Classification measuring instrument:

The measuring instrument can broadly be classified into two groups as i)

Absolute ii) Secondary
i)

Absolute instrument:

This type of instrument measures the unknown quantity in an indirect way .

Result of the measurement is computed based on quantity related to the
unknown quantity and the constant of the instrument . No comparison with
another instrument is necessary .The accuracy of the measurement by this
type of instrument depends on the accuracy of the human observation and
true value of the constant . For example, the tangent galvanometer gives the
value of the current in terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection produced
by the current , the radius and no. of turns of the galvanometer coil , and
horizontal component of the earths magnetic field .
ii)

Secondary instrument:

This type of instrument gives the result directly by the deflection of the
instrument and dial reading only if the latter has been calibrated by
comparison with either an absolute instrument or one which has already been
calibrated . The deflection obtained is meaningless until such a calibration
has been made.
All secondary instrument can be classified according to the manner , the result or
observation is presented or displayed .The types are
i)

Indicating instrument

These instruments indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured

continuously. They generally make the use of dial and a pointer for this
purpose . Ammeter, Voltmeter ,Wattmeter etc belong these category.
ii)

Recording instrument

This instrument gives continuous record of the quantity being measured over
a specific period . The variation of the quantity being measured are recorded
by a pen(attached to the moving system of the instrument) giving permanent
mark over the moving sheet of paper or chart at constant speed. Examples
are X-Y plotter , strip chart recorder etc.
iii)

Integrating instrument

This instrument totalize events over a specific period of time . The summation
, which they give is the product of time and instantaneous quantity being
measured. Examples are Ampere-hour meter , Watt-hour or energy meter .

the integration (summation value) is generally given by a register consisting of

a set of a pointer and dials.
The secondary instrument may be classified according to the principle of
operation they utilize . The effects utilized are:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

Magnetic
Thermal
Chemical
Electrostatic
Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetic effect:

When a current carrying conductor or coil is brought to near a bar magnet , it

produces D.C electromagnet . Depending on the direction of flow of current
through coil , there will be force of attraction or repulsion . If the bar magnet is
stationary and the coil is mounted on a spindle , the coil experience a torque
about its axis of rotation and it moves to rotate . This effect is utilized in PMMC
instrument . If there are two current carrying coils , one of which is fixed and the
other is movable , there will be a motion of the movable coil .This effect is utilized
in the electrodynamoter type instrument.
Thermal effect:

The current or rate of change charge flow to be measured is passed through a

small element which heats it . The temperature rise is converted to an e.m.f. by
a thermocouple attached to the element. This thermo e.m.f. can be measured by
an indicating instrument or a ordinary galvanometer.
Electrostatic effect:

When two plates are charged with opposite or same polarity , there is a force of
attraction or repulsion between the plates . This force is utilized to move one of
the plates and the movement is coupled to the driving mechanism of the pointer
giving measurement of the quantity under measurement
Induction effect:

When an a.c. unknown quantity (e.g. current or voltage) produces alternating

magnetic flux which links another moving conducting part of the instrument , an
emf is induced in the conducting part . If a closed path is provided , the emf
forces a current to flow in the conducting part . The force produced by the
interaction of alternating flux and induced current will creates deflecting torque
which makes the moving part of the instrument move . The induction effect is
utilized in only a.c. measuring instrument as alternating flux is necessary .

All secondary indicating type instrument are constructed with the subsystems as
i) moving system ii) supporting mechanism ii) Control system to obtain steady
deflection . The constructional details are described
Operating forces of Electromechanical Indicating instrument:
Three types of forces are needed for the satisfactory operation . These are :i)
Deflecting force ii) Controlling force iii) Damping force
Deflecting force:

The deflecting or operating force is required for moving the pointer from its zero
position . the system producing the deflecting force is called Moving system .
The deflecting force can be produced by utilizing any of the aforesaid effects
.Thus the moving system converts the current into mechanical force in
electromechanical type instrument.
Controlling force:

This force is required for indicating instrument in order that the current produces
a steady deflection which is proportional to the magnitude of the current flowing
the moving system. The function of the controlling force are:
a) to produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force at the final
steady position of the pointer in order to make the deflection definite for a
particular magnitude of current . In absence of a controlling system , the
pointer will shoot beyond the final steady position for any magnitude of
current and thus the deflection will be indefinite.
b) To bring the moving system back to zero position when the force causing
the instrument moving system to deflect is removed . In the absence of
controlling system the pointer will not come back to zero position when
current through the moving system ceases to flow .

Damping force:

When a deflecting force is applied to the moving system , it deflects and it should
come to rest at a position where the deflecting force is balanced by the
controlling force . The deflecting and controlling forces are produced by the
system which have the inertia and therefore , the moving system can not
3

immediately settle at its final position but overshoots or swings around the final
position . This is illustrated in the following fig. Suppose O is the equilibrium or
final steady position . Because of the inertia of the moving system moves to
position a . Now for any position a beyond the equilibrium position the
controlling force is more than the deflecting force and hence the moving system
swings back . Due to inertia it can not settle at O but swings to a position say b
behind the equilibrium position . At b , the deflecting force is more than the
controlling force and hence the moving system again swings . The pointer thus
oscillates about its final steady position with decreasing amplitude till its kinetic
energy is dissipated in friction and therefore , it will settle down at its final steady
position . If extra force are not provided to damp these oscillation , the moving
system will take a considerable time to settle to the final position and hence time
consumed in taking readings will be very large. Therefore damping forces are
necessary so that the moving system comes to its equilibrium position rapidly
and smoothly without any oscillation.

Moving system:
The moving parts should be light and the frictional forces should be minimum
.These requirement should be fulfilled in order that power required by the
instrument for its operation is small. The power expenditure is proportional to the
weight of the moving parts and the frictional forces opposing the movement . The
moving part can be made light by using aluminum as far as possible . The
frictional forces are reduced by using a spindle mounted between jewel bearings
and by carefully balancing the system.
Supporting system :
The force or torque developed by the moving element in electromechanical
indicating instrument is small in order that the power consumption be kept low so
that the introduction of the instrument into a circuit may cause minimum change
in the existing circuit conditions . Because of low power level , the supporting the
moving system is of great importance . With operating forces being small , the
frictional forces must be kept to a minimum in order that the instrument reads
correctly and is not erratic in action and is reliable. Several types of supports are
used , depending upon the sensitivity required and the operating conditions to be
met . Supports may be of the following types :
i) Suspension:

It consists of fine ,ribbon shaped metal filament for the upper suspension and coil
of fine wire for the lower part . The ribbon is made of a spring material like
beryllium copper or phosphor bronze . This coiling of lower part of suspension in
done is order to give negligible restraint on the moving system . The type of
suspension requires careful leveling of the instrument , so that the moving
system hangs in correct vertical position . This construction is , therefore , not
suited to field use and is employed only in those laboratory applications in which
very great sensitivity is required . In order to prevent shocks to the suspension
during transit etc. a clamping arrangement is employed for supporting the moving
system .
ii) Taut suspension:

Suspension type instruments can only be used in vertical position . The taut
suspension has a flat ribbon suspension both above and below the moving
element , with suspension kept under tension by a spring arrangement . The
advantage of this suspension is that exact leveling is not required if the moving
element is properly balanced . Ribbon suspensions , in addition to supporting the
moving element , exert a controlling torque when twisted . Taut suspensions are
customarily used in instruments which require a low friction and high sensitivity .
Thus the use of suspension results in elimination of pivots , jewels and control
springs and therefore pivot less instruments are free from many defects.

iii) Pivot & Jewel Bearings:

The moving system is mounted on a spindle made of hardened steel . The two
ends of the spindle are made conical and then polished to form pivots . These
ends fit conical holes in jewels located in the fixed parts of the instruments .
These jewels , which are preferable made of natural or synthetic sapphire form
the bearings . The contact surface between the spindle and bearings gives
minimum friction . It has been found that frictional torque , for jewel bearings , is
proportional to area of contact between the pivot and jewel . the contact area
5

between pivot and jewel should be small . The pivot is ground to a cone and its
tip is rounded to a hemispherical surface of small area. The jewel is ground to a
cone of somewhat larger angle . The pivot may have a radius at tips from 0.0125
mm to as high as 0.075 mm depending upon the weight of the mechanism and
the force it will encounter . The radius of the pit of jewel is somewhat longer so
that the contact is in the form of a circle. The contact area should not be too
small otherwise the stress may exceed the crushing strength of the material of
pivot . The pivots of many modern instruments are loaded nearly to yield point of
steel . The rough handing of the instrument may deform the pivot and crack the
jewel . jewels are sometimes spring mounted to decrease the like hood of
damage because of shocks , and its bottom is also rounded.
The jewel bearing should be dry . any lubricant , such as oil would cause trouble
because of gumming and collected dust . In order that the wear and tear on the
bearings becomes uniform and symmetrical the centre of gravity of weight of the
moving parts should coincide with axis of the spindle for all positions of the
pointer and there are no out of balance forces . This also ensures that the
deflection is unaffected by the position of the pointer and there are no reading
errors . The balance can be achieved by using balance weights carried on arms
attached to the moving system . The balance weight whose position is adjustable
compensates for the weight of pointer and any other part attached to the moving
system . A small weight at a larger distance increase the moment of inertia and
necessitates a larger damping torque . A larger weight at short distance , on the
other hand , increases the weight of the moving system . A compromise is usually
made.

