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PREFACE
Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to himself as
possible. His thirst for information is hard to quench so he has continuously tried to
develop new technologies, which have helped to reach the objective.
The world we see today is a result of the continuous research in the field of
communication, which started with the invention of telephone by Grahm Bell to the
current avtar as we see in the form INTERNET and mobile phones. All these
technologies have come to existence because man continued its endeavor towards the
objective.
This project report of mine, STUDY OF TRENDS TECHNOLOGIES IN
COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING has been a small effort in reviewing the
trends technologies prevailing. For this purpose, no organization other than BAHRAT
SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED could have been a better choice.
Table of contents
1. Acknowledgement
2. Preface
3. Table of contents
4. Introduction
5. making a telephone call
6. About the exchange
a. computer unit
b. power plant
c. central air conditioner
d. main distribution frame
7. V-SAT network
a. Design aspects
b. Operational factors
8. Types of access V-SAT networks
a. fixed assignment time division multiple access
(F-TDMA)
b. Random access
c. Code division multiple access (CDMA)
9. The Internet
a. Introduction
b. Internet connectivity
c.OSI model
d. Communication b\w the layers
e. File transfer the internet
f. National internet backbone
10. Wireless in local loop
a. Technical aspects
b. Advantages
11. Global system for mobile communication (GSM)
provide the latest and best telecom services by their continued support and active cooperation.
BSNL Services:When it comes connecting the four corners of the country , and much beyond , one
solitary name lies embedded at the pinnacle- BSNL. A company that has gone past the
number games and the quest to attain the position of the leader. It is working round the
clock to take India in to the future by providing excellent telecom services for people of
India.
Driven by the very best of telecom technology from global leaders, it connects each inch
of India to the infinite corners of the globe, to enable you to step in to tomorrow.
The telecom services have been recognized the world over as an important tool for socioeconomic development for a nation and hence telecom infrastructure is treated a crucial
factor to realize the socio-economic objectives in India. Accordingly the Department of
Telecom has been formulating developmental policies for the accelerated growth of the
telecommunication services in various cities. The department is also responsible for
frequency management in the field of radio connection in close coordination with the
international bodies.
MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL
A telephone call starts when the caller lifts the handsets of the base. Once the dial tone is
heard, the caller uses a rotary or a push button dial mounted either on the handset or on
the base to enter a sequence of digits, the telephone number of called party. The switching
equipment from the exchange removes the dial tone from the line after the first digit is
received and after receiving the last digit, determines the called party is in the same
exchange or a different ones. If the called is in the same exchange, burst of ringing
current is applied to the called partys line. Each telephone contains a ringer that responds
to specific electric frequency. When the called party answers the telephone by pocking up
the handset, steady start to flow in the called partys line and is detected by the exchange.
The exchange than stops applying ringing and sets up the connection between the caller
and the called party. If the called party is in different exchange from the caller, the caller
exchange set up the connection over the telephone network to the called partys
exchange. The called party then handles the process of ringing, detecting an answer, and
notifying the calling and billing machinery when the call is completed. When
conversation is over, one or both parties hang up by replacing their handset on the base,
stopping the flow of current. The exchange when initiates the process of taking down the
connection, including notifying billing equipment of the duration of the call if
appropriate.
All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform the
functions the human operator. The number being dialed is stored and then passed to the
exchanges central computer, which in turns operates the switching to complete the call or
routes it a higher level switch for further processing. Todays automatic exchanges uses a
pair of computers, one running the program that provides services and the second
monitoring the operation of the first, ready to take over in a few seconds in the event of
equipment failure.
Various exchanges present in BSNL are:
E-10B
OCB283
EWSD
All exchange has some purposes and some basic structural units, which are:
1. subscribers connection unit
2. switching network (CX)
3. control unit
4. OMC
For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the customers
with the help of computers.
2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange
3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or 2 degree Celsius to the
digital switch (exchange).
4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment (subscriber) i.e. it
is the interface between subscribers and exchange.
