HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE

The practice of medicine is one of the oldest professions in the history of mankind. Some of the
methods that ancient healers employed in their efforts to prevent or cure disease are a source of amusement to
modern health care workers. However, it is surprising how many medical ideas, techniques, and
medications still used today originated in civilizations hundreds and even thousands of years old.
In ancient civilizations, people believed that illnesses were caused either by angry gods or evil spirits, so
the earliest "cures" were techniques for pacifying the gods or driving away demons. The use of charms, spells,
and prayers was common. Specific foods were also prescribed a lion's heart to fortify one's courage, or a
leaf that resembled a particular body organ to heal an affliction of the look-alike body part.
In early societies as in the present day, medical advice came not only from those designated as
healers, but from the folk wisdom handed down from one generation to the next. What would cure the
common cold? Folk medicine prescribed a dirty sock around the neck. Afflicted with leg cramps? Folk
culture cured the condition with a pair of shoes placed upside down under the bed. Tobacco juice was
reputed to heal an earache, and black pepper and lard were supposed to cure asthma. Folklore was also full
of warnings. Pregnant women, for example, were advised not to hang clothes on a clothesline because
this action might produce knots in the umbilical cord.
But prehistoric and ancient peoples also made some medical discoveries of curative value. For
example, thousands of years ago, people used willow bark (which contained chemicals similar to those in today's
aspirin) to relieve pain. As far back as 10,000 years ago, prehistoric healers performed surgery. The earliest
known surgical procedure was an operation called trephining, in which a hole was cut in the patient's skull to
relieve pressure on the brain. This procedure, discovered in prehistoric skeletal remains, is still in use today!
Hippocrates, the ancient physician commonly considered the father of medicine, was born in Greece in
460 B.C. Although the Greeks of this period were still seeking medical cures at the temple of the Greek god
of healing, Hippocrates maintained that disease had only natural causes. Hippocrates is credited with being
the first physician to separate the art and science of medicine from the practice of religion. Though its
authorship is unknown, the famous Hippocratic Oath is named for him. In the Western world, it is a
long-standing tradition for physicians, when they graduate from medical school, to swear to uphold the
high ideals outlined in this oath. They promise (among other things) to maintain the utmost respect for
human life and to respect the confidentiality of the doctor-patient relationship.
Fragments of pre-Christian Egyptian writings describe a routine still followed by most doctors
moving from the patient's symptoms to physical examination and then to suggested therapy and prognosis.
Also in the ancient world of the Middle East, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (dated 2040 B.C.
and inscribed on a great stone pillar) contained statements about the proper conduct of physicians and
prescribed punishments for malpractice.
Ancient medical advances in the Far East were also significant. In India, early medical marvels
included the discovery of the relationship between malaria and mosquitoes, the discovery of more than 700
medicinal plants, and the invention of more than 100 surgical instruments. In the fifth century A.D., the great
Indian physician Susruta was treating fractures, removing tumours, and delivering babies by
Caesarean section.
The medical therapy called acupuncture which involves inserting needles into selective sites on the
surface of the body has been a part of Chinese medicine since ancient times. Although it was originally
used to treat disease, the effectiveness of acupuncture in sometimes controlling chronic pain has recently
become more widely acknowledged in the Western world. How and why are not known, but some scientists
believe that the needles may stimulate the brain to produce morphine-like painkilling chemicals called
endorphins and enkephalins. In the second century A.D., the Greek physician Galen revolutionised medicine
by his insistence upon the study of anatomy as a basis for medical facts. The only problem was that his
anatomical research was done on nonhuman animals, and he sometimes mistakenly assumed greater similarity
than was correct between the animals he dissected and the human body.
The historical period commonly called the Middle Ages dates from about 500 A.D. to about 1500
A.D. The period from 500 A.D. to about 1000 A.D. is often referred to as the Dark Ages, meaning that
there was widespread ignorance and a lack of progress in the ability of people to understand and control
their environment. During the Middle Ages in Europe, Christian compassion for the sick led to the building of
many hospitals and the founding of the first medical schools. However, as in ancient times, disease was
considered supernatural in origin, and treatment was often a mixture of prayer and magic. Still, after the