Torque/Weight Ratio:

The frictional torque in indicating instrument depends upon the weight of the
moving parts . If the weight of the moving parts is large , the frictional torque will
be large . The frictional torque exerts a considerable influence on the
performance of an indicating instrument . If the frictional torque is large and is
comparable to a considerable fraction of the deflecting torque the deflection of
the moving system will depend upon the frictional torque to an appreciable extent
. Also the deflection will depend on the direction from which the equilibrium
position is approached and will be uncertain . On the other hand , if the fractional
torque is very small compared with the deflecting torque , its effect on deflection
is negligible . Thus the ratio of deflecting torque to fractional torque is a measure
Of reliability of the instrument indication and of the inherent quality of the design .
hence torque-weight ratio of the instrument is an index of its performance , the
higher the ratio , the better will be its performance . If the deflecting torque is
expressed in terms of a force which acting at a radius of 1 cm , produces full
scale deflection , the ratio of this torque to weight of the moving parts should not
be less than 0.1 as far as possible.
Control system:
The moving system is mounted on a pivoted spindle . The quantity being
measured produces deflecting torque proportional to its magnitude . There
should a restraining or controlling torque acting in opposite to the deflecting
torque , which will bring the moving system to steady deflected position ,
otherwise the moving system will go on moving for indefinite time. Two types of
control system are used in indicating instruments as i) Gravity control ii) Sprin g
control .
Gravity control:

In gravity control instrument , a small weight is placed on a arm attached to the

moving system in such a way that it produces a restoring or controlling torque
when the system is deflected . The position of the weight is adjustable . When
the moving system is deflected by an angle , the controlling torque is given by :
Tc WlSin K g Sin , where l = distance from the axis of rotation of moving
system . K g = Wl =constant.
The controlling torque can be varied by simple adjusting the position of control
weight upon the arm which carries it. The gravity control instrument must
obviously be used in a vertical position in order that the control may operate. The
instrument must be mounted in level position otherwise there will be a very
serious zero error .For these reasons , gravity control is not suited for portable
indicating instruments .
7

Spring control:

A flat spiral spring is attached to the moving system , produced controlling torque.
One end of the spring is attached to the spindle and the outer end carries a
spigot which engages in a circular disc surrounding the jewel screw . This disc
carries an arm which is slotted and splayed out at the end. The purpose of
slotted extension arm is to allow the spring to be coiled or uncoiled slightly , so
that the pointer may be set at zero . the slotted arm is actuated by a set screw
mounted at the front of instrument and , therefore , zero setting of the instrument
can be done without removing the cover.
The spring material should be i) non-magnetic ii) proof from mechanical fatigue .
Where springs are used to lead the current into the moving system , they should
have a small resistance , their cross sectional area must be sufficient to carry
the current without temperature rise effecting their constant . they should also
have a low resistance temperature coefficient. A no. of non magnetic materials
like silicon bronze , hard rolled silver or copper , platinum silver , platinum
iridium and German silver have been used but have not been found satisfactory
owing to some reason or the other . For most applications phosphor bronze has
been found to be most suitable material except in instruments of low resistance (
) . In this case some special bronze alloys having low resistance may be used
with some sacrifice in mechanical quality .

By making the large no. of turns , the deformation per unit length is kept small on
full scale deflection . The controlling torque is thus made proportional to the angle
of deflection of the moving system . For a flat spiral spring , the controlling torque
developed by deflection of the moving system is given by :
Tc

Ebt 3
. K c N-m.
12l

where E = Youngs modulus of the spring material (N/m2)

b =width of spring (m)
t =thickness of spring ( m)
l =length of spring (m)
=angular deflection (rad.)
K c = spring constant =

Ebt 3
12l

( N-m/rad.)

The spring should be stressed well below their elastic limit at maximum deflection
of the instrument in order that there is no permanent set or that no change in
deflection (or zero shift ) will occur from inelastic yield.
6T
Maximum fibre stress f max 2c (N/m2)
bt
Sometimes a parameter length / thickness ratio is used for design purpose .
l
E
( )
Thus t f
2
max

Hence in order that the material is not over stressed the ration of length to
thickness of the spring should not be much less that
Fatigue in spring may be avoided to a great extent by proper annealing and
ageing during manufacture . In order to eliminate the effect of temperature
variations upon the length of the spring, two springs coiled in opposite directions
are used . When the moving system deflects , one spring is extended while the
other is compressed .
Comparison of spring and gravity control instrument:

i)

The gravity control is cheap and is independent of temperature

variation
ii)
Gravity control instrument is independent of ageing and its
performance does not deteriorate with time
iii)
The scale of gravity control instrument is non-linear and is cramped at
lower end of the scale.
iv)
The gravity control instrument must be used in only vertically and must
be perfectly leveled.
Damping System:

The method for damping torque are :

i)
Air friction damping
ii)
Fluid friction damping
iii)
Eddy current damping
iv)
Electromagnetic damping
Air friction damping:
In the 1st type of air friction damping a light aluminum piston is attached to the
moving system . The piston move with a very small clearance in fixed air
chamber closed at one end. Cross section of the chamber may be either circular
or rectangular . If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber , the air inside the
chamber is compressed and thus the pressure inside the chamber opposes the
motion of the piston i.e. of the moving system to which piston is attached. If the
piston moving outside , pressure inside the chamber falls and therefore the
outside pressure becomes greater than that inside the chamber and thus the
motion of the piston or of the moving system is again opposed . In this system
care must be taken to ensure that the arm carrying piston is not bent and the
piston does not touch the sides of the chamber during its movement . when once
bent it is often difficult to straighten the piston arm so that it does not touch the
sides of the chamber at any point during deflection . The solid friction occurring
between piston and sides of air chamber may result in serious error in the
deflection . Such a system of damping is not favored now a days.
In second type of air friction damping system , a vane mounted on the spindle of
the moving system is utilized . The vane is thin aluminum sheet and moves in a
closed sector shaped box .

Fluid friction damping:

In this method of damping light vane or disc are attached to the spindle of the
moving system and move in a damping oil , which is viscous in nature The
damping oil employed must be good insulator , non-evaporating , non-corrosive
on the metal disc or vane . It should net be subjected to change of property with
temperature. Two methods of fluid friction damping are available. In the 1 st
method , light vanes are attached to the spindle of the moving system . the vanes
are dipped into a oil pot and are completely submerged by the oil . The motion of
the moving system is always opposed by the friction of damping oil on the vanes.

10

The damping forces thus created always increases with the increase in velocity
of vanes . There is no damping force when the vanes are stationary.
In the second method , a disc attached to the spindle of the moving system is
immersed in damping oil . the frictional drag developed during the motion of the
disc always opposes the motion of the moving system and becomes zero when
the disc is stationary . The suspension system of the disc should be cylindrical
and of small diameter so that the surface tension effect is negligible .