Computer unit
As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all services
provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer. It also provides the
POWERPLANT
As we know that, the power is the main source or any organization. It is the case of E10B exchange. That is the first requirement of any organization is the input.
The main source of this exchange is AC supply. However, as soon as the power supply is
gone off, then what is source? No one think on this that the telephone is always plays its
role in the human life. Even if the power supply gone off. Thus there must be adjustment
source of power.
The main parts of the power room are:
Batteries: - these are the instant sources of the power as soon as power is gone off.
UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply):- the UPS must give supply to the computer. As we
know there is some equipment which can withstand any type of power supply, but there
are also some instruments which cannot withstand with this type of power supply, even a
microsecond delay will cause the loss of data.
Charging- Discharging Unit: - the batteries we are using in the power room need timely
charging. As soon as the AC power supply is on, we make use of the charging unit
present in the power room. The slowly charging of the batteries is known as the trickle
charging. But sometimes we need the BOOSTER charging. In this type of charging awe
take of the batteries from the load and charge separately, until it gets fully charged.
The main work of the discharging unit is to control the discharging of the batteries.
Inverter and Converter Unit: - the main use of this system is to change AC mains to DC
and vice versa as required by the parts of exchange.
Engine Room:-we know that the batteries are the instant source of supply but we cannot
use it for much larger time, thus for this, we have an engine to generate the power supply.
They are of 885 KVA. Thus, this room controls the supply of the engine.
VERTICAL SIDE:
The vertical aside connected to the underground cable. This cable is having 100 pairs.
These pair is distributed when we allot the telephone number to the subscriber.
V-SAT NETWORK
What is V-SAT?
It can be defined as a class of very small aperture Intelligent Satellite Earth Station
suitable for easy on-premise installation, usually operating in conjugation with a large
size HUB earth station. Capable of supporting a wide range of two ways integrated
Telecom Services.
It has the following components:
Micro Earth Station
Mini Earth Station
Personal Earth Station
Roof Top Terminal
Customer Premises Terminal
ADVANTAGES OF V-SAT
Can be located in the user premises on roof top or backyard and hence eliminate last mile
problem.
Superior quality satellite based data services.
Quick implementation time.
Reliable communication.
Broadcast feature on satellite communication.
Communication to different areas.
Flexibility for network and changes.
Service in distance insensitive.
Low cost.
When evaluating V-SAT system each of the above attributes should be given attention.
However, few of more important attributes are
Operational aspects
Frequency bands
Satellite access methods
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Considering a V-SAT system from its operational aspects, there are five broad functions
that determines how the system works. These are:
Bandwidth allocation
Multiplexing
Network management
Protocol handling
Transmission
ii. Explicit
3. code division multiple access (CDMA)
RANDOM ACCESS
With TDMA schemes, signals are transmitted by earth stations in a burst mode. If no
scheduling is provided b/w the transmitting station, this type of access is called time
random multiple access. This simplest method for the stations to transmit burst without
regard for other station.
Random access id of two types:
Pure aloha
Slotted aloha
PURE ALOHA
Pure aloha, also called unslotted aloha is the simplest form of random access schema.
In this form of access stations transmit packets\bursts randomly.
Packet from different stations may collide, thereby destroying information content.
Station transmits the packet until they are received correctly.
The aloha channel throughout can be analyzed in terms of traffic offered through the
following relationship:
S=Ge-2g
Maximum throughput is 13% to 18%.
Delay- low
Complexity- very low
SLOTTED ALOHA
The maximum throughput of an unslotted aloha channel is limited to 18% due to
collision.
To reduce probability of each collision time slots are introduced so that the transmission
could only at the start of the slots.
The above network discipline reduces the rate of collision by half and hence increases the
maximum throughput efficiency of the channel.
In S-Aloha, each station has 2 queues.
a. New packet queue
b. Retransmit packet queue.
Only if the retransmit packet queue is empty, a new packet queue is sent.
