Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

An In-Depth Analysis
1014836

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Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

An In-Depth Analysis
1014836
Technical Update, March 2007

EPRI Project Manager

S. Eckroad

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
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CITATIONS
This document was prepared by
EPRI
942 Corridor Park Blvd.
Knoxville, TN 37932
Principal Investigators
H. Kamath
S. Rajagopalan

Mel Zwillenberg Associates, LLC

475 Richmond Ave.
Maplewood, NJ 07040
Principal Investigator
M. Zwillenberg

This document describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries: An In-Depth Analysis. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007. 1014836.

iii

ABSTRACT
The vanadium redox flow battery, sometimes abbreviated as VRB, is an energy storage
technology with significant potential for application in a wide range of contexts. Vanadium
redox batteries have already been used in a number of demonstrations in small-scale utility-scale
applications, and it is believed that the technology is close to being viable for more widespread
use. This report examines the vanadium redox technology, including technical performance and
cost issues that drive its application today and the trends that may affect its application in the
future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EPRI gratefully acknowledges VRB Power Systems, Inc. for its invaluable assistance in the
development of this report.

vii

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
Purpose................................................................................................................................1-2
Approach..............................................................................................................................1-2
2 AN OVERVIEW OF VANADIUM REDOX FLOW BATTERY TECHNOLOGY ......................2-1
Flow Battery Technology......................................................................................................2-1
Types of Flow Batteries........................................................................................................2-2
Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries..........................................................................................2-3
History ............................................................................................................................2-3
Vanadium Redox Batteries Construction and Operation ..................................................2-4
Vanadium Redox Electrochemistry ................................................................................2-4
Vanadium Redox Battery Construction ..........................................................................2-5
Performance of Vanadium Redox Batteries.........................................................................2-9
Energy Capacity.............................................................................................................2-9
Power ...........................................................................................................................2-10
Over-charge and over-discharge .................................................................................2-10
Electrolyte Crossover ...................................................................................................2-11
Space Requirement .....................................................................................................2-11
Maintenance.................................................................................................................2-12
Life ...............................................................................................................................2-12
Efficiency......................................................................................................................2-12
Response Time ............................................................................................................2-13
DC Electrical Characteristics........................................................................................2-14
AC Electrical Interconnection .......................................................................................2-14
Applications of Vanadium Redox Battery Technology .......................................................2-15
DR/Peak Shaving.........................................................................................................2-16
Spinning Reserve.........................................................................................................2-17
Windfarm Stabilization & Dispatch ...............................................................................2-19
Control/Dispatch Strategy ............................................................................................2-19
Prospects for Success .................................................................................................2-20
Notable Vendors and Developers ......................................................................................2-20
Intellectual Property and Licensing of Vanadium Redox Battery Technology..............2-20
Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd.................................................................................2-21
VRB Power Systems, Inc. ............................................................................................2-22
Cellennium Company, Ltd............................................................................................2-23
V-Fuel Pty Ltd. .............................................................................................................2-25
Funktionswerkstoffe Forschungs & Entwicklungs GmbH (FWG) .................................2-25
Major Field Demonstrations ...............................................................................................2-25
PacifiCorp Castle Valley Project ..................................................................................2-25
ix

King Island Project .......................................................................................................2-27