Eddy current damping:

When a sheet of conducting but non-magnetic material like copper or aluminum
moves in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force , an e.m.f. is induced
in the sheet , due to which a current flows through the short circuited path
,encountered . This current is called eddy current which interacts with the
magnetic field to produce an electromagnetic torque opposing the motion of the
conducting sheet. The torque due to eddy current is proportional to the
magnitude of eddy current and the magnetic field. The magnitude of current is
proportional to the velocity of the conductor . Hence if the strength of the
magnetic field is constant , the damping torque is zero when the conductor is at
rest , but increases when the conductor starts moving . There are two methods of
providing eddy current damping .
In the 1st method a thin disc or vane of conducting material like copper or
aluminum is mounted on the spindle carrying the moving system and the pointer .
The vane or disc is positioned so that its edge rotates between the poles of a
permanent magnet . In second method of providing eddy current damping as
used in PMMC instrument , the coil is wound on alight metal former in which
eddy current are produced due to movement of the coil in the field of a
permanent magnet .

i)

Eddy current damping torque with metal disc:

11

Considering a metallic disc of thickness t , mean radius r and of resistivity

rotating with angular velocity
and cutting through the magnetic field of
permanent magnet with uniform flux density B
The instantaneous e.m.f. induced in this portion of disc in the inter polar gap ,
e Blv Blr
The resistance of the eddy current path , consisting only the portion of the
l
disc which is immediately under the pole , R
wt
e Blr Bwrt
I

Kl
The eddy current , e R
K (A)
wt
B 2 wlrt
Damping force , F BI e l
(N)
K
B 2 wlrt
r (N-m)
Damping torque, Td Fd r
K
B 2 wlr 2 t
B 2 r 2 At

Or Td
K
K
wl

[
, the area of the pole face]

The actual resistance of the total eddy current path depends upon the radial
position of pole and let it be K times as high as that of section under the poles
, K is always greater than unity .
The magnitude of damping torque may be varied by adjusting the radial
position of the poles. Damping torque decreases with the distance of the
magnet towards the edge of the disc and becomes zero when the centre of
the poles are at the edge of the disc .

ii)

Eddy current damping torque with a metal former:

In PMMC instrument eddy current damping is obtained by employing a

metallic former on which the coil i9s wound so that metal former acts as a
single turn short circuited coil rotating in the field of permanent magnet and
thus producing eddy current and damping force on the moving system .
Let the metallic former of length l metre and diameter of d metre rotates in
radial field of permanent magnet of uniform flux density B Wb/m2 with angular

12

velocity w radians per second. Let the thickness and width of the section of
metallic former be t and w metre respectively .
The e.m.f induced in each side of the former = Blv
d
d
Bld (V) [ v
Total induced e.m.f. in the former , e 2 Blv 2 Bl
]
2
2(l d )
Resistance of the path for eddy current , R
(ohm)
t

Where is the resistively of the metal of former in

e
Bld
Bldwt
Ie

Eddy current
R 2(l d ) 2(l d ) (A)
wt

The damping force, F BI e l

Damping torque Td Fd

B 2 l 2 dwt
(N)
2 (l d )

B 2 l 2 d 2 wt
(N-m)
2 (l d )

Td
B 2 l 2 d 2 wt

(N-m/rad)
2 (l d )

Hence the damping can be varied by varying the thickness of the metal
former .

Damping constant K d

Electromagnetic damping:
The movement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a current in the coil due to
induced e.m.f. ,which interacts with the magnetic field to produce torque . This
torque opposes the movement of the coil . The magnitude of the current and
hence the damping torque is dependant on the resistance of the coil circuit .

13

Magnet system:
Special alloys steel are used in instrument magnet construction . Tungsten steel
has been popular since the early days. Cobalt chrome steel has also been used
because of their higher coercivity and where economy of weight and space is
important . But recent years , Alnico magnets has been used to an increasing
extent .Ideally an instrument magnet should have in its air gap high magnetic flux
density which may not change with time or temperature . The design of
instrument magnets involves consideration of weight and economy of space ,
expense of materials and manufacturing processes , and performance of
magnetization both as well as the field strength desired in the air gap . In most of
the applications, the field strength may be expected to be between 0.05 and 0.25
T in air gap of 1.5-2.5 mm length , depending on the size and type of instrument.
Permanet magnets are made of hard materials , i.e. materials which have a
broad hysteresis loop (large co-ercive force) so that they are not subject to self
demagnetization . In order that the volume of the permanent magnet is small ,
the (BH) , of the material used should be large .The following table gives data for
magnetic materials used for permanent magnets.

Material
10%

Carbon

Remenance
(Wb/m2)
0.9

Co-ercive
force
(A/m)
4,000

14

Value of B
for (BH)max
(T)
0.6

Value of H
for (BH)max

(BH) max

2,600

1,560

steel
6% Tungsten
steel
35% Cobalt
steel
Alnico
Alini
Alcomax-III
Alcomax-IV

1.05

5,200

0.7

3,750

2625

0.9

20,000

0.6

13,000

7800

0.8
0.55
1.25
1.1

40,000
46,000
54,000
60,000

0.56
0.36
0.95
0.8

24,000
28,000
40,000
43,000

13,500
10,000
38,000
34,000

Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is an electrical indicating type instrument used for detecting
presence of small currents or voltages in a circuit and measuring the polarity ,

15

magnitude of them in a closed circuit. By construction , a galvanometer consists

of a moving coil and a permanent magnet producing D.C. magnetic field.
Torque equation of galvanometer:
The D Arsonval galvanometer consists of a moving coil of rectangular geometry
and permanent magnet having the following parameters:
l =length of vertical side
d =width of the coil
N =No. of turns of the coil
B =Flux density in the air gap at the coil position
i =steady current flowing through the coil
S =torque constant
F =steady deflection
Force on each conductor of the vertical side of the coil= BilSin
Where = angle between direction of magnetic field and the line passing
through the side conductor. If the D.C. magnetic field is radial , then =90
Then force on each side of the coil= NBil
Deflecting torque , Td = force X distance = NBild = NBiA (N-m)
where area of the coil face , A ld (m )
Since for a galvanometer , N ,B and A are constants , then Td Gi (N-m)
, where G is called the galvanometer constant = NBld (N-m/A )
Dynamic behaviour of galvanometer:
When the moving coil of the galvanometer is energized by the flow of steady
current , the moving system does not reach to its steady state deflection
immediately but will take some time or period of transition during which the
deflection s changing . This is known as transient or dynamic behavior of
galvanometer . This behaviour will greatly depend on the design constants of the
galvanometer , such as ) displacement constant I) inertia constant iii) damping
constant v) control constant . The dynamic behaviour is expressed by the
equation of motion of the moving system having these design constants.
i)

Displacement constant:

It is the amount of deflecting torque produced due to flow unit current .e.
T
G d (N-m/A)
i
ii)

Inertia constant:

A retarding torque s produced owing to inertia of the moving system

This torque s dependent on the movement of inertia of the moving system and
angular acceleration .

16

d 2
, where J s called inertia torque constant and is
dt 2
equal to the moment of inertia of the moving system. Thus the retarding torque
produced per unit angular acceleration is called inertia constant (N-m/Rad-sec)

Inertia torque Td J

iii)

Damping constant

Damping is provided by the friction due to motion of the moving system in the
surrounding air and also by induced electrical effects on the moving coil carrying
current . Damping torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the moving
d
D , where
system . Thus damping torque is given by the equation : TD D
dt

D = damping coefficient ( N-m/Rad-sec)

iv)

Control constant:

A controlling torque is produced due to elasticity of the moving system which tries
to restore the system back to its equilibrium position . Controlling torque Tc S
,where S =control constant (N-m/Rad)
Dynamic equation of motion of the galvanometer:

There are four torques acting on the moving system of the galvanometer at ant
time , since the energization of the coil as
deflecting torque ( Td ) tends to accelerate the coil
Inertia torque ( Ti ) tends to retard the moving system proportional to angular
acceleration
damping torque ( TD ) tends to retard the moving system in proportion to the
angular velocity
control torque ( Tc ) tends to retard the moving system in proportion to angular
displacement
At any time , t within the transition period , the deflecting torque must be equal
the all retarding torque , Thus Td Ti TD Tc
d 2
d
Or J 2 D
S Gi
dt
dt
Where , J = Inertia constant
D =damping constant
S =spring constant

17

G =galvanometer constant

=deflection at time t
i = current at time t
The above equation is a linear 2 nd degree differential equation , whose solution s
the sum of C.F. (complementary function representing the transient condition )
and PI( particular integral representing the steady state condition)
Solution of C.F.:
d
m , the auxiliary equation s : Jm 2 Dm S 0
dt
D D 2 4 JS
D D 2 4 JS
The roots are given by: m1
and m2
2J
2J

Assuming

The solution : Ae m1t Be m2t , where A ,B are constants , whose values are to
be determined from the initial conditions.
Solution of P.I.:

Case a)
When D 2 4 JS , The roots ( m1 , m2 ) are imaginary . Under these condition , the
motion is oscillatory
D
4 JS D 2
j
k1 jk 2
2J
2J
And m2 k1 jk 2

