys
of the two ends of laser diode. Now the expression for lasing expressing is modified as,
Where,
end is mirror loss in lasing cavity.
An important condition for lasing to occur is that gain, g g th i.e. threshold gain.
Where,
T = Transverse power distribution coefficient
L = Lateral power distribution coefficient.
For edge emitter L=1 and T is significantly large value.
where,
A is photodiode area.
0 is incident photon flux per unit area.
1 The diffusion current density is expressed as
where,
Dp is hole diffusion coefficient.
Pn is hole concentration in n-type material.
Pn0 is equilibrium hole density.
Substituting in equation 3.2.7, total current density through reverse biased depletion
layer
is
The diffusion process is slow and diffusion times are less than carrier drift time. By
considering the photodiode response time the effect of diffusion can be calculated.
Fig. 3.2.4 shows the response time of photodiode which is not fully depleted.
The detector behaves as a simple low pass RC filter having pass band of
where,
RT, is combination input resistance of load and amplifier.
CT is sum of photodiode and amplifier capacitance.
7 a) Discuss the component choices a system designer has when selecting components
for an optical fiber communication systems.
The system designer has many choices when selecting components for an optical fiber
system. The major components choices are
Optical Fiber Type and Parameters
Multimode or single mode, size, refractive index, attenuation, dispersion, mode
coupling, strength, joints etc.
Source Type
Laser or LED, optical power launched into the fiber, rise and fall time, stability etc.,
Transmitter Configuration
Design for digital or analog, input impedance, supply voltage, dynamic range, feedback.
Detector Type and Characteristics
p-n, p-i-n or avalanche photodiode, response time, active diameter, bias voltage, dark current
Receiver Configuration
Preamplifier design, BER, SNR, range etc.
Modulation and Coding
Source intensity modulation, pulse frequency modulation, PWM and PPM transmission.
Digital transmission or analog transmission such as biphase scheme and FM respectively.
These decisions will be taken depending on the system performance, ready availability of
suitable components and cost.
b) Write a note on system design consideration.
The design of an optical fiber link involves many considerations regarding the fiber,
source and photo detector operation and performance characteristics. Expected life time
with performance and cost constrains were considered while designing a fiber link. The
system considerations are choosing the transmitting wave length and components that
operates in this region. The wavelength range 800-900 nm is chosen for shorter distances
and 1300-1550 nm for longer distances with low attenuation and dispersion.
Next, we consider receiver, transmitter and implement them on a fiber to check whether
the desired performance characteristics are obtainable or not. We first select a photo
detector. In doing so, we should determine the minimum detectable optical power in order
to satisfy Bit Error Rate at specified data rate. Cost and complexity are also considered
here. The systems considerations with cheap and less complex one is preferred. P-i-n
diodes are used as they are simple, high temperature tolerance, less bias voltages. APD's
are used to detect low power levels which are not done by P-i-n.
Next, we choose the transmitting elements. While choosing LED or laser, we should
consider data rate, dispersion, cost, and transmission distances. Laser provides the
advantage of longer repeater less transmission distance and low dispersion. LED's offer
low cost and simpler circuitry.
Next we have to choose an optical fiber that may be single mode or multimode with step
or graded index core. The choice is made depending on dispersion tolerance and type of
source. Edge emitting LED's along with single mode fiber launches sufficient power and
support transmission data rates >500 Mbps. LED's can be used with multimode fibers.
While choosing attenuation characteristics of fiber, we should consider cabling process
loss, and fiber attenuation, connector loss, splice loss and losses due to atmospheric
conditions also.
After considering a system satisfying above conditions, the "Link power Budget"
and "Rise time budget" techniques are used to ensure the desired performance
characteristics are met or not.
Each of the streams could be a different data rate. Each information stream maintains its
individual data rate after being multiplexed with other streams and operates at its unique
wavelength. The basic of WDM has to use multiple sources operating at slightly different
wavelengths to transmit and WDM must be properly spaced to avoid inter channel
interference.
As said, we need a variety of word patterns to measure the performance of a system using
eye-pattern technique, these word patterns are provided by pseudo random bit generator.
