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Back to Basics
From Materials Evaluation, Vol. 61, No. 6, pp: 660-663.
Copyright 2003 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Fluorescent Penetrant Testing and

Color Vision Deficiencies
by William H. Bailey*

Some time ago, I took a vision

test for color blindness. I found
that I could not see several of the
numbers in the little colored circles.
I have been concerned about this
defect in my vision until this article by Bailey explained it. Maybe
there is something here for you too.

Frank A. Iddings
Tutorial Projects Editor

Introduction
nspectors of various materials and in
different industries have one thing in
common. They must have the ability to
see adequately in order to conduct the
proper testing of products, items or systems being fabricated or installed. Based on
many inherent factors, the inspector may
be requested or required to pass a normal
or, in some cases, a special vision test. Individuals working in the field of nondestructive testing (NDT) are generally required to
be certified to the quality of their vision capabilities by specifications used in their
specific area of employment.

Vision Testing
Vision requirements for NDT inspectors
is a topic given little attention over the
years. It is usually assumed that if the inspector is able to pass the normal vision
test given by the average optometrist, then
the inspector would also be qualified to do
fluorescent penetrant testing. Most optometrists know very little about NDT requirements and do not attempt to assist
companies in providing vision tests sufficient to meet specifications. For example,
most are not familiar with the use of ultraviolet light for testing parts or the limitations of color deficient personnel who may
* 1162 Dover Center Road, Westlake, OH 441451315; (440) 835-4017; e-mail <wbailey@quack
.nacs.net>.
660 Materials Evaluation/June 2003

be using the equipment. The test usually

covers vision acuity, where the inspector
must read a specific print size at an acceptable distance, usually 305 to 381 mm (12 to
15 in.). The color vision portion of the examination normally consists of reading at least
14 of 36 pseudo-isochromatic plates. The
number of missed plates, 22 of 36, would be
61.1% of the total. This percentage, when
considered as 22 missed indications, cannot
be considered acceptable when testing materials that may be used in the manufacture
of critical parts for aerospace or aircraft,
pressure vessels or vehicles.

Stringent color vision

testing is necessary
when safety is a major
concern.

In todays field of electronics, color coding is essential. In the fabrication of highly

stressed pressure vessels, the piping and
various assemblies are connected to each
other and are usually assigned particular
color codes for what they convey and
where they are going. Inspectors with only
a 38.9% acceptable color vision rating (having read 14 of 36 correct plates) should not
be considered acceptable. Stringent color
vision testing is necessary when safety is a
major concern. In many cases, tests are carried out at different stages of processing or
fabrication in order to ensure that the final
product is safe for use.
Background
In 1966, a report was issued that described how the Navy was attempting to
design a method of testing personnel and
placing them for specific jobs (Paulson,
1966). Those who took the color vision tests

and would normally have been rejected by

the pseudo-isochromatic plates could still
be deemed acceptable for some jobs. This
routine testing was designed to pass those
with normal vision and fail all those who
were color deficient. Ten percent of the applicants failed. With the new tests described in the report, 30% of the color deficient applicants were found to be
acceptable for specific job placements.
These tests had been used since 1955.
The tests and equipment were developed for Navy use by Commander Dean
Farnsworth while he was stationed at the
Naval Laboratory. Subsequently, based on
this work and the development of the
Farnsworth-Munsell l00-Hue and Dichotomous Tests for Color Vision
(Farnsworth, 1943) and Deane B. Judds
work (1943 and 1945), the Farnsworth Dichotomous Test for Color Blindness, Panel D-15
(Farnsworth, 1947) was created. This test
was designed to distinguish the differences
in visual ability between individuals who
are functionally colorblind or moderately
color deficient and those having normal
color vision. Those individuals with color
deficiencies can view similar hues under
variable conditions and see different colors.
Red and green, blue and green, blue and
pink, yellow and blue, green and brown,
and tan and amber are some of the combinations that get mixed. The test was not designed to separate the partially colorblind
from those with normal vision nor to identify the color aptitude of the persons with
normal vision.
Likewise, selecting people for color
matching, grading or other work requiring
special color differentiation would have to
use individualized special testing. The test
can quickly separate individuals into three
categories: normal, colorblind and partially
color deficient. The color deficient group
may further be subdivided into the color
mix that they misinterpret. Color discrimination begins to descend in desirability
when using northern daylight, daylight
blue incandescent lamps, daylight fluorescents and ordinary incandescent lamps.
The testing of individuals with a moderate
color deficiency and the color range of indications all fall within the parameters of