Now m1

Ae ( k1 jk2 )t Be ( k1 jk2 )t F
or e k1t [ Ae jk2t Be jk2t ] F
or e k1t [ A(Cosk 2t jSink 2t ) B (Cosk 2t jSink 2t )]

or e k1t [Cos (k 2t ( A B)) Sin(k 2t ( A B))] F

or Fe k1t [ SinCosk 2t CosSink 2t ] F
Where F and are constants such that
F

( A B) 2 ( A B) 2

1
and tan [

( A B)
]
j ( A B)

18

The above equation signifies that , when a steady current passes through the
coil , the angular deflection starts and will oscillate sinusoidally with exponentially
decreasing amplitude before reaching to a final steady state value as f .The
frequency of oscillation is given by : f d

d
1

4 JS D 2
2J

4J

And the time period is given by : Td f

4 JS D 2
d
The motion is called damped oscillatory and the galvanometer is called
underdamped. The plot of vs t under damped oscillation s shown below:

Case b)
When D 2 4 JS , the roots of auxiliary equation are equal i.e. m1 m2 m
The solution in this case is given by : f e
d
D
[ e
dt
2J

D
t
2J

{ A Bt} Be

D
t
J

] [e

D
t
2J

d
0 0 f A
dt
D
. f
and B
2J

The solution is : f [1 e
Now D and

2J

D
t
2J

(1

D
t
J

[ A Bt ]

D
. A B Bt}]
2J

At t 0 , 0 and
A f

D
2J

D
.A B
2J

D
t )]
2J

S
c
J

t
Hence the solution is : f [1 e c (1 c t )]

The above equation signifies that the moving system quickly moves to its final
steady position without any oscillations. The motion is called critically damped
motion and the galvanometer is called critically damped . The plot of vs . t
under critically damped condition s shown below:

19

Case c)
When D 0 , the roots of the equation is m1

2 j JS
S
j
J
J

S
. Thus roots are imaginary with opposite sign
J

The solution is given by: f [1 FSin( n t 90 )]

And m2 j

F f and tan 1 ( ) 90 and n

S
J

where n = natural angular frequency of moving system

n
1 S

=natural frequency of sinusoidal oscillation

2
2 J
1
J
Tn
2 .
=Time period of oscillation .
fn
S
f (1 Cos n t )
fn

The motion is called undamped under which the moving system of the
galvanometer oscillates around the steady value F sinusoidally with frequency
f n . the plot of vs. t is shown below:

Case d)
When D 2 4 JS , then the roots are real .

20

The solution is Ae m1t Be m2t F , where A

B

m2 F
and
m2 m1

m1 F
m2 m1

F [1

m2
m1
e m1t
e m2t ]
m2 m1
m2 m1

Now m1

D
D 2 4 Js
D
D2 S

0 ( 2 1)
2
2J
2J
2J
4J
J

D
D 2 4 JS

0 ( 2 1)
2J
2J
D
Where D , is called relative damping factor
c

And m2

And 0

S
2
2 S
4 J 2 02
; D0 4 JS 4 J
J
J

2
2
Now D 4 J (

2
or 4 J

D02
02

S2
d2 ) 4 J 2 ( 02 d2 )
J

d
d2
d2
D2
2
1 2 d 0 1 2

or ,
,
2
2
2

D0
0
0
0

m 2 m1 0 ( 2 1) 0 ( 2 1) 2 0 2 1

Hence
f [1

f [1

the
0 ( 2 1)
2 0 2 1

e 0

complete
solution
2
0 ( 1) (
( 1 ) t
2

2 0 2 1

is
2 1 ) t

The above equation represents a decaying motion without oscillation . This

motion is called overdamped motion . This motion is usually slow and is not
desirable in indicating instrument . the plot vs. under overdamped case is
shown below:

21

Damping of galvanometer:
a) Mechanical damping:

In this type of damping , air friction is produced owing to the motion of moving
coil in the air surrounding it . So damping torque due to air friction is given by :
d
Mechanical damping: Tm Dm
dt

, where Dm =damping constant due to mechanical damping

b) Electromagnetic damping:

Electromagnetic damping is produced by the induced effects when the coil

moves in the magnetic field and a closed path is provided by the currents to
flow . The electromagnetic damping takes place due to ) eddy currents produced
n the metal former ii) current circulated in the coil circuit by induced e.m.f.
generated when coil rotates in the magnetic field.

22

i)

Damping due to induced eddy current:

If the coil is mounted on the metallic former , then eddy current flows through the
former due to induced eddy e.m.f.. With the interaction of the magnetic field and
eddy current , a damping torque s produced . The voltage induced n the metallic
former s given by : e = no. of conductors X e.m.f. generated n each conductor =
d
d
2 Blv 2 Bl Bld ( )
2

dt

[ metallic former has only two side conductors i.e. N=1]

If R f be the resistance of the former , then damping torque produced by the
former is given by: T f

( Bld ) 2 d
(
)
Rf
dt

[ torque =conductors X force on each conductor X distance ]

Now the displacement constant G NBld
T f

G 2 d
d
( ) D former ( )
2
N R f dt
dt

where D former is the damping constant due to resistance of the former

D former

G2
N 2Rf

Eddy current damping torque in metal former:

For rectangular former having dimensions as l ,b and d ,where l length of the
former, b =width of former (m) , d =breadth of former (m) and =resistivity of
former material , the resistance of path of eddy currents is given by:
resistivit y length 2(l d ) 2 (l d )
Rf

area
bt
bt
Ee
Bld
Blbtd

Eddy current : I e
Rf
2 (l d ) / bt 2 (l d )

Damping force :

FD BI e l B

Damping torque : TD FD d
Damping constant K D

Blbtd
B 2 l 2 btd
l
2 (l d )
2 (l d )

B 2 l 2 d 2 bt
B 2 l 2 d 2 bt
d
2 (l d )
2 (l d )

TD
B 2 l 2 d 2 bt B 2 l 2 d 2 bt

(Nm/rad-sec)

2 (l d ) 2 (l d )

23

Eddy current damping torque in metal disc:

When a thin metal disc is attached to the moving system and when this disc
moves in the field of a permanent magnet during rotation of the moving system
under the action of deflection torque , then eddy current is induced in the metal
disc and an eddy current damping torque is produced in acting in opposite
direction to the deflecting torque.. The following mathematical analysis shows the
relation between damping torque and various parameters of metal disc.
For a circular metal disc , if the poles of permanent magnet is placed near the
periphery of the disc at a distance R between the centre of the poles and centre
of the disc , then the induced e.m.f. in the portion of the disc below the magnet is
given by:
E e Blv BdR

Resistance of the eddy current path under the poles =

d
bt

Actual path of eddy current is not limited to the portion of the disc under the
magnet but is greater than this . Therefore to take this factor into account the
d
actual resistance is taken as K times
bt

resistance of eddy current path

Re

Kd
bt

The value of the constant K depends upon the position of poles.

Eddy current I e

Ee
BdR
BRb

Re K d / bt
K

Damping force FD B

BRbt
B 2 Rdbt
d
K
K

B 2 R 2 dbt
Damping torque TD
K
Damping constant K D

TD
B 2 R 2 dbt

( Nm/rad-sec.)

24

It is clear that the damping torque can be changed by changing the distance of
the poles from the centre of the disc. (i.e. the radial distance of poles w.r.t. the
centre of the disc)

ii) Damping due to coil circuit resistance:

In general , a series resistance of suitable value is connected to moving coil of

the galvanometer for limiting the current .
Let R = resistance of galvanometer circuit , when closed
If = Rc resistance of coil and Re = external resistance , then R Rc Re
The voltage induced in the coil due to its rotational motion is given by:
e = no. of conductor X e.m.f. induced due to relative motion between
magnetic field and current flowing in the conductor
d d
d

e 2 NBlv 2 NBl

( ) NBld ( )
2 dt
dt

where N = no. of turns in coil

2 N =no. of conductors in coil
l = length of the coil
d =width of the coil

v =tangential velocity of the conduction due to rotational speed = d

The current flowing in the coil due induced e.m.f. is given by:
e NBld d
i

dt

Torque produced owing to current flowing in the coil is given by:

Tcoil =force acting on conductors X distance

= NBlxd NBld

NBld d
( NBld ) 2 d
G 2 d
( )
( )
( )
R
dt
R
dt
R dt

damping constant due to resistance of the coil circuit Dcoil

G2
R

Total electromagnetic damping torque s given by :

G2
G 2 d
d

Te Tcoil T f (

N 2Rf

dt

De

dt

where De = damping constant due to electromagnetic effect =

25

G2
G2
2
R
N Rf

Total damping effect is made up of two components .e. damping due to

mechanical effects and damping due to electromagnetic effects .
d
d
d
d

TD Tm Te Dm

dt

De

dt

( Dm De )

dt

dt

where D = damping constant due to combined effects of mechanical and

electromagnetic type damping
Critical resistance for damping:

It has been seen that electromagnetic damping occurs due to resistance of

moving coil circuit and resistance of the eddy current effect on the metal former .
G2

G2

Thus De R 2
N Rf
But damping due to metal former is usually small and can be neglected .So
De

G2
R

For critical damping case D Dc 2 KJ

G2
R

Thus for critical damping , the total resistance of the galvanometer circuit should
be : R

G2
2

KJ .