This pseudo random data (bit) pattern generator produces a random data signal that contains
1's and 0's in a random fashion providing uniform data rate. The random data from pseudo
random data pattern generator is applied to the vertical input of CRO and the data rate
triggers the horizontal sweep. This generates an eye-pattern. For example, consider 8
possible 3-bit NRZ patterns as shown in following figure 8.10.2.
An eye pattern is obtained by superimposing the above 8 patterns as shown in figure 8.10.3
The eye-width opening defines the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) error free sampling
rate of signal.
The best sampling rate is obtained when the height of eye is maximum.
The system's sensitivity to time is determined by the closing rate of eye for a variation in
sampling period.
One can also get rise and fall times of the system from the pattern.
Bit Error Rate (BER) is also estimated from the patterns and it can be reduced by
inserting a small amount of redundancy into the transmitted pulse train.
SET-3
1 a) Explain what is meant by graded index optical fiber using simple ray theory
concept. Indicate the major advantages of this type of fiber with regard to
multimode propagation.
A dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies is known as optical fiber. It is
generally available in cylindrical form.
Graded Index Fiber
Graded index fiber also contains single mode and multimode. The multimode graded
index fiber is shown below,
In graded index fiber, the refractive index of the core is made to vary as a function of
radial distance taken from the center of the fiber as shown in the equation below:
Multimode graded index fibers have the advantage of large core diameters
(greater than 30 m) coupled with bandwidths suitable for long distance
communication.
1 b) A step index multimode fiber with a NA of 0.2 supports approximately 1000 modes
at 850nm wavelength. What is the diameter of its core? How many modes do the
fiber supports at 1320nm and at 1550nm?
In order to find the MFD for field intensity E (r) must be calculated by using E (r)
MFD can be calculated as,
MFD = 20
Since most resonances sharply peaked, narrow window exist in the longer
wavelength region around 1.3 and 1.55m which are essentially unaffected by
7
OH absorption, once the impurity, level has been reduced below one part in 10 .
This situation is illustrated in. figure (b) which shows the attenuation spectrum of
an ultra-low-loss single mode fiber.
It may be observed that the lowest attenuation for this fiber occurs at a
wavelength of 1.55m and is 0.2dB/km.
It is defined as the pulse spreading that occurs because of the changes in group
velocity as a function of wavelength occurring within an individual mode (i.e.,
single mode).
Since this distortion depends on wavelength, its effects on the signal distortion by
increasing with the spectral width of the optical source.
Material Dispersion
It is the pulse spreading that occurs when the different wavelengths follow the
same path.
It causes a wavelength impendence of the group velocity of any given mode. The
main cause of material dispersion is the variations in the refractive index of the
core material as a function of wavelength.
Waveguide Dispersion
It occurs because of the inability of the single mode fiber to confine the total
optical power in its core.
Practically it is formed that the single mode fiber can confine up to a maximum
of 80% of optical power in its core. So the remaining 20% of light travelling in
the cladding travels faster than the light in the core and giving rise to a dispersion
called waveguide dispersion.
It depends on the fiber design.
All the spectral components travel independently and they observe different time
delay and group delay in the direction of propagation.
The velocity at which the energy in a pulse travels along the fiber is known as
group velocity. Group velocity is given by,
where,
Then,
(ii)
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from
LED to the number of photons generated internally. It is given by equation
LASER Diodes
Double Hetero junction Laser
The isotope p-p junction has a potential barrier within the structure. The
structure is capable of confining min carriers to small active region called
cavity.
It effectively reduces the diffusion length of the carrier and thus the volume
of the structure where radioactive recombination may occur.
Figures show the schematic layer structure, energy band diagram and
refractive index profile, for a double hetero junction injection laser diode with
biasing. The laser oscillations take place in the central p-type GaAs region
which is known as active layer.
There is hetero junction at the both sides of the active layer. A forward bias
voltage is applied by connecting the positive electrode of the power supply
voltage to the P-side of the structure and negative electrode to the n-side
when a voltage which is almost equal to the band gap energy.