NEDO Project...............................................................................................................2-28
Subaru Project .............................................................................................................2-28
Planned Present and Future Demonstrations ....................................................................2-29
Sorne Hill Wind Farm ...................................................................................................2-29
3 VANADIUM REDOX BATTERY TECHNOLOGY STATUS ...................................................3-1
Design and Manufacturability of Vanadium Redox Battery Systems ...................................3-1
Vanadium Electrolyte .....................................................................................................3-1
Electrolyte Tanks............................................................................................................3-2
Piping, Pumps, and Auxiliary Components ....................................................................3-5
Electrical Cabling and Interconnection Hardware ..........................................................3-6
Power Conditioning Systems (PCS) ..............................................................................3-6
Interconnection between the PCS and the AC grid........................................................3-7
Cell Stacks .....................................................................................................................3-7
Availability, Cost, and Sources for Components and Raw Materials .................................3-10
Vanadium .....................................................................................................................3-11
Sulfuric Acid .................................................................................................................3-14
Ion Exchange Membrane .............................................................................................3-15
Carbon Felt Electrodes ................................................................................................3-16
Bipolar Current Collectors ............................................................................................3-17
Assessment of Potential Technical Challenges for Vanadium Redox Battery Energy Storage
Systems .............................................................................................................................3-17
Potential for Scale-Up ..................................................................................................3-17
Reliability and Operation ..............................................................................................3-18
Round-trip Efficiency ....................................................................................................3-19
Environmental and Disposal Issues .............................................................................3-22
Advanced Research.....................................................................................................3-26
4 PRESENT AND FUTURE COST ESTIMATES FOR VANADIUM REDOX BATTERY
TECHNOLOGY..........................................................................................................................4-1
Bottom-up System Capital Cost Structure Calculation.........................................................4-1
Calculating Capital Cost for Energy Storage Systems ...................................................4-1
Cost Gaps ......................................................................................................................4-2
Cost Assumptions ................................................................................................................4-3
Factory Costs .................................................................................................................4-3
Site Costs.......................................................................................................................4-7
Present-Day Cost Estimate..................................................................................................4-8
Future Volume Cost Estimates ..........................................................................................4-12
Cost Estimates for Larger Systems....................................................................................4-16
Reducing Uncertainty in Cost Estimates............................................................................4-17
5 CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................................................................5-1

Technical Performance ........................................................................................................5-1

Cost Performance ................................................................................................................5-1
Prospects for the Future.......................................................................................................5-2

xi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 High-level Block Diagram of a Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (Courtesy
Sumitomo Electric Industries) ....................................................................................................2-5
Figure 2-2 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Cell Stack (Courtesy Kansai Electric
Power Co) ..................................................................................................................................2-6
Figure 2-3 Flow Architecture in a Cellennium stack of cells. The cells are placed
horizontally in a vertical pile. The electrolytes are fed upwards through the cells in series
(Courtesy: Cellennium\) .............................................................................................................2-9
Figure 2-4 Cellennium Vanadium Redox Battery Prototype (Courtesy Cellennium
Thailand) ..................................................................................................................................2-24
Figure 2-5 Vanadium Redox Battery Facility on King Island, Tasmania (Courtesy
HydroTasmania and Pinnacle VRB) ........................................................................................2-27
Figure 2-6 SUBARU Vanadium Redox Battery Energy Storage System in Tomamae,
Japan (Courtesy J-Power) .....................................................................................................2-29
Figure 3-1 Double walled horizontal electrolyte tank installed at the Castle Valley
vanadium redox battery (Courtesy VRB Power Systems) .........................................................3-3
Figure 3-2 Vertical Electrolyte Tanks Installed at the Tomamae Wind Villa (Courtesy
J-Power).....................................................................................................................................3-4
Figure 3-3 Rubber bag used for vanadium electrolyte storage (Courtesy Sumitomo
Electric Industries) .....................................................................................................................3-5
Figure 3-4 Pumps and heat exchangers used in the Castle Valley vanadium redox
battery project (Courtesy: VRB Power Systems) ......................................................................3-6
Figure 3-5 Construction of a Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stack (Courtesy Sumitomo
Electric Industries) .....................................................................................................................3-8
Figure 3-6 Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stacks Installed at the Castle Valley Vanadium
Redox Battery (Courtesy VRB Power Systems) ........................................................................3-9
Figure 3-7 Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stacks Installed at the Tomamae Wind Villa
Farm (Courtesy J-Power)........................................................................................................3-10
Figure 3-8 Vanadium in the Periodic Table (Source: Wikipedia article on Vanadium,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium).....................................................................................3-11
Figure 3-9 Vanadium ions in solution. From left to right, V(II), V(III), V(IV), and V(V) (Source:
American Chemical Society, http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/images/8136element.vanadium.JPG)
.................................................................................................................................................3-11
Figure 3-10 World Vanadium Production by Country (Source: Canadian Minerals
Yearbook, 2001) ......................................................................................................................3-12
Figure 3-11 5 Year Price Variation in Vanadium Pentoxide Anhydride (Data source:
USGS Mineral Survey).............................................................................................................3-13
Figure 3-12 Recent price variation for sulfuric acid (Source: www.purchasingdata.com)......3-15
Figure 3-13 NAFION Future Pricing Projections (Source: DuPont Chemical) .....................3-16
Figure 3-14 Normalized Plant Operations Data for the PacifiCorp Vanadium Redox
Battery Facility at Castle Valley, Utah from February 2005 to January 2006 (Source:
VRB Power Systems) ..............................................................................................................3-19
Figure 3-15 Overall ac-ac Round Trip Efficiency Across One Year of Operation of
the Castle Valley Vanadium Redox Battery System ................................................................3-21
Figure 3-16 Energy Consumption in Various Components of the Castle Valley
Vanadium Redox Battery System ............................................................................................3-22
Figure 4-1 Cost Breakdown for Vanadium Electrolyte ...............................................................4-4
Figure 4-2 Cost Breakdown for Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stack ........................................4-5
xiii