For a given galvanometer are constants . So critical damping condition can be

obtained by connecting an external resistance in series with the moving coil .
External series resistance required for critical damping : Re R R g

G2
2

KJ R g

, where is resistance of the galvanometer coil .

This external resistance is called critical damping resistance external (CDRX)
Sensitivity of galvanometer:

There are three different sensitivity parameters for galvanometer as i) Current

sensitivity ii) Voltage sensitivity iii) Meg-ohm sensitivity
i)

Current sensitivity:

It is defined as the full scale deflection in mm. Produced by unit current and is
given by:
S i F / i , but F G / K , S i Gi / K Rad/A
ii)

Voltage sensitivity:

The voltage sensitivity is defined as the deflection in scale divisions per unit
voltage

26

Thus S v iR 10 6 scale division/uV

g
Where R g =resistance of moving coil
= current through galvanometer coil
iii)

Meg-ohm sensitivity:

The meg-ohm sensitivity is the resistance of the coil circuit so that the
deflection will be 1 scale division with 1 volt impressed to the moving coil .
Thus S o resistance in meg ohm to give a deflection of one scale division
d
with 1 volt =
M-ohm / scale division
i 10 6

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)Instrument:

The PMMC instrument is commonly used for d.c. measurement . It utilizes the
magnetic effect produced by current carrying conductor and the working principle
is similar to that of D Arsonval galvanometer , the difference being that a direct
reading instrument is provided with pointer and scale arrangement. This type of
instrument consists of the following fundamental parts:

a) Moving coil

The moving coil is wound with many turns of enameled or silk covered
copper wire . The coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminum former which is
pivoted on jeweled bearings The coil moves freely in the field of a permanent
magnet .

27

b) Magnet system

The permanent magnet consisting of long U shape having soft iron pole
pieces is used in PMMC type meter. The material used for magnet is
Alcomax , Alnico , which have a high coercive force .The flux density varies
from 0.1 Wb/m2 to 1 Wb/ m2 . Since coercively is high , it is possible to use a
small coil having small no. of turns and hence a reduction in volume is
achieved . Alternatively in instruments having a large scale length it is
possible to increase the air gap length to accommodate large no. of turns.

c) Control mechanism

When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings , the control torque is
provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs . These springs also serves as
leads to the moving coil .

d) Damping mechanism

Damping is provided by either air friction mechanism or fluid friction

mechanism . Air friction mechanism consists of a light aluminum piston which
is attached to the moving system . This piston moves in a fixed air chamber
which is closed at one end . The clearance between piston and chamber
walls is uniform throughout and is very small. The cross section n of the
chamber is either circular or rectangular . When the piston moves into the
chamber , the air inside is compressed and the pressure of air , thus built up ,
opposes the motion of piston and hence whole of the moving system . When
the piston moves out of the chamber , pressure in the closed chamber falls ,
and the pressure on the open side of the piston is greater than on the closed
side . Thus there is again an opposition to motion. In an alternative

28

arrangement , an aluminum vane is attached to the spindle and moves in a

sectored shaped air chamber . This chamber is covered at the top and
bottom by plates. The aluminum piston shold not touch the wall otherwise
error may occur. In fluid friction damping mechanism , a light disc is attached
to the spindle and dips into an oil pot and is completely submerged in viscous
oil . When the spindle rotates , the disc also rotates and a frictional drag
force acting on the both surfaces of the oil is produced . This force always
opposes the motion . If the viscosity of the oil is greater , more drag force can
be produced . Increased damping is obtained by attaching a no. of vanes to
the spindle .
e) Pointer and scale:

The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale . The
pointer is of light-weight construction and , apart from those used in some
inexpensive instruments has the section over the scale twisted to form a
fine blade . This helps to reduce parallax errors in the reading of the scale .
The pointer blade usually moves over mirror adjacent to the scale so that
parallax can be avoided by its reflection while noting the reading from the
scale . The weight of the instrument is normally counter balanced by weight
rigidly attached at the end the ,diametrically opposite

Torque equation:
Let N = No. of turns of the moving coil
B =flux density of D.C. magnetic field produced by permanent magnet
l ==length of the coil
d =width of coil
I =the current flowing through moving coil
then the torque equation is given by: Td NBIdl GI
where G NBld = a constant
For spring control PMMC meter , steady deflection is produced when
deflecting torque becomes equal to control torque

29

Thus , Td Tc
constant

or GI K

, where

= steady deflection

and

= spring

(G / K ) I or I ( K / G )

As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the

meter , an uniform scale can be made .
PMMC Ammeter and Voltmeter:
Owing to low current carrying capacity of the moving coil instrument , these
instrument can be used directly for measurement of current and voltage . In
micro-ammeter and low range mili-ammeters about 20mA , the entire
current to be measured can be forced to pass through moving coil via spring
Their current carrying capacity limits the current which can be safely carried
around to about 20mA. For higher currents , the PMMC instruments are
largely used in conjunction with shunts , when used as ammeters and with a
high series resistance when used as voltmeters. D.C. ammeters are
normally designed to have a voltage drop of nearly 50mV to 100mV for full
scale deflection . Voltmeter have a range of 0-50mV or 0-100mV .
Ammeter shunt:
The basic movement of a D.C. ammeter is a PMMC type DArsonval
galvanometer . The moving coil is small and light and can carry very small
currents, since the construction of d.c. ammeter for measuring current more than
100mA is not feasible owing to the bulk and weight of the coil. When heavy
currents are to be measured , the major part of the current should be bypassed
through a low resistance parallel path , called shunt. Manganin usually used for
shunt as it gives low value of thermal e.m.f. with copper although it is liable to
corrosion and is difficult to solder . Constantan is a useful material for a.c. circuit
since its comparatively high thermal e.m.f. , being unidirectional , is ineffective on
these circuits . The construction of shunt is the same as that of low resistance
standards .Shunts for low currents are enclosed in the meter casing but for
currents above 200A , they are mounted separately (so that heat produced can
be effectively dissipated.) .
The general requirement for the ammeter shunt is
i)
the temperature coefficients of the material for shunt and moving coil
must be low and should be nearly as possibly the same
ii)
the shunt should carry the full scale current without excessive
temperature rise
iii)
The shunt should have a low thermal e.m.f. with temperature
iv)
The resistance of the shunt should remain constant with time
The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit.
Let Rm =internal resistance of the moving coil
R sh =resistance of shunt

30

I m =full scale deflection current

I = current to be measured
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the moving coil , the voltage drops
across shunt and coil must be same .
The ratio of total current to the coil current is called the multiplying factor of shunt
R
I
m
1 m
Im
Rsh
resistance of shunt = Rsh Rm /(m 1)
Effect of temperature changes in Ammeter:

Effect of temperature change in Ammeters:

The temperature error can be eliminated when the shunt and the moving coil are
made of the same material and kept at the same temperature . This method ,
however , is not satisfactory in practice as the temperature of the two parts are
not likely to change at the same rate . Additional disadvantage of using copper
shunt is that they are bulky as the resistivity of copper is small . Alternatively the
temperature effect can be eliminated by adding a series resistance made of
magnanin to the moving coil in addition to manganin shunt . The manganin has
resistivity 20 to 30 times higher than copper and also it has negligible
temperature co-efficient . Since copper forms a small fraction of the series
combination , the proportion in which the current would divide between the shunt
and coil would not change appreciably with the change in temperature . The
series resistance is called in this arrangement swamping resistance

31

Multi-range Ammeters:
The current range of D.C. ammeter may be further extended by adding multiple
shunts , selected by a range switch . If , if there are n No. of multiplying factors as
, there should be n No. of shunt resistances as
. At a time only one shunt
resistance is to be selected by a selector switch as shown in the fig. In an
alternative arrangement , the Universal shunt (or Ayrton shunt) may be used for
multi-range ammeter. It uses a single shunt resistor with multiple tapping point so
that different values for shunt resistor can be selected (shown in fig.) by selector
switch. By setting the selector position to 1st,2nd , nth , different multiplying
factors (as ) can be set. This is illustrated in the following way :
Considering that the meter ranges have to be extended to I 1 , I 2 , I 3 ...I n . , the
range selector switch position is to be set at 1,2 , nth respectively. For switch
position 1,
I m Rm ( I 1 I m ) R1

m1

R
I1
1 m
Im
R1

or ,

Thus the values of different sections of resistance i.e.