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Figure 1 Components of the human eye in cross section.

their deficiencies. This alludes to a poor
combination of color deficient inspectors in
an area where the colors are the most difficult for them to identify. Whether the contrast ratio offsets the color deficiency of the
inhibited inspector has not yet been explored, but should not be forgotten.
Physiological Factors
There are two standard eye responses. At
luminance levels above 3 cd/m2 (0.3 cd/ft2),
the eyes spectral response is primarily determined by the cone shaped receptors of
the retina and is called the photopic response. At luminance levels much lower,
such as 30 cd/m2 (3 cd/ft2), the rod
shaped receptors respond and they are
more sensitive in the blue color spectrum.
This is called scotopic response. The rod receptors are more sensitive to light than the
cone receptors (Ness, 1987). Luminance
levels to which the eye responds with a
variable spectral response are called
mesopic. They range from approximately
680 to 1746 lm/W. Observations made utilizing the cone receptors require photopic
conditions or the foveal area of the retina,
with the rod receptors at the near threshold
illumination level surrounding the center.
Scotopic vision is not used for color recognition while photopic vision is used. The
fovea centralis is an area of tightly packed
cone receptors located in the optic center of
the retina. The area is surrounded by both
rod and cone receptors with the ratio of
cones to rods decreasing with the increasing distance from the fovea. Faint indications are seen better when indirectly
viewed. This is how a person in a darkened
room uses peripheral vision and can see to
a better degree. The fovea becomes a blind
spot when low luminance and maximum
sensitivity occur at approximately ten angular degrees from the fovea center. The
fovea itself has about 1 to 2 degrees in the
visual angular field (Figure 1).
The age of the inspector should also be

considered. With age, pupil size is reduced,

as is the luminous flux at the retina. This
does not include contrast differences of the
background reflectance and the indication
response. In Figures 2 and 3, the electromagnetic spectrum is shown, with the visual spectrum of colors identified in Figure
2 and the ultraviolet region shown in Figure 3. The near ultraviolet A region, used as

Figure 2 The visual spectrum: human eye

response at 1070 lx (100 ftc).
the light source for penetrant testing, is on
the side of the ultraviolet region bordering
the visible spectrum. To a normal observer,
the color spectrum appears as a series of
chromatic colors, starting with the shortest
wavelength and proceeding through the
longest color wavelength in the visible
range of the electromagnetic radiation

Materials Evaluation/June 2003 661

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performed. All the noted testing is performed using white light of about 6500 K
(11 200 F), average daylight.
Individuals have variations in their
spectral responses, therefore setting up a
single standard to which they would
have to comply would be quite difficult.
Any standards being used must be able
to encompass all of the shortcomings of
an individual inspector but be strict to
the point that any test will be capable of
detecting vision problems that cause
harmful conditions in the use or operation of the article being tested.