Figure 4-3 Present-Day Capital Costs Estimates for Vanadium Redox Battery Systems..........4-9
Figure 4-4 Breakdown of Vanadium Redox Battery System Cost for a 1 MW, 8 MWh
System .....................................................................................................................................4-10
Figure 4-5 Estimated Capital Cost Breakdown for a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium Redox
Battery System.........................................................................................................................4-11
Figure 4-6 Ranges for Estimated Present-Day Capital Costs for Components of a 1 MW,
8 MWh Vanadium Redox Battery.............................................................................................4-12
Figure 4-7 Future Projections for Capital Costs of Vanadium Redox Battery Systems ...........4-13
Figure 4-8 Breakdown of Future Projected Vanadium Redox Battery System Costs for a
1 MW, 8 MWh Battery..............................................................................................................4-14
Figure 4-9 Estimated Capital Cost Breakdown for a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium Redox
Battery System.........................................................................................................................4-15
Figure 4-10 Ranges for Future Capital Costs for Components of a 1 MW, 8 MWh
Vanadium Redox Battery ........................................................................................................4-16
Figure 4-11 Ranges for Future Capital Costs for Components of Larger Vanadium
Redox Batteries .......................................................................................................................4-17

xiv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Summary of Applications Requirements.................................................................2-16
Table 2-2 CAISO Reserve Power Definitions .........................................................................2-18
Table 2-3 Sumitomo Electric Industries Vanadium Redox Battery Project Experience ..........2-22

xv

1
INTRODUCTION
Energy storage technologies have long been recognized to have significant potential in utilityscale applications. The use of energy storage for load leveling and peak shaving can improve the
utilization of generation, transmission, and distribution assets, and can allow utilities to defer
investment in additional capacity. Energy storage can also be of use in dynamic operation of the
grid, providing frequency regulation and spinning reserve.
The interest in these applications has risen in recent years as the costs of alternative solutions
have increased. Siting, permitting, and building additional generation and transmission assets is
often much more costly and time-consuming than it has been in the past, in part because of
growing environmental awareness. In some cases, energy storage technologies can be a
relatively fast and inexpensive way to solve a vexing problem. One energy storage technology
that has seen to have some promise in this regard is the vanadium redox flow battery technology,
sometimes referred to as VRB energy storage.
In an earlier technical update, Technology Review and Assessment of Distributed Energy
Resources: Distributed Energy Storage (EPRI 1012983, 2006), EPRI investigators reviewed,
benchmarked and assessed the current status of emerging battery technologies for distributed
energy storage (DES) as it applies to market applications addressing residential, commercial, and
light-industrial buildings, and the prospects for significant market impacts with in the electric
utility sector over the next 5-7 years. The investigators reviewed and benchmarked the
development status of battery technologies with a focus on advanced batteries being developed
for hybrid electric vehicle markets and related analyses of life, cost, energy savings, and
economics.
Continued research is needed to evaluate the societal benefits and how utilities can make money
with decentralized energy storage systems in general including their combination with energy
efficiency, load management, distributed generation, and distributed renewables. Emerging
developments in battery technology may allow utilities to implement heavy duty deep cycle
energy storage systems for load-leveling and peak shaving, thereby benefiting both end users and
utilities. Cost effective distributed energy storage could allow end-users to lower their electricity
cost and avoid process disruptions, while utilities could use distributed energy storage to better
manage and plan distribution assets, improve load factor, and increase overall reliability.
In a recent survey of EPRI utility advisors, results showed that vanadium redox battery energy
storage technology was ranked highest for performing an in-depth technical assessment with LiIon ranked as a close second. Also, there was a marked preference for energy storage attributes
related to large bulk storage and for attributes reflecting nearness to being commercial and/or
vendor commitment to stationary applications. As such, an outline on the in-depth technical
assessment of vanadium redox battery energy storage technology is presented here.