. The advantage of an
Ayrton shunt is that it eliminates the possibilities of the meter being in the circuit
without a shunt .

32

Voltmeter multiplier:
A PMMC meter can be converted into D.C. voltmeter by connecting a series
resistance with it . This series resistance is called as multiplier . The multiplier
limits the current through the meter so that it does not exceed the value for full
scale deflection and thus prevents the moving coil being damaged .
The resistance of the multiplier can be calculated as follows:
Let Rm = internal resistance of the moving coil
Rs =multiplier resistance
v =voltage across the moving coil for current
V =Full scale voltage of the PMMC type voltmeter
Since the multiplier resistance is connected in series , then v I m Rm
And V I m ( Rm Rs )
V I m Rm
V
Rs

Rm
Im
Im
R
V I m ( Rm R s )
1 s
So the voltage multiplying factor is m
v
I m Rm
Rm
resistance of multiplier Rs (m 1) Rm
Hence for the measurement of voltage m times the voltage range of the
instrument , the series resistance should be (m-1) times the meter resistance .
The essential requirement of the multiplier are:

33

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

The multiplier resistance must be non-inductive type

The change in multiplier resistance with temperature should be small
or the temperature co-efficient of multiplier material must be very small
They should be non-inductively wound for a.c. meters.
The resistance materials used for multipliers are manganin and
constantan

Multirange D.C. Voltmeter:

In a multirange voltmeter , different full scale voltage ranges may be covered by
i) use of individual multiplier resistance ii) by a potential divider arrangement.
a) By multiplier resistance :
In this method different voltage ranges are obtained by connecting different
values of multiplier resistors in series with the meter . The number of these
resistors is equal to the number of ranges required. For example , if there are n
no. of voltage ranges used as m1 , m 2 , m3 ....m n , then the no of different values
resistors will be as Rs1 , Rs 2 , Rs 3 .......Rsn etc. such that their values will be equal
to :
Rs1 (m1 1) Rm
Rs 2 (m2 1) Rm
R s 3 ( m3 1) Rm

Rsn ( mn 1) Rm
where Rm =meter resistance

34

b) By Potential divider :
Multiple resistances are connected in series with the PMMC instrument such
that connection to unknown voltage source is made to any one junctions of
these series resistances R1 , R2 , R3 ....Rn for selection of proper voltage range
as . The series resistances for the voltage ranges V1 , V2 ,....Vn
can be
computed as follows:
R1

V1
V1
Rm
Rm m1 Rm Rm ( m1 1) Rm
Im
v / Rm

V2
V2
Rm R1
Rm ( m1 1) Rm m2 Rm Rm ( m1 1) Rm ( m2 m1 ) Rm
Im
v / Rm
Similarly
R2

V3
Rm R1 R2 (m3 m2 ) Rm
Im
This method has the advantage that all multipliers except the first have
standard resistance values and can be obtained commercially in precision
tolerances . The range multiplier , R1 , is the only special resistor which must
be manufactured to meet specific circuit requirement .
R3

35

The sources of error in PMMC instrument:

i)
ii)

iii)

The weakening of permanent magnets due to aging at temperature

effects
Weakening of springs due to aging and temperature effects:
The weakening of springs with time can be reduced by careful use of
material and presaging during manufacture . However , the effect of
weakening of springs on the performance of the instrument is opposite to
that of aging of magnet. The weakening of magnet tends to decrease the
deflection for a particular value of current , while the weakening of springs
tends to increase the deflection. In PMMC instrument , a 1 C increase of
temperature reduces the strength of spring by about 0.04 % and reduces
flux density in the air gap of the magnet by about 0.02 % . Thus the net
effect , on the average , is to increase the deflection by about 0.02 % per
C.
Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature. The moving
coil is usually wound with copper wire having a temperature co-efficient of
0.004/C . when the instrument is used as a micro-ammeter or milliammeter and the moving coil is directly connected to the output terminals
of the instrument , the indication of the instrument for a constant current
would decrease by 0.04 % per C rise in temperature. In case the moving
coil instrument is used as a voltmeter a large series resistance of
negligible temperature co-efficient is used. . This eliminates the error due
to temperature . This is because the copper coil forms a very small
fraction of the total resistance of the instrument circuit and thus any
change in its resistance has a little effect on the total resistance.

36

Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instruments:

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

vi)

The scale is uniformly divided .

The power consumption is very low as 25uW to 200uW
The torque weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy of about 2
% of full scale deflection.
Since the operating force is large on account of large flux densities
which may be as high as 0.5 Wb/m2 , the errors due to stray magnetic
fields are small.
These instrument c an only be used in D.C. circuit , but not in A.C.
circuit because if the direction of current flow through moving coil
reverses periodically , the directions of deflecting torque also reverses .
Due to inertia of the moving system , it can not follow the rapid reversal
. Thus the pointer attached to the moving system and occupies the
mean position ( which is zero )over the scale .
The cost of these instrument is comparatively higher than other type of
instruments.

The chief disadvantages are:

These instruments are useful only for D.C measurement . The torque
reverses if the current reverses . If the instrument is connected to a.c. , the
pointer can not follow the rapid reversal and the deflection corresponding
to mean torque , which is zero . Hence these instruments can not be used
for a.c. The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron
instruments.

37

Moving Iron Instrument:

In PMMC type instrument , the deflection is directly proportional to the d.c.
quantity being measured . If this instrument is used to measure the a.c. quantity ,
the torque acting on the moving system is alternating .This means that the
moving system tends to oscillate about its zero position . If the frequency of
alternation of a.c. quantity is high , the moving system of the instrument can not ,
in general , follow these alternations , and so no deflection will be observed . So
PMMC instrument can not measure the a.c. quantity .
In moving iron type instrument , there is no moving coil , instead of which a plate
or vane of soft iron with high permeability forms the moving element of the
system . The iron vane is so situated that it can move in a magnetic field
produced by a stationary coil . The coil is excited by the the current or voltage
under measurement . when the coil is excited , it becomes an electromagnet and
the iron vane moves in such a way so as to increase the flux of the
electromagnet by occupying a position of minimum reluctance . The deflecting
force or torque produced is always in such direction so as to increase the
inductance of coil .
The moving iron instrument is classified into two types according to the
construction as i) attraction type ii) repulsion type .
In attraction type construction , the moving iron , consisting a flat disc made of
soft iron is eccentrically mounted or pivoted near the end of coil . When the
current flows through the coil , a magnetic field is produced , which attracts the
disc . The disc tend to move from the weaker magnetic field outside the coil into
the stronger field inside it . Whatever the direction of the current in the coil , the
magnetization of the moving iron is always such that attraction takes place
.Thus , the direction of deflecting torque will not depend on the direction of

38

current flowing through the coil and hence the pointer deflects to only one
direction . The controlling torque is provided by springs but gravity control can be
used for panel type instrument which are vertically mounted. Damping is
provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminum piston , which moves in a
fixed chamber closed at one end or with the help of a vane attached to the
moving system.

In repulsion type construction, there are two vanes inside the coil , one is fixed
and the other is movable. Two different types of design are followed as radial
vane ii) coaxial type vane . In radial vane type , two rectangular soft iron strips
are used , one is fixed at inside surface of the coil and the other is attached to the
spindle radially .When the coil is energized by the current , the vanes are
similarly magnetized and a force of repulsion exists between them . This force
moves the movable vane away from the fixed vane. In coaxial type design ,the
fixed iron may consists of tongue shaped piece of sheet iron bent into a
cylindrical form , the moving iron being another piece of sheet iron bent and
mounted so as to move parallel to the fixed iron and towards its narrower end.
The controlling torque is provided by springs The damping torque is provided by
air friction piston moving in enclosed chamber. The operating magnetic field in
moving iron instrument is very weak due air core electromagnet and therefore
eddy current damping is never used . It is clear that whatever may be the
direction of current in the coil , the iron vanes are so magnetized that there is
always a force of attraction or repulsion . The moving iron is unpolarised ,i.e. they
are independent of the direction in which the current passes . therefore , these
instrument can be used with both a.c. and d.c.