Figure 3 The electromagnetic spectrum with an enlargement of the ultraviolet region.

spectrum: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
Ultraviolet and Visible Spectra
Ultraviolet A is considered long wave
and is not considered harmful to the
human eye. Ultraviolet B is considered
middle wave and can cause sunburn as
well as be harmful to the eyes. Ultraviolet C
is considered short wave and is used for
germicidal purposes and is harmful to the
eyes and body. Daylight viewing is considered to be a range of 540 through 570 nm
(2.1 105 through 2.24 105 in.), with the
average being 555 nm (2.19 105 in.). Toward either end of the visual range, brightness diminishes. As the colors appear to diminish to either side of the average
wavelength, the luminosity function located at 555 nm (2.19 105 in.) diminishes
with the color.
Colors in the visual range of any wavelength can be made by mixing lights of the
three basic colors (red, green and blue) in specific proportions. These are the basic colors
that account for normal vision being classified
as trichromatic. The normal observer may be
classified to discriminate light and dark, yellow/blue and red/green. An observer having
abnormal trichromatic vision requires a different mixture of the three colors to see the
same color as the normal observer. If the observer had mild trichromatic abnormalities,
his or her description of the created colors
would be the same. If the observer had extreme trichromatic abnormalities, the colors
described would be similar to those of a
dichromatic, who would make the same discriminations, but with one of the three lights
at a lesser percentage, usually red/green.
Testing for Color Vision Problems
There are two main types of trichromatic abnormalities, called protanomaly and
deuteranomaly. With either of these conditions, inspectors could make color discrimination decisions with difficulty, while a
662 Materials Evaluation/June 2003

dichromatic could not. The inspector with

protanomaly of all degrees is deficient at
the long wave end of the spectrum due to a
loss of luminosity function. Trichromatic
and deutermatic inspectors have a luminosity function within normal limits.
Dichromatic observers require just two
color wavelengths to be mixed to form a
wavelength color that may be discriminated. They can make only two types of visual
decisions. One is achromatic (light/dark)
and the other is chromatic (either yellow/blue or red/green, usually the former). Dichromatic observers are limited in
their visual range and they would not pass
the color vision requirements given by an
optometrist.
Today, the method of testing individuals for color vision capabilities relies on
the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test for
the Examination of Color Discrimination
(Farnsworth, 1957). It encompasses all
phases of color vision. The Farnsworth Dichotomous Test for Color Blindness, Panel D15 (Farnsworth, 1947) covers only a portion. Fifteen different color paper disks of
12.7 mm (0.5 in.) diameter are sunk
2.5 mm (0.1 in.) below the 2.5 mm (0.1 in.)
rim of plastic caps. The backs are numbered sequentially. A box with a terminal
color is fixed at one end of the box. The
candidate is given the 15 colored caps in
a random mix and is required to match
them in consecutive order to the terminal color without looking at the numbers on the caps. About 80% of adult
males make fewer than 12 transpositions, most of which are simple two cap
exchanges. These errors are random, seldom reoccur on retests and are not restricted to one region of the color
scheme. The instruction booklet that accompanies the box of caps has all the information required for a qualified test of
vision status. It can define the area of
the colors that may be missed, therefore
limiting the type of test that could be

Color Discrimination and Penetrant

Testing
Fluorescent penetrant testing is carried
out in a secluded area where the ambient
room lighting is controlled to less than
21.5 lx (2 ftc) of white light. Total darkness
is never achieved. The sensitivity of discontinuity detection is controlled by the inspectors limitations, which may include
protective eyewear, reflective clothes, reflected near ultraviolet light from the part
surface, the angular reflections of the discontinuities and their size and quantity of
luminescence based on the type of penetrant
used. The nature of fluorescent penetrant
testing raises the question as to whether an
individual with color deficiencies may make
more errors when performing a test of fluorescent indications as viewed under near ultraviolet illumination than would an inspector with normal vision.
The viewing of fluorescent indications
is done using a mercury vapor lamp and a
blue/purple filter. That allows only light at
a wavelength of 365 nm (1.4 105 in.) to be
used. The fluorescent dye that makes up
indications is yellow. There are other dyes
that may be used for special applications,
such as red, orange, blue or green. These
color groups are the ones that confuse the
moderate color deficient individuals. Fluorescence, also know as cold light, may
occur in gases, liquids or solids. When the
material is radiated by the ultraviolet lamp,
the energy excitement causes a secondary
emission of longer wavelengths to be emitted from the material. In this case, the material is a liquid that has been applied to an
object and allowed sufficient time to seek
out discontinuities that are open to the surface. Capillary action carries the fluid into
the discontinuity. When the surface residue
has been removed, the only fluorescent
fluid left is that which entered the discontinuity. With time, the fluid will again, by
capillary action, creep out to be exposed on
the surface. In order to make the fluid easier to detect, a blotting powder may be applied to the surface (it acts like a sponge
placed on a spill.) This coverage also acts as
a contrasting background. The ultraviolet
testing lamp is held at approximately 305
to 381 mm (12 to 15 in.) from the test surface and has a radiation value of
1200 w/cm2. The contrast ratio is much
higher than it would be under normal daylight test conditions.