The hetero junctions are used to provide potential barrier in the injection
laser. In this structure it is possible to obtain both carrier and optical
containment to the active layer.
Since the fiber acceptance angle is smaller than the angular output distribution of the
laser and since the fiber core is much greater than the laser emitted area, spherical (or)
cylindrical lenses (or) optical fiber tapers can also be used to improve the coupling
efficiency between edge emitting laser diodes and optical fibers.
This phenomenon also works well for Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers
(VCSELs). Here the outcome 35% of coupling efficiencies to multimode fibers for
mass-produced connections of laser arrays to parallel optical fibers are possible by
direct coupling from a single Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)
source to a multimode fiber.
6 a) With a neat block diagram explain the digital signal transmission through an
optical data link.
The optical fiber transmission link is shown below,
Here a two level binary signal is used for transmission purpose. The two levels are
represented by 1 and 0 respectively.
Each level has finite time duration known as bit period Tb. The stream of ls and 0's
are transmitted using amplitude shift keying modulation technique.
In ASK the voltage has two levels which are V volts for binary 1 and 0 volts for
binary 0. Corresponding to these voltage levels the optical source will produce
pulses of optical power.
These pulses are coupled to an optical fiber and are transmitted. The signal gets
attenuated for various reasons and therefore it is distorted. The below figure 6.2.2
shows a block diagram of an optical receiver.
At the receiver the distorted signal is coupled to a photo detector generally a pin
diode which produces an electric current which is equivalent to the incoming signal.
The amplifier and filter removes noise and amplifies the signal. The decision making
device gives output binary 1 for a voltage V and 0 for a voltage 0 respectively.
At the signal processing circuiting the signal is demodulated thus producing the
desired output.
Errors in detection mechanism can arise from various noises and disturbances
associated with the signal detection system, as shown in figure.
The term noise is used customarily to describe unwanted components of an electric
signal that tend to disturb the transmission and processing of the signal in a physical
system, and over which we have incomplete control.
The noise sources can be either external to the system or internal to the system. The
two most common noises are shot noise and thermal noise.
Shot noise arises in electronic devices since of the discrete nature of current flow in the
device.
Thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor. The random
arrival rate of signal photons produces a quantum or shot noise at the photo detector.
Since this noise depends on the signal level, it is of particular importance for pin
receivers that have large optical levels and for avalanche photodiode receivers.
An additional photo detector noise comes from the dark current and leakage current.
These are independent of photodiode illumination and can generally be made very
small in relation to other noise currents by a judicious choice of components.
Thermal noises arising from the detector load resistor and from the amplifier
electronics tend to dominate in application with low signal-to-noise ratio when a pin
photodiode is used.
When an avalanche photodiode is used in low Optical signal level applications the
optimum avalanche gain is determined by a design tradeoff between the thermal noise
and gain-dependent quantum noise.
A further error source is attributed to inter symbol interference (ISI) which results front
pulse spreading in the optical fiber.
In addition to losses, a link power margin is provided in the analysis to allow for
component aging, temperature fluctuation and losses arising from components
that might be added in future.
The link loss budget considers the total optical power loss PT that allowed
between the light source and photo detector.
This loss is allocated to cable attenuation, connector loss, splicing loss and
system margin. The total power loss in the link is given by,
Where,
Ps = Optical power emerging from the end of
a fiber fly lead. PR = Receiver sensitivity
lc = Connector loss
f = Fiber attenuation in dB/km
L = Transmission distance.
8 a) Explain any one method used for attenuation measurements in a optical system.
Attenuation measurement
Experimental setup for Cutback Technique
Fiber is passed through S-shaped groove cut in the Teflon in a cladding mode
stripper device through which radiation removes light launched into the fiber
and then sends to index matched-glycerin.
A p-i-n (or) avalanche photodiode is used to detect the optical power at the
receiving end.
At last the output from photo detector is fed to a lock-in amplifier and this
output is recorded. The relationship optical attenuation per unit length for the
fiber is
Where,
L1 = Original fiber length
L2 = Cutback fiber length
Po1 = Output optical power from original fiber
Po2 = Output optical power from cutback fiber.
b) Explain how noise margin timing jitter & rise time can be measured with the help
of simplified Eye diagram.