39

Torque equation :
An expression of torque of a moving iron instrument may be derived by
considering the energy relations when there is a small increment in current
supplied to the instrument . when this happens there will be small deflection and
some mechanical work will be done .
Let Td be deflecting torque
Mechanical work done = Td d
Suppose the initial current is I , and the inductance of the coil is L
If the current increases by dI then the deflection changes by d and the
Inductances changes by dL

d
dL
dI
( LI ) I
L
dt
dt
dt
The electrical energy supplied is eIdt I 2 dL ILdI
1 2
1
I L to
( I dI ) 2 ( L dL)
The stored energy changes from
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
The change in stored energy is ( I 2 IdI dI )( L dL) I L
2
2

If

e be the applied voltage , then

Neglecting 2nd and higher order terms ,

The change in stored energy is ILdI

1 2
I dL
2

From the conservation of energy, Electrical energy supplied =increase in stored

energy+ mechanical work done
Thus
Td

I 2 dL ILdI ILdI

1 2
I dL Td
2

1 2
I dL
2

or deflecting torque Td

1 2 dL
I
2 d

The moving system is provided with spring control and it comes to steady
position when the deflecting torque is balanced by the controlling torque.
Thus Td Tc or K

1 2 dL
1 I 2 dL
I
or ,
2 d
2 K d

Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the operating
current . The deflecting torque is , therefore , unidirectional whatever may be the
polarity of the current. As the deflection is proportional to square of current , it is
evident that the scale of such an instrument is non uniform .If there is no
saturation , the change of inductance with angle of deflection is uniform (i.e.

dL
d

= a constant ) . Therefore the instrument exhibits a pure square law response .

40

In actual instruments

dL
d

is not constant and is usually a function of angular

position of the moving iron and thus the scale is distorted from the square law in
a manner dependant upon the way in which inductance varies with angle of
deflection . This variation can be controlled by suitable design i.e. by choosing
proper dimensions , shape and position of iron vanes . Thus it is possible to
design and construct an instrument with a scale which is very nearly uniform over
a considerable part of its length . The necessary condition relating to

dL
d

against for linearization may be obtained when it is assumed as I C

dL
2K
dL 2 K
2

Also
or
=a constant . Thus for a linear scale , the product (
d C
d C 2

dL
) should be a constant . This is not possible as it requires
d

to be infinite at

. In practice the scale is made linear from the maximum deflection down to about
1
dL
th of the maximum deflection . The plot of
10
d

against over the range is

a rectangular hyperbola . It is possible to design the instrument in which a small

portion of the range , which is of particular interest or importance , is expanded
over a large part while the remainder of the scale is compressed into a relatively
small space.

Shunts for moving iron instruments:

Moving iron instrument can be used for a range of 50A since in these instrument ,
moving part does not carry ant current . Hence shunts are not necessary , except
for large currents . However , range of the instrument can further be extended
using shunt. For a.c. operation multiplying factor of the shunt depends on the
frequency and inductance resistance ratios of coil and shunt as illustrated in the
following way:
Since the shunt is connected in parallel to the coil, the currents in coil and shunt
are in inverse ratio of their impedances.

41

or

I sh

Im

R (Lm )

R (Lsh ) 2
2
m
2
sh

Rsh 1 (

Lm 2
)
Rm

Lsh 2
)
Rsh
In order that the division of currents through coil and shunt shall remain same for
all frequencies , the ratio of time constants of two branches must be same or in
Lsh Lm

other words ,
.
Rsh Rm
Rm 1 (

Multiplier for moving iron instruments:

The voltage range of moving iron instrument can be extended by the use of a
series resistance called multiplier with the fixed coil .For operation on a.c. with
different frequencies , it is necessary that the total impedance of the voltmeter
circuit should remain substantially constant over a large frequency range . Since
the series resistance forms a major portion of the total impedance of the
voltmeter circuit , it is desirable that this resistor should be either of non-inductive
type or have as small as inductance as possible .
Let R = resistance of meter
L = inductance of meter
I m =meter current for full scale deflection

=angular frequency

Voltage drop across the meter for full scale deflection : v I m R 2 2 L2

Rs =resistance of multiplier
V =voltage to be measured
Total resistance of meter circuit = R Rs
Total impedance of circuit = ( R Rs ) 2 2 L2
The meter current I m

V
( R R s ) 2 2 L2

Hence , voltage multiplying factor m

( R Rs ) 2 2 L2
R 2 2 L2

It is evident that the multiplying factor will change with frequency .

Comparison
instrument:

between

Attraction

and

42

Repulsion

type

moving

iron

Sources of errors in moving iron instruments:

There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments errors
which occur with both a.c. and d.c. and the other which occur only with a.c. only .
Error with both D.C. and A.C. :
i)
Hysteresis error :
This error occurs as the value of flux density is different for the same
current for ascending and descending order . The value of flux density
is higher for ascending values of current and therefore , the instrument
tends to read higher for descending values of current than for
ascending values. This error can be minimized by making the iron
parts small so that they demagnetize themselves quickly . Another
method is to operate the iron parts at low values of flux density so that
the hysteresis effects are small. With the use of nickel iron alloys with
narrow hysteresis (B-H loop) , the error may be brought down to less
than 0.05 %
ii)

Temperature error :
The effect of temperature changes on moving iron on moving iron
instruments arises chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring .
The error may be 0.02 % per C change in temperature . In voltmeter ,
errors are caused due to self heating of coil and series resistance . The
temperature of the coil may increase by 10 to 20 C for a power
consumption of 1W . Therefore , the resistance increased by about 4 to
8 % , causing a decrease in current for a given voltage . This produces
a decreased deflection . Therefore, the series resistance should be
made of material like Maganin which has a small temperature coefficient . the value of series resistance should be very large as
compared with the coil resistance in order to minimize errors due to
self heating .

iii)

Stray magnetic field error:

The errors due to stray magnetic field may be appreciable as the
operating magnetic field is weak ( about 0.006 to 0.0075 Wb/m at full
scale deflection ) and hence can be easily distorted . Such errors
depends upon the direction of the stray magnetic field relative to the
field of the instrument . These errors can be minimized by using an iron
case or a thin iron shield over the working parts.

Errors with A.C. only:

43

Changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes of reactance of the

working coil and also due to changes of magnitude of eddy currents set up in
the metal parts of instrument. The change of impedance of the coil , of
resistance R and series resistance r is only of importance in case of voltmeter
.s. If L is the inductance of the coil , the current for an applied voltage V will be
given by: I

V
( R Rs ) 2 2 L2

The deflection of the moving iron voltmeter depends upon the current
through the coil . Therefore , the deflection for a given voltage will be less at
high frequencies than at low frequencies . To some extent , compensation to
this type of error is possible by connecting a capacitor C across the series
resistance R s

This shunting capacitor will make the circuit behave like a pure resistance so
that the frequency changes have no effect on the readings of the instrument .
Thus the compensated instrument will have a power factor nearly equal to
unity .
Rs
Rs jCRs2
jL
Now the impedance of the circuit Z jL
1 jCRs
1 2 C 2 Rs2
Since CRs 1 ,
2
2
2 2
then Z jL ( Rs jCRs )(1 C Rs )
2
2
2 3
3 4
2
2 3
2
2 2 2
= jL Rs jCRs C Rs j Rs Rs C Rs j[L CRs (1 C Rs )]
Z 2 Rs2 (1 2 C 2 Rs2 ) 2 2 ( L CRs2 ) 2
2

This must equal Rs in order that the a.c. calibration at all frequencies and
d.c. calibration is the same .
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
Thus Rs Rs (1 C Rs ) ( L CR s )
2
2
2 2
4
4 4
2
2 2
= Rs (1 2 C Rs C Rs ) ( L CRs )
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
4
4
4
= Rs (1 2 C Rs ) ( L CRs )
[ C Rs 1 ]
2
2
2 4
2 2
2
2 4
2
2
= Rs 2 C Rs L C Rs 2 LCRs