The analysis of slotted aloha channel shows that
S = Ge2g
Maximum channel throughput is 36%.
Delay- low.
Complexity- low- medium.
Reservation
The low bandwidth utilization of pure aloha and the slotted aloha has led to many
proposals for increasing utilization by means of slot reservation schemes.
The object of slot reservation schemes is to receive a particular time slot for a given
station. This ensures that no collision takes place.
This scheme has a higher throughput than either S- Aloha or F-TDMA depending on
traffic.
This increase in channel utilization efficiency is obtained at some overhead either in
terms of allocation of bandwidth for reservation purposes and\or increased complexity of
the control mechanism in transmitting stations.
All reservation methods use some form of framing approach and the reservation scheme
can be either implicit or explicit.
The implicit reservation method involves reservation by use. This is done whenever a
station successfully transmit in a slot; all the stations internally assign that slot in subsegment frames for exclusive use by the successful station. This is called R-Aloha. In this
there is no way to prevent a station capturing most or all of the slots in a frame for an
indefinite time.
The explicit reservation is a distinct and unique assignment of slots to a user by the
network scheduler.
Features
All stations operate on the same transponder frequency using a large bandwidth than
needed for the data rate.
Network needs no time for frequency coordination.
Provide anti jam capabilities or protection against interference.
Provide for a graceful degradation of network performance as the number of
simultaneous users increases.
Low spectral density compared to conventional emissions.
It yields same capacity as FDMA.
Limitations of CDMA
Require large transponder ratio.
Due to imperfect code orthogonalities, expected simultaneous users may be limited.
Requires a highly central earth station called HUB using star configuration.
VSAT technology using SSMA is presently available only for low bit rate application.
VSAT NETWORK IN DOT
Department of telecommunication entered the VSAT era in 1991 by commissioning its
first satellite based low bit rate network known as REMOTE AREA BUSINESS
MESSAGE NETWORK (RABMN).
This has been engineered for users located in remote areas for stable and reliable data
communication.
This service envisages installation of very small aperture terminals (VSAT) to work with
satellite based pocket switched network.
It has 3 main components:A large master earth station (hub)
A satellite transponder located in geo stationary orbit
A small micro earth station located at users premises
Tariff and billing:A RABMN customer availabling VSAT has to pay the following charges:Registration charge Rs. 5000 per terminal
Cost of each VSAT Rs. 5.2 lakhs
Cost of each installation Rs. 15,000 per terminal
License fees Rs. 100 per terminal
Maintenance charges Rs. 25,000 per terminal annually
Satellite access charges Rs. 5000 per month per terminal
Traffic charges Rs. 50 per kilo segment of data
Network users:
Some of the probable users are
Banking network
Civil aviation
Airlines\railways
Public\private sector industries
Meteorological department
Police department
RABMN NETWORK
Introduction
Satellite communication plays a vital role in long distance communication.
Satellite medium offers high bandwidth making it suitable for data communication and
computer networking.
Satellite communication is of distance and cost effective.
Multi access nature of satellites.
Provides two way communications.
Dynamic assignment of channels between geographically dispersed users.
Satellite network provides point to point and point to multipoint communication needs.
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA):Bandwidth is split in to narrow frequency bands with multiple users each allocated a
frequency range within the larger bandwidth.
Time division multiple access (TDMA):Each terminal is allotted a short time slot in which to transmit on a sequential basis. This
time slot is usually a fraction of a second.
Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM):In TDM, time slots are allotted to the multiplexed lines even if they have no data
transmit. In STDM, a time slot is allotted to the multiplexed line only if there is data to be
sent. The multiplexed circuit is used more efficiently.
Tariffs:-
Outbound:
Each VSAT and host computer is allotted an HCL port
NPG polls HCL ports and generates a 153.6 Kbps demand based STDM data stream
Data stream contains variable length packets of data addressed to various VSATs
Outmux chips the data @1:16 resulting in 2.4576 MB stream.