Refer to 8(b) of Set-2, Reg/NOV 2014.
SET-4
1 a) Explain the structure of single mode and multimode step index and graded
index optical fibers with cross section and Ray path.
Single mode Step index Fiber
In single mode step index fiber has a central core that is sufficiently small so that
there is essentially only one path for light ray through the cable. The light ray is
propagated in the fiber through reflection. Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 m.
Single mode fiber will permit only one mode to propagate and does not suffer from
mode delay differences.
The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small size
interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult. Another
disadvantage of single mode fibers is that as the refractive index of glass decreases
with optical wavelength, the light velocity will also be wavelength dependent. Thus
the light from an optical transmitter will have definite spectral width.
Multimode step index fiber is more widely used type. It is easy to manufacture. Its core
diameter is 50 to 1000 m i.e. large aperture and allows more light to enter the cable. The
light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner. There are many paths that a
light ray may follow during the propagation.
The light ray is propagated using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR). Since the
core index of refraction is higher than the cladding index of refraction, the light enters at
less than critical angle is guided along the fiber.
Light rays passing through the fiber are continuously reflected off the glass cladding
towards the centre of the core at different angles and lengths, limiting overall bandwidth.
The disadvantage of multimode step index fibers is that the different optical lengths
caused by various angles at which light is propagated relative to the core, causes the
transmission bandwidth to be fairly small. Because of these limitations, multimode step
index fiber is typically only used in applications requiring distances of less than 1 km.
The core size of multimode graded index fiber cable is varying from 50 to 100 m range.
The light ray is propagated through the refraction.
The light ray enters the fiber at many different angles. As the light propagates across the
core toward the center it is intersecting a less dense to more dense medium.
Therefore the light rays are being constantly being refracted and ray is bending
continuously. This cable is mostly used for long distance communication.
Figure below shows the light trajectory in detail. It is seen that light rays running close to
the fiber axis with shorter path length, will have a lower velocity because they pass
through a region with a high refractive index.
1 b) With the help of neat sketch explain the phenomenon of mode coupling in fiber.
Waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis from straightness,
variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the corecladding interface and
refractive index variations may change the propagation characteristics of the fiber.
These will have the effect of coupling energy traveling in one mode to another
depending on the specific perturbation.
It may be observed from the above figure that in both cases the ray no longer
maintains the same angle with the axis.
In electromagnetic wave theory this corresponds to a change in the propagating mode
for the light.
Thus individual modes do not normally propagate throughout the length of the fiber
without large energy transfers to adjacent modes, even when the fiber is
exceptionally good quality and is not strained or bent by its surroundings.
This mode conversion is known as mode coupling or mixing.
of silica and even a 1 mm diameter graded index plastic optical fiber can be
installed in conventional fiber cable routes.
The diameter of the core of these fibers is 10-20 times larger than that of glass
fiber which reduces the connector losses without sacrificing coupling
efficiencies. So we can use inexpensive connectors, splices and transceivers
made up of plastic injection-molding technology.
Graded index plastic optical fiber is in great demand in customer premises to
deliver high-speed services due to its high bandwidth
Chalgenide glass fibers are discovered in order to make use of the nonlinear
properties of glass fibers.
It contains either "S", "Se" or "Te", because they are highly nonlinear and it also
contains one element from Cl, "Br, Cd,Ba orSi.
The mostly used Chalgenide glass is AS2- S3, AS40S58Se2 is used to make the
core and AS2S3 is used to make the cladding material of the glass fiber. The
insertion loss is around 1 dB/m.
b) Explain the following parameters of optical fiber. (i) Absorption (ii) Scattering loss
(i) Absorption
Refer to 2(b) of Set-3, Reg/NOV 2014.
(ii)Scattering loss
Rayleigh Scattering Losses
These two effects results to variation in refractive index and Rayleigh type
scattering of light.
Rayleigh scattering of light is due to small localized changes in the refractive index
of the core and cladding material. There are two causes during the manufacturing of
fiber.