bubonic plague killed one-fourth of the European population in the mid-14th century, scientists became
more determined to search for practical, effective methods of dealing with medical problems.
The period called the Renaissance (which began in the 14th century in Italy and spread throughout
Europe) was characterised by a great revival in learning. During this period, medical knowledge increased
rapidly, aided greatly by the development of printing. Laws forbidding the dissection of cadavers were relaxed,
and as a result, the first accurate textbook on human anatomy was published, correcting Galens errors.
During the Renaissance, many traditional surgical techniques were re-evaluated and revised. A
French physician named Ambroise Par (generally considered the father of modern surgery) opposed the
practice of burning (cauterizing) wounds and introduced the use of ligatures to stop bleeding.
In 1545, the first pharmacy was opened in London. Prescription medicines had been administered
prior to this time, but the establishment of this shop indicated that medication was becoming an accepted means
of treating disease. Today, many thousands of drugs are used to treat illness.
The microscope (which greatly enlarges very small objects) was invented in 1590. This tool has since
become indispensable in the diagnosis of disease. Laboratory technicians use it regularly to analyse
specimens of blood, urine, and tissue. Their reports provide physicians with valuable information which
could not otherwise be known.
In the early 1600s, the English physician William Harvey discovered how blood circulates in the body
and published the first medical book describing this circulation and the role of the heart in producing it. In
1667, the first blood transfusion was performed.
In the 19th century, modern surgery was made possible by two revolutionary discoveries: the
invention of safe methods of anaesthesia and the control of wound infection by the use of antiseptics and
sterile equipment. Also in this century, a set diagnostic procedure requiring a complete case history and a
thorough physical examination became common medical practice. Finally, in 1895, came Roentgens
discovery of the X-ray.
The 20th century brought amazing medical advances in nearly every area of medicine. Open-heart
surgery was developed. Organ transplants are often successful. Vaccines (infectious agents given to patients
to establish resistance to particular diseases) virtually eliminated the threat of poliomyelitis (an infectious
disease that can cause paralysis). The electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG) help
physicians detect heart and brain malfunctions, respectively. Due to earlier diagnosis and more effective
treatment, more and more cancer victims are surviving. Sophisticated X-ray techniques allow more
accurate diagnoses and more effective treatment. Lasers (powerful beams of light) make many surgical
procedures faster and easier.
Despite incredible advances in medical science, health workers know that the search for better medical
care will never end. As human beings alter their lifestyles and their environment, new diseases and
debilitating conditions develop to challenge medical research. There can be no conclusion to the history and
advancement of medicine as long as people inhabit the Earth.
Source: Ethel Tiersky, Martin Tiersky The Language of Medicine in English

EXERCISES
I.
Explain the following terms
1.
To be afflicted with something
2.
A debilitating condition
3.
Outcome
4.
Code of conduct
5.
Magnification
6.
To undergo treatment
II.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Provide terms for the following definitions

A painful involuntary contraction of a muscle
Solemn statement or promise, a pledge
Improper professional conduct
To excite (a nerve, gland, etc.) to its functional activity
Cutting into, especially for surgical purposes.