BPSK modulator produced 5 MHz of spectrum
Upconvertor converts to 5GHz RF
Mes transmits 153.6KBps STDM/BPSK/SS carriers
NPG provides FEC encoding for outbound data
Inbound:
Inbound signals originates from VSATs
VSAT has a unique PN code
Data spread by its PN code and transmitted to satellite in 6 GHz band
MES resolves the signal in 4 GHz band, converts to 70 MHz IF and sends to Demod
section
Demod cards compare the pattern of the to other PN code for its associated VSAT. When
the correct pattern is detected, the original signal is extracted from the IF signal and
transmitted to INMUX
NPG polls INMUX for I\C data packets and transmits the packets to HCL
VSAT specifications
Antennae module
Reflector : 1.2M X 1.8M
Weight : 60 KGs
Tracking : fixed
Amb. Temp : -40 to +50 deg. Cel.
Wind speed : operating 100 kmph
Controller module
Size : 15 cm(h) x 43 cm(w) x 55 cm (d)
Weight : 15 kgs
Power supply : 220V\60Hz, 300 watts
Oper. Temp. : -5 to 50 deg. Cel.
Humidity : up to 95%
Controller module :
INPUT\OUTPUT PROCESOR
Converts raw data to packets
Customer protocol to network protocol
NETWORK PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE:
generates BFEC & FCS
Retains packets in buffer until ACKs receives and transmits if required.
RECIEVER SIDE:
checks BFEC & FCS
ACKs the packets and requests retransmission of missing packets
SPACE PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE
Encodes the packets with PN sequence to 2.45MBps stream
BPSK modulation of IF
RECIEVER SIDE
Demodulates IF signal to 2.45MBps
Dispreads to 153.6KBps stream
Checks destination link address in the header
Discards packets addressed to other links.
Micro earth station transmits 1.2KBps\9.6KBps BPSK/CDMA carriers bursts in
absolutely random access mode in the same frequency.
INTERNET
Introduction:
The Internet is not a program, not software, not hardware or a big system. It is a group of
various co-operating computers worldwide interconnected by computer based on TCP\IP
communication protocols. People use it to get information over a standard
communication link. The hundreds or thousands or millions of computer network are
connected to each other for exchanging the information which is based on the unique
identity and set of procedures. Internet is a series of interconnected networks providing
global link to information.
GIAS: BSNL launched the Gateway Internet Access Service (GAIS) through dial
up/leased/ISDN network. Users can access GAIS from 99 cities in India by this means.
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY
INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
The basic function of Internet can be summarized as underInterconnecting of computers to form a network.
Interconnecting of computers to form a network of networks.
To establish a communication link between two computers within as network.
To provide alternate communication link among the networks, even if one network is not
working. These are based on TCP/IP communications protocol.
Transfer of a file through Internet:Suppose a file is to be transmitted on Internet from one computer to other ones
Break the file in to small packets
Attached destination and source address in o packets
Multiplexed and transmit these packets
PHYSICAL LAYER:
The physical layer defines the properties of the physical medium used to make a network
connection. It includes a network cable that can transmit a stream of bits between nodes
on the physical network. The physical connection can be either point to point or
multipoint, and it can consist of either half duplex (one direction at a time) or full duplex
(both directions simultaneously) transmissions. Moreover, the bits can be transmitted
either in series or in parallel (most network use a serial stream of bits, but the standard
allows for both serial and parallel transmission). The specification for the physical layer
also defines the cable used, the voltages carried on the cable, the timing of the electrical
signals, the distance that can be run, and so on. For example, a NIC network interface
network) is part of the physical layer.
DATA LINK LAYER: the data link layer, layer 2, defines standard that assign meaning
to the bits carried by the physical layer. It establishes a reliable protocol through the
physical layer, so the network layer (layer 3) can transmit its data. The data link layer
typically includes error detection and correction to ensure a reliable data stream. The data
elements carried by the data link layer are called frames.