The first is due to slight fluctuation in mixing of ingredients. The random changes
because of this are impossible to eliminate completely.
The other cause is slight change in density as the silica cools and solidifies. When
light ray strikes such zones it gets scattered in all directions.
The amount of scatter depends on the size of the discontinuity compared with the
wavelength of the light so the shortest wavelength (highest frequency) suffers most
scattering. Fig. 2.3.1 shows graphically the relationship between wavelength and
Rayleigh scattering loss.
Linear scattering also occurs at in homogeneities and these arise from imperfections in
the fibers geometry, irregularities in the refractive index and the presence of bubbles
etc. caused during manufacture.
Dispersion is caused by difference in the propagation times of light rays that takes
different paths during the propagation.
The light pulses travelling down the fiber encounter dispersion effect because of this
the pulse spreads out in time domain.
Dispersion limits the information bandwidth. The distortion effects can be analyzed
by studying the group velocities in guided modes.
Connectors are mechanisms or techniques used to join an optical fiber to another fiber
or to a fiber optic component.
Various fiber optic connectors from different manufacturers are available SMA 906, ST,
Biconic, FC, D4, HMS-10, SC, FDDI, ESCON, EC/RACE.
Fiber is epoxies into precision hole and ferrules arc used for each fiber. The fibers
are secured in a precision alignment sleeve. Butt joints are used for single mode as
well as for multimode fiber systems. Two commonly used butt-joint alignment
designs are:
Straight-Sleeve.
Tapered-Sleeve/Bi conical.
In straight sleeve mechanism, the length of the sleeve and guided ferrules determines
the end separation of two fibers. Fig. 3.1 shows straight sleeve alignment mechanism
of fiber optic connectors
Principle:
Material absorption light than emitting. Three different fundamental process occurs
between the two energy states of an atom.
1) Absorption
2) Spontaneous emission
3) Stimulated emission.
Laser action is the result of three process absorption of energy packets (photons)
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. (These processes are represented by
the simple two-energy-level diagrams).
Where, E1 is the lower state energy level.
E2 is the higher state energy level.
Quantum theory states that any atom exists only in certain discrete energy state,
absorption or emission of light causes them to make a transition from one state to
another. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the
difference in energy E between the two states.
An atom is initially in the lower energy state, when the photon with energy (E2 E1)
is incident on the atom it will be excited into the higher energy state E2 through the
absorption of the photon.
When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2, it can make a transition to the
lower energy state E1 providing the emission of a photon at a frequency
corresponding to E = h.f. The emission process can occur in two ways.
A) By spontaneous emission in which the atom returns to the lower energy
state in random manner.
B) By stimulated emission when a photon having equal energy to the
difference between the two states (E2 E1) interacts with the atom causing
it to the lower state with the creation of the second photon.
It means that when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the
liberated energy can add to the wave in constructive manner. The emitted light is
bounced back and forth internally between two reflecting surface.
The bouncing back and forth of light wave cause their intensity to reinforce and buildup. The result in a high brilliance, single frequency light beam providing
amplification.
The higher order modes travelling in outer regions of the core, will travel
faster than the lower order modes travelling in high refractive index region. If the
index profile is carefully controlled, then the transit times of the individual modes
will be identical, so eliminating modal dispersion.
The r.m.s pulse broadening is given as :
The intermodal delay and pulse broadening are related by expression given by Personick
Since the spectral width of a high quality source occupies only a narrow optical
bandwidth. The two loss windows provide many additional operating regions. The
light source, each emitting at different peak wavelengths is sufficiently spaced to
avoid interference.
Fixed frequency spacing is selected because the operating mode of laser is locked,
which means the frequency of the laser is fixed.
At the transmitter end, there are several modulated light sources which emit signals at
different wavelength. A multiplexer is used to combine these signals into a spectrum
of closed wavelength signals and mix them into a single fiber.
At the receiver, the demultiplexer separates the optical signal into appropriate
detection channels for signal processing. A variety of active and passive devices are
required to implement WDM networks.
The passive devices require no external control for their operation. The active devices
can be controlled electronically. Hence they provide a degree of network flexibility.