III.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Translate the following terms into English

Bandym ir klaid metodas
Chirurgas
Gydomasis poveikis
Igydyti
Kraujo perpylimas
Lavonas (a dead body doesnt count)
Ltinis
Nejautra
Nuskausminimas
Nustatyti diagnoz
Padidinti (pvz. per padidinamj stikl)
Pasveikti (to get well doesnt count)
Pobdis
Prietaras
Prigimtis
Skrodimas
Ugyti
minis
Vaistinis augalas
aizda

IV.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Match the following terms

A bone break
A dead body, a corpse
A doctor
A method, a way
An affliction
Autopsy
Bleeding
Conduct
Grafting
Major (disease)
Mild
Oriental
Properties
To cauterise
Therapeutic
Therapy
To be afflicted with
Remedy

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
r)

a cadaver
a disease
a fracture
a physician
a technique
behaviour
characteristics
curative, healing
Eastern
haemorrhage
medicines, drugs
to suffer from
severe
transplantation
treatment
dissection
minor (disease)
to burn (e.g. to stop bleeding)

V. Read the article and answer the questions given below

The Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague, a disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia
pestis that circulates among wild rodents where they live in great numbers and density. Plague among
humans arises when rodents in human habitation, normally black rats, become infected. The black rat likes
to live close to people, the very quality that makes it dangerous (in contrast, the brown or grey rat prefers to
keep its distance in sewers and cellars). Normally, it takes ten to fourteen days before plague has killed off
most of a contaminated rat colony, making it difficult for great numbers of fleas gathered on the remaining,
but soon- dying, rats to find new hosts. After three days of fasting, hungry rat fleas turn on humans. From
the bite site, the contagion drains to a lymph node that consequently swells to form a painful bubo, most
often in the groin, on the thigh, in an armpit or on the neck. Hence the name bubonic plague. The infection
takes threefive days to incubate in people before they fall ill, and another threefive days before, in 80 per
cent of the cases, the victims die. Thus, from the introduction of plague contagion among rats in a human
community it takes, on average, twenty-three days before the first person dies. Plague bacteria can break out

of the buboes and be carried by the blood stream to the lungs and cause a variant of plague that is spread by
contaminated droplets from the cough of patients (pneumonic plague). Importantly, plague was spread
considerable distances by rat fleas on ships. Infected ship rats would die, but their fleas would often survive
and find new rat hosts wherever they landed. Unlike human fleas, rat fleas are adapted to riding with their
hosts; they readily also infest clothing of people entering affected houses and ride with them to other houses
or localities. This gives plague epidemics a peculiar rhythm and pace of development and a characteristic
pattern of dissemination. The fact that plague is transmitted by rat fleas means plague is a disease of the
warmer seasons, disappearing during the winter, or at least lose most of their powers of spread. This
conspicuous feature constitutes proof that the Black Death and plague in general is an insect-borne disease.
Source: http://www.historytoday.com/ole-j-benedictow/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

When does plague begin?

Does a rat infect humans?
Why it is called bubonic?
What is the incubation period of the disease?
How does pneumonic variation develop?
Do fleas or rats spread the disease?
What other kinds of insects that might affect human health do you know?

VI. Match the following terms with definitions or synonyms

isolate
extremely severe or harmful in its effects
blockage

to become affected with (a disease)

regurgitate

pass gradually in condition

virulent

expel air from the lungs

cough

a sudden violent attack of a disease

fit

something that stops something from moving, obstruction

lapse

separate

contract

bring (swallowed food) up again to the mouth

VII. Answer the following questions

1.
Do you know any examples of any earliest cures originating in our country?
2.
Have you ever heard about the Hippocratic Oath? What significance does it have for patients?
3.
What is your opinion about alternative treatment? Have you ever received any (e.g. homeopathy,
acupuncture)? If so, did it help you? If not, do you think it is worth trying? Why or why not?
4.
Do you believe in the efficacy of vaccines? Do you know any diseases that have been
eradicated by vaccines? Which diseases, do you think, will be treated by vaccines in the
nearest future?
5.
Can you give any examples of common non-infectious diseases? What are the major causes
of non-infectious diseases?
6.
As human beings alter their lifestyles and their environment, new diseases and debilitating
conditions develop Can you give examples of such diseases?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