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Conclusion
Based on the research performed, nothing was located to show that any recent
work has been done involving the testing
of color vision utilizing fluorescent materials and ultraviolet illumination. Quite by
chance, contact was made with the newly
developed Eye Institute of the Cleveland
Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio. They
were not aware of any new developments
in this direction, but they are doing some
work in the color vision area. Perhaps they
may get new data regarding the use of
color deficient persons in NDT.

Who to Contact at ASNT

ASNT headquarters is open from 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. eastern time, Monday through Friday. Voicemail
messages can be left 24 hours a day by following the recorded prompts. In the US and Canada, call toll
free (800) 222-2768 or (614) 274-6003; fax (614) 274-6899. E-mail addresses for individual staff
members are given below. If you prefer, write ASNT, 1711 Arlingate Lane, PO Box 28518, Columbus, OH
43228-0518. ASNTs Web site is available at <www.asnt.org>.

REFERENCES
Farnsworth, Dean, The Farnsworth-Munsell
100-Hue and Dichotomous Tests for Color Vision, Journal of the Optical Society of America,
Vol. 33, No. 10, October 1943, pp. 568-578.
Farnsworth, Dean, The Farnsworth Dichotomous
Test for Color Blindness, Panel D-I5, New York,
Psychological Corporation, 1947.
Farnsworth, Dean, The Farnsworth-Munsell 100
Hue Test for the Examination of Color Discrimination, Baltimore, Maryland, Munsell Color
Company, 1957.
Judd, Deane B., Facts of Color Blindness, Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 33, No.
6, June 1943, pp. 294-306.
Judd, Deane B., Standard Response Functions
for Protanopic and Deuteranopic Vision,
Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 35,
No. 3, 1945, pp. 199-219.
Ness, Stanley, White Light/Visible in the I/II Dye
Penetrant and Fluorescent/Non-fluorescent
Magnetic Particle NDT Inspection Processes,
Visual Committee Report, American Society for
Nondestructive Testing Fall Conference 1987,
Columbus, Ohio, ASNT, pp. 1-8.
Paulson, Helen M., The Performance of the
Farnsworth Lantern at the Submarine Medical Research Laboratory and in the Field from 1955 to
1965, Report Number 466, US Naval Submarine Medical Center, Submarine Base, Groton,
Connecticut, 1966.

Erratum
The article Limitations of the Detection of Casting Discontinuities
Using Ultrasonics and Radiography, by Stuart Klevin and Malcolm
Blair, which appeared as the Back
to Basics article for the April 2003
issue (pages 478-483), included information which needs to be clarified in order to avoid confusion. The
fifth note to Table 1 (page 483) can be
interpreted to mean that the radiation beam should be perpendicular
to planar or cracklike discontinuities. This is the opposite of the correct situation for detection of such
discontinuities through radiographic testing. To avoid confusion, the
footnote should read: if oriented
perpendicular to the part surface,
parallel to the radiation beam (planar or cracklike).

Materials Evaluation/June 2003 663