Examples of frame types include x.25 and 802.x (802.x includes both Ethernet and Token
Ring networks).
The data link layer is usually subdivided in to two sub layers, called the Logical link
control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) sub layers. The LLC sub layer performs
tasks such as call set up and termination and data transfer. The MAC sub layer handles
frame assembly and disassembly, error detection and correction, and addressing. The two
most common MAC protocols are 802.3 Ethernet and 802.5 Token ring .Other MAC
protocols include 802.12 100 Base VBG, 802.11 Wireless, and 802.7 Broadband.
Network Layer: The network layer, Layer-3, is where a lot of action goes on for most
networks. The network layer defines how data packets get from one point to another on
network. The Network layer is also known as packet layer, it defines different packet
protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP) and Internet Protocol Exchange (IPX). These
packet protocols include source and destination routing information. The routing
information in each packet tells the network where to send the packets to reach its
destination and tells the receiving computer from where the packet originated.
Transport Layer: The Transport Layer, layer-4, manages the flow of information from
one network node to another. It identifies each computer or node on a network uniquely.
It ensures that the packets are decoded in the proper sequence and that all packets are
received. Transport layer protocols include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX).Each is used in concert with IP and IPX respectively.
Session layer: The session layer, layer-5, defines the connection from a user to a network
server, or from a peer on a network to another peer. These virtual connections are referred
to as sessions. They include negotiation between the client and the host, or peer and peer,
on matters of flow and control, transaction- processing, transfer of user information, and
authentication to the network.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer, layer-6, takes the data supplied by the lower
level layer and transform so it can be presented to the system. The Presentation layer can
include data compression and decompression as well as data encryption and decryption.
Application Layer: The Application layer, layer 7, controls how the operating system
and its application interact with network.
As mentioned earlier, data flows from an application program or the operating system,
and then goes through the protocols and devices that make up the seven layers of the OSI
model one by one until the data arrives at the physical layer and is transmitted over the
network connection. The computer at the receiving end reverses this process. At each
stage of the OSI model, the data is wrapped with new control information related to the
work done at the particular layer. This control information is different for each layer, but
it includes headers, trailers pre-ambles, and post-ambles.
Therefore, for example, when the data goes into the networking software and components
making up the OSI model, it starts at the application layer and includes an application
header and application data. Next, at the presentation layer, a presentation header is
wrapped around the data and it is passed to the session layer, where a session header is
wrapped around all the data, and so on, until it reaches the physical layer. At the receiving
computer this process is reversed.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a system of marking or tagging the various
parts of web documents to tell the browser software how to display the document text,
link graphics and link media.
ISDN:
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital phone connection technology that
provides both voice and data services over the same connection.
ISP:
Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an agency that provides Internet access and other net
related services.
technology is able to provide same quality of services as that provided by the wires line.
Application of wireless loop technology has just been started in the worldwide. There is
no standard for this so far. However, a number of national and international air interface
standards for digital cellular mobile telephone system are available.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS:
WLL is based on CDMA technique and is entirely different from GSM. The system for
WLL services can be divided in to following parts:BSC (Base Switching Centre):- It provides links between BTS & BSM; it consists of
different processors, in BSNL it is of SUN Polaris of LG Company. In LG 1 BSC can
have 48 BTS? In BSNL we have two types of BSC:V-5.2:- This type of BSC cannot switch by itself so it is dependent on local exchange /
PSTN for switching and keeping records of billing etc. BSNL uses this type of BSC for
rural areas.
CCS-7 / R2:- These types of BSC are totally automatic it doesnt depend on local
exchange for its functions, it is complete in itself. BSNL uses this type of BSC for urban
areas.
BTS (Base Transreceiver System):- As it is clear from its name it transmits as well as
receive signal, it works as an amplifier (router) to overcome the loss in signal in
transmission.
BSM (Base Station Management):- It controls and manages the WLL services. It can
troubleshoot the problem; add new users as well as capable to block service given to user.