VIII. Match the following terms with definitions or synonyms

acupuncture
a) to cut so as to separate into pieces or to expose the several parts
of (as an animal or a cadaver) for scientific examination
dissection
b) operation
painkillers
c) actions directed to preventing illness and promoting health
delivery (giving, providing)
d) prediction
delivery (of a child)
e) treatment of a disease or pathological condition.
fracture
f) an unhealthy condition of body or mind, sickness.
tumour
g) an agent, such as an analgesic drug, that relieves pain

8.

medical examination

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

therapy
prognosis
doctor-patient relationship
surgery
affliction
illness

15.

prevention

h) a system of complementary medicine that involves pricking the

skin or tissues with needles, used to alleviate pain and to treat
various physical, mental, and emotional conditions.
i) the act of giving birth
j) giving a lecture
k) a break in bone or cartilage
l) an uncontrolled, abnormal, circumscribed growth of cells
m) bedside manner
n) examination carried out to determine the physical fitness of an
applicant for a job, life insurance, etc.
o) something (such as a disease) that causes pain or suffering

CURE implies restoration to health after disease, making a person healthy again. TREAT refers to
the process of curing, with or without the hope of full recovery. HEAL means restoration of an affected part
after a wound. Wounds, cuts, burns, and scratches heal. Heal is more often used when the problem goes
away itself. The term healing may also be used when talking about unconventional medicine.
IX. Supply the appropriate word (cure, treat, heal). Put them into the correct forms.
1. Different remedies may have to be used before the patient can be .... .
2. The whole family should be ............ even if symptoms are not present.
3. The wounds, in some instances, may take time to ...... .
4. The patients can usually be ...... if they are ...... in time.
5. Within three weeks, her skin had ...... .
6. Any secondary bacterial infection may need to be ......... with antibiotics.
7. Her condition had improved but was not ......... by the treatment.
X. Supply the missing words:
1.
The new drug is only available on p................ .
2.
Hed been wounded in the arm and he was b................... heavily.
3.
The doctor has made an initial d ............... but therell be additional tests by a specialist.
4.
He had a heart t..................... .
5.
She was infected with AIDS as a result of a contaminated b......... t.................. .
6.
In the patients c....... h.......... the doctor recorded that the patient was a drug-user.
7.
L............ are used in surgery to stop the flow of a bleeding artery.
8.
A .......... is insensibility to pain.
9.
The doctor took a blood s........... from the patients arm.
XI. Match the words that mean the same by writing the correct numbers on the lines below:
1. anaesthesia
_____a corpse
2. cadaver

____vaccination

3. cauterise

____doctor

4. exam

____sample

5. illness

____palpation

6. inoculation

____insensibility

7. listening to

____ assessment

8. physician

____percussion

9. specimen

_____burn

10. survive

____ailment

11. tapping

____auscultation

12. touching

____live through

XII. The given word parts come to English from Latin or Greek languages. Find the
meaning(s) of each word part below and write it in English. Also find two medical words that
contain each word part. Be able to translate them. The first one is done for you.
1. an-.no, not, without
1) analgesia (nuskausminimas) 2) ..an(a)emia (maakraujyst)
2. di- ......
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
3. dis-...............................................................................................................................................
1)...............................................
2)..........................................
4. -(a)esthesia ....
1)..
2) ..
5. -gnosis ..........................................................................................................................................
1)..................................................
2)..........................................
6. in-...................................................................................................................................................
1)..................................................
2)..........................................
7. mal- ...............................................................................................................................................
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
8. phys(i/o)........................................................................................................................................
1)...............................................
2)..........................................
9. pre- ...............................................................................................................................................
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
10. pro- .............................................................................................................................................
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
11. super- ........................................................................................................................................
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
12. trans-.........................................................................................................................................
1)..............................................
2)..........................................
XIII.
Afflict
Bleed
Cure
Diagnose
Dissect
Examine
Injure
Insist
Prescribe
Prognose
Treat

Write the noun for the given verb. The first one is done for you.
affliction