L2 2 LCR s2 C 2 Rs4 0
2
or, L 2.41CRs
1
L
L
C
( 2 ) 0.41( 2 )
2.41 Rs
Rs

44

Since the deflection of the instrument depends upon the current through the
coil , the deflection for a given voltage will be less at high frequency than at
low frequency . The error due to this problem can be eliminated somehow by
connecting a capacitor in parallel to series resistance r .The idea of shunting
the series resistor is to make the circuit behave like a pure resistor so that the
frequency changes have no effect on the readings of the instrument . Thus
the compensated instrument will have a power factor nearly equal to unity .
The changes in frequency will cause the change in eddy current induced in
metal parts of the instrument. Let the mutual inductance between the coil and
the iron parts be M . The induced voltage due to current I in the instrument
coil lags the current I by 90 . As a result of this induced voltage an eddy
MI
current flows and its magnitude is given by: I e
, where
2
Re 2 L2e
A component of this eddy current ,which will oppose the instrument current
is given by:
I e' I e Cos (90 e ) I e Sin( e )
This current will crease opposing field thus reducing the torque on the
moving system . From the phasor diagram , it is seen that
2 MLe
MI
I e' I e Sin( e )

I , when Re Le , i.e. when

Re2
Re2 2 L2e

is small
MI

'
and I e L , when Le Re , i.e. when is large.
e
Thus at low frequency , the eddy current effect increases with square of the
frequency while at high frequency , the effect is practically constant . For
these reason moving iron instruments are unsuitable for frequencies above
125 Hz.

45

Vibration galvanometer:
The instrument is used generally as a.c. bridge null detector . n construction ,
the galvanometer is similar to DArsonval type , having a moving coil
suspended between the poles of strong parmanent magnet . But since the
instrument s used with a.c. circuit , the moving coil is energsed by a.c. . When
an alternating current is passed through the coil , an torque is produced ,
which makes the coil vibrate with a frequency equal to the frequency of the
a.c. . On account of inertia of the moving parts , the amplitude of vibration
becomes small . However when the natural frequency of oscillation of the
moving part is made to equal to the frequency of a.c. , the mechanical
resonance is obtained and the moving system vibrate about its axis of rotation
with large amplitude . The damping is very small in these galvanometer n
order to obtain sharp resonance characteristic.

46

Construction:
The moving coil consists of a few turns of wire made of fine bronze or
platinum silver . This wires passes over a small pulley at the top and s pulled
tight by a spring attached to the pulley . The tension of the spring can be
adjusted by tuning a head attached to the spring . the loop of wire s stretched
over two ivory bridge pieces , the distance between the pieces s adjustable .
The moving coil carries a small mirror ,upon which a focused light beam is
incident and reflected . when the moving coil vibrate due to passage of
current , the reflected beam from the mirror throws a band of light on the
graduated scale . the effective resistance of the wire loop is about 250 ohm .
The current sensitivity s 50 mm /uA
Performance analysis :
Let the alternating current
flows through the moving coil , producing
instantaneous deflection from the equilibrium position .
The equation of motion is given by :
T TD Tc Td

where
Td = deflection torque = GI m Sin (t )
d 2
Ti = Inertia torque= J
dt 2
d
TD =Damping torque= D
dt

Tc =Controlling torque= S

G =Displacement constant
d
d
J 2 D
S GI m Sin (t )
dt
dt

The deflection can be determined by solving the above differential equation

consisting of C.F. and P.I. , which represents the transient and steady state
behaviour of the moving system .
i.e. (t ) t f
where
t = solution of auxiliary equation
d 2
d
i.e. J 2 D
S 0
dt
dt
and f =solution of particular integral
d 2
d
i.e. J 2 D
S GI m Sin(t )
dt
dt
The roots of the auxiliary equations are :

47

m1

D D2 4 JS
2J

and m2

D D2 4 JS
2J

The solution of C.F. is : t Ae Be

Since the damping of the vibration galvanometer is made very small ( i.e.
undamped condition ) , the roots and are complex
m1t

m2t

The defection under steady state condition is found by solving the particular
d 2
d
integral : J 2 D
S GI m Sin(t )
dt
dt
The P.. is of the form : f max Sin(t )
d f
d 2 f

maxCos (t ) and
max 2 Sin(t )
2
dt
dt
Substituting these values in equation of motion , we get ,
max J 2 Sin(t ) max DCos (t ) GI m Sin(t )
2
or , Sin(t ).[ max S max J ] max DCos (t ) GI m Sin(t )
Now when , at t , then max D GI m Sin( )

2
When (t )
, then max J max S GI m Cos ( )
2

Squaring and and adding them , we get ,

2
2
max
D 2 2 max
( S J 2 ) 2 G 2 I m2
or , max

Also from

GI m
( D ) ( S J 2 ) 2
2

, tan
GI m

D
D
1
)
or , tan (
2
S J
S J 2

( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2

Sin(t )

Hence the complete solution is given by:

(t ) e

D
t
2J

.F .Sin(

4 JS D 2
t )
2J

GI m
( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2

Sin(t )

Since the 1st term of the above equation represent transient behaviour ,which
usually affects only the 1st few vibrations after switching on , and diminishes to
zero , the steady state deflection id given by:
(t )

GI m
( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2

Sin(t )

48

Thus under steady state condition , the deflection of the vibration

galvanometer shows sinusoidal vibration with amplitude as given by :
max

GI m
( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2

And the frequency of vibration s given by : f

1
2

S
J

= undamped natural

frequency of the moving coil .

In the design of vibration galvanometer , the damping s made extremely small
( i.e. D 0 ) , so that transient behaviour vanishes very quickly
Tuning of Vibration galvanometer:
It is the method by which the natural frequency of the moving system is
adjusted to value such that maximum amplitude of vibration will occurs for a
passage of alternating current through the coil . In tuning of the galvanometer
, the objective is to make the amplitude as large as possible for a given
current . The amplitude of vibration can be made maximum by ) increasing
the value of galvanometer constant (.e. G) ) by decreasing the value of
( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2 . Since G NBA , it may be made large by using a coil of
large area A and with large no. of turns N . Also G can be increased by
increasing the air gap flux density B . But increasing the value of N and A will
increase also the value of inertia constant J and the term ( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2 .
therefore by increasing the value of B by using a powerful magnet is more
effective for obtaining large amplitude of vibration and deflection sensitivity . f
the value of the term ( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2 can be decreased , the amplitude of
vibration will increase . But for a given designed galvanometer , the values of
constants J and D are fixed and can not be changed . the control spring
coefficients S can only be changed by varying the distance between the ivory
bridge pieces . This will vary the length of the wire loop and thereby adjusting
the tension of the suspension of the moving system .
N order that the amplitude be maximum , the term ( D ) 2 ( S J 2 ) 2 should
be minimum . This requires to fulfill the condition :
S J 2 0 or ,

S
0
J

So when the frequency of the a.c. signal , applied s equal to the natural
frequency of the moving system , the amplitude of vibration reaches the
maximum value and is equal to

GI m
J
.
D
S

. The condition is known as

mechanical resonance .
The deflection of the moving system at various frequencies of a.c. signal and
at constant amplitude can be calculated from which a plot of f vs. can
be generated , which is a bell shaped curve . It is found that for a
galvanometer having a sharply peaked resonance curve a slightly deviation

49

from the resonance frequency results in large reduction in deflection

.Therefore , the galvanometer responds greatly to only fundamental
frequency of excitation , but less to the harmonic frequencies.
Vibration galvanometer can be used for frequencies between 100 to 1800
Hz . the deflection sensitivity w. r. t. frequency is obtained by taking derivative
of the deflection w.r.t. .
d

GI

f
m
[2D.2.( S J 2 )(2J )]
Thus , d 2
2
2 2
( D ) ( S J )

1 GI m .2.[D J ( S J 2 )]
3
=2
2
2 2 2
[( D ) ( S J ) ]

d f
d

S
J

At

S
J

d f

Or , d

S
J

,
GI m

S
(D 2 . )
J

3
2

the

sensitivity

GI m .D.
D 3 .(

S
J

S 3
)
J

by

GI m .J
GI m .J
GI m 1

(
)
D 2 .S
D 2 .S
D2 2 .

D J ( S J 2 ) 0

max

given

GI m .J
D 2 .S

The maximum deflection occurs at frequency

i.e.

is

or ,

, when

D
( S J 2 )
J

S D

J J2

50

or,

d f
d

S D

J J2

or

51