It is basically a computer system, which manages the whole process of WLL service. In
BSNL BSM are two UNIX based computer system.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA):
CONCEPT OF MULTIPLE ACCESSES: - Multiple access system allows a large
number of users to share a common pool of radio telephone circuits, like sharing of
trunked radio facility. Multiple access radio has similarity to the LAN in which the
common channel is available to all users. The circuits are demands assigned i.e. assigned
on demand first-cum-first-served basis. The provision of access to the radio circuits
methods of multiple accesses are:
CDMA: - Where large number of transmission are combined on the same channel at the
same time and separated by the codes.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):- Where individual transmission
separated by each other by the time.
WHAT IS CDMA?
CDMA, a cellular technology originally known as IS-95, competes with GSM technology
for dominance in the cellular world.
There are now different variations, but the original CDMA is known as CdmaOne.
Latest CDMA global subscriber & operators numbers
As of December 2002, there were 120 millions users worldwide, with 55 million of these
in the USA.
See other cellular technology in the world.
We now have CDMA2000 and its variant like 1X EV, 1XEV-DO and MC 3X. The refer
of variant of usage of a 1.25 MHz channel. 3X uses a 5 MHz channel. Wide band CDMA
forms that the basis of UMTS 3G networks, developed originally by Qualcomm, high
capacity and small cell radius, employing spread-spectrum technology and special coding
scheme characterized by CDMA.
The Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) in 1993 adopted CDMA. May 2001
there were 35 million subscribers on cdmaOne system worldwide. Over 35 countries
have either commercial or trial activity ongoing. There were already 43 WLL systems in
22 countries using cdmaOne technology.
Enhancing todays data capabilities is the 1XRTT CDMA standard this next evolutionary
step for cdmaOne operators will provide data rates up to 300 kbps, significant capacity
increases as well as extended batteries life for handsets.
Worldwide resources are being devoted to roll out third generation CDMA technology,
including multi-carrier (cdmaOne2000 1xMC and HDR in 1.25 MHz bandwidth and
3xMC in 5 MHz bandwidth) and direct spread (WCDMA in 5 MHz bandwidth).
This first phase of cdmaOne2000 variously called 1XRTT, 3G1X or just plain 1X is
designed to double current voce capacity and support always on data transmission speed
10 times faster than typically available today, some 153.6 kbps on both the forward and
reverse links.
ADVANTAGES OF WLL:
Country wide induction of WLL underway of areas than are non-feasible for the normal
network
Helping relieves congestion of connections in the normal cable / wire based network in
urban areas
Limited the mobility without any airtime charges
It has improved signal and reducing the interference
Greater capacity than mobile
Provides ease of operation, administration & maintenance at lower cost.
The telecommunication is the biggest factor in influencing the speed of life in the modern
age. Today we can get connection with any corner of world through the push button of
computer; with the small mobile phone we can send not only the messages but also the
secret document. As we know that there is positive view behind any mention that it
should be helpful in the development of society. But humans have diverted mentality
some of them of positive view and some of them of negative view. Where use any
invention for the welfare of society but some uses for the satisfaction their disturbed
mentality and to earn more and more money whether it may be harmful for the society.
They infringe the norms of society and their behavior is condemned as antisocial,
immoral and sinful.
CELLULAR MOBILE SERVICES:
Cellular is one of the fastest growing and most demanding telecommunication
applications. Today, it represents a continuously increasing percentage of all new
telephone subscriptions around the world. Currently there are more than 45 million
subscribers in worldwide and nearly 50% of those subscribers are located in USA. It is
forecasted that cellular system using a digital technology will become the universal
method of telecommunications. By the year 2005, forecasters predict that there will be
more than 100 million cellular subscribers worldwide.
GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)
The GSM Association is a unique organization, with a truly global reach, offering a full
range of business and technical services to its members. Now as the wireless family
unfolds the association is deriving forward its vision of seamless, limitless, world of
wireless communication.