1-1

Purpose
This project undertakes to provide an independent, detailed description and evaluation of the
vanadium redox battery technology. The assessment is intended to better inform utilities about
the technical and cost issues related to vanadium redox battery systems, as well as identifying the
conditions under which such systems can make reliable, cost-effective solutions to problems. In
addition to addressing the status of the technology today, the project also looks at how the
technology will evolve in the future from both technical and cost perspectives, and the effects of
those changes on future viability of the technology.
Any assessment of a relatively new and unfamiliar technology is rife with potential
epistemological pitfalls. Any completely independent analysis must rely on publicly available
information, which may be mistaken or outdated, or which may not reflect the way a particular
developer designs its product. Such an analysis, while based on reasonable assumptions, may
not be fully justified, as a great deal of knowledge of the technology often lies only with
developers. On the other hand, it is not desirable to base assessments entirely on information
provided by vendors, as that information may apply only to specific products and technology
approaches, and may not present an unbiased picture of the technology.
The analyses described in this report used public, unbiased information with a reasonable
technical approach to generate what is believed to be an accurate snapshot of the state of
vanadium redox battery technology. In some cases, information provided by vendors was used
to guide this process and to provide a sanity check to justify the results of the analyses.
This should not be construed to mean, however, that this report describes the technology or
product developed by a specific vendor or developer, nor that developers necessarily agree with
all of the findings and conclusions of the report. Design approaches that differ from those
assumed in these analyses may result in different outcomes. In addition, the state of the
technology is in constant flux: vendors and developers will continue their research and
development activities, and the future performance and cost parameters of the technology may
end up being quite different from those predicted here.
Approach
The effort was divided into three parts. The first part, covered in Section 2 of this report, was the
development of a technical description of the vanadium redox battery technology, including such
topics as general features and limitations, chemistry, performance characteristics, construction,
system design, operations and maintenance, and disposal. It also included an investigation and
assessment of vendors and developers, relevant past and present demonstrations, and the
prominent applications for VRB technology in the utility industry.
The second part of the evaluation, covered in Section 3 of this report, consisted of an
investigation and assessment of VRB energy storage system technology for development status
and identification of technical gaps in implementation of the technology. This included a
technical assessment of design and manufacturing, potential for scale-up, status of technical
performance in areas such as round-trip efficiency and reliability, and assessment of
environmental issues.
The third part of the evaluation, covered in Section 4 of this report, consisted of a detailed
bottom-up cost calculation, including the battery, power electronics, and balance of plant costs.

1-2

This assessment included identification of gaps in knowledge of cost issues, an assessment of

what is needed to resolve those gaps, and a critical analysis of the potential for cost reduction in
the next 5 years.
Section 5 of the report details the conclusions and recommendations for future assessments on
the basis of the conducted analyses.

1-3

2
AN OVERVIEW OF VANADIUM REDOX FLOW
BATTERY TECHNOLOGY
The advent of flow batteries, and vanadium redox flow batteries in particular, has expanded the
possibilities for large-scale electrochemical energy storage in the utility industry. The singular
advantages of flow batteries long life, active thermal management, and independence of energy
and power ratings make them particularly well-suited for relatively large-scale utility
applications. Vanadium redox batteries have special advantages in design simplicity and ease of
operation because the same electrolyte is used for both the positive and the negative side.
Flow Battery Technology
Vanadium redox batteries are a type of flow battery a type of electrochemical storage battery in
which one or both of the reactants (or reaction products) is stored in tanks external to the battery
stack. The cell stack itself contains the electrodes, which serve as reaction sites and current
collectors. The technology acquired its name because active materials flow from the tanks to the
electrodes within the cells through piping and pumps.
Flow batteries have several advantages over conventional batteries:

The energy and power ratings of flow batteries are independent. Conventional batteries often
face a trade-off between the power and energy ratings. For a flow battery, on the other hand,
the energy rating depends on the size of the electrolyte tanks, while the power rating depends
on the size and number of the cell stacks. This means a flow battery can be upgraded for
more energy by adding tanks and electrolyte, and upgraded for more power by adding cell
stacks.
Flow batteries have a relatively long cycle life. The solid electrodes used in conventional
batteries suffer mechanical and thermal stress with cycling, shortening their life. The active
material in flow batteries are reactive species in the electrolyte, which do not degrade.
Active thermal management is more feasible for a flow battery. Conventional batteries reject
heat by passive thermal conduction through the case, which often results in much higher
temperatures inside the cell. These higher temperatures, in turn, limit component life. In
flow batteries, the flowing electrolyte also acts as a coolant, effectively becoming an active
cooling system for the device. This allows longer life for electrochemical components.
A bipolar cell arrangement becomes practical for flow batteries. In a bipolar arrangement,
the positive electrode of one cell forms the negative electrode of the next cell, allowing easy
construction of high-voltage stacks with minimal inter-cell resistance. Such an arrangement
is difficult to implement for conventional battery technologies because shared electrolyte can
lead to shunt currents, and the small capacity of individual cells can lead to cell reversal
during discharge. The capacity of flow battery cells is not limited by cell size, however, and
shunt currents can be overcome using other methods.
DC round-trip efficiencies tend to be somewhat higher for flow batteries than for
conventional batteries, in part because batteries are cycled between lower states of charge
2-1

(20% to 80% SOC). The higher efficiency, along with the more efficient thermal control,
allows flow batteries to be charged as quickly as they are discharged.
Flow batteries are less susceptible than conventional batteries to conditions such as
overcharge, undercharge, and partial-state-of-charge cycling, making operations much easier,
particularly in a utility environment.
Electrolytes in flow batteries can be managed at the system level. In conventional batteries,
electrolyte must be managed at the cell level, requiring regular inspection of every cell to
ensure that electrolyte levels and concentration are within the specified operating parameters.
This can be costly and time-consuming. In flow batteries, the electrolytes can be monitored
and managed for the entire battery at once, since all cells share the same electrolyte.
These advantages of flow batteries come with a few disadvantages:

The plumbing and pumps in flow batteries make them somewhat more complex than
conventional batteries, adding to their cost and possibly impacting their reliability.
The additional plumbing and connections mean that flow batteries are more likely to leak
than conventional batteries, so that safety and environmental issues relating to containment
of the electrolyte must be considered.
The required auxiliary equipment, such as pumps and heat exchangers, require additional
initial cost and later replacement costs.
The power draw from auxiliary equipment that maintains the flow reduces the energy
efficiency of the system.
Because of the parallel electrolyte flow paths to different cells, shunt currents are possible
between cells that are electrically in series, possibly leading to reduced efficiency.
The advantages of flow batteries make them very attractive for large, utility-scale bulk energy
storage for long-duration discharge. This is because the cost of the materials are relatively low
from a $/kW and $/kWh perspective, and because the independence of energy and power ratings
allow easy scalability. Arguably, the economics of flow batteries resemble other large-scale
storage plants, such as compressed air energy storage (CAES) or pumped hydroelectric facilities,
more than they resemble conventional batteries.
Types of Flow Batteries

In addition to vanadium redox flow batteries, there are several other flow battery types. Some of
these technologies have been explored extensively, including zinc-chlorine, zinc-bromine,
polysulfide-bromide (marketed under the trade name Regenesys), and cerium-zinc 1. Of these, the
Zinc-Bromine and the Polysulfide-Bromide batteries are the most prominent ones. Zinc-Bromine
batteries are regarded as hybrid flow batteries. The zinc forms the negative electrode and
elemental bromine is formed on the positive electrode. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of
zinc bromide (ZnBr2). The zinc is solid when charged but dissolves in the electrolyte when
discharged. The zinc-bromine cell has a nominal voltage of 1.8 V. While this battery has a good
efficiency, the big limiting factors in its use is the extreme corrosive nature of bromine and the
tendency of the zinc electrode to form dendrites on charging that can cross the electrolyte and

EPRI-DOE Handbook of Energy Storage for Transmission and Distribution Applications, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
and the U.S. Department of Energy, Washington DC: 2003. 1001834.

2-2

connect with the opposite electrode. ZBB Energy Corporation and Premium Power Corporation
are the major developers of these batteries. Polysulfide bromide batteries (PBR) are flow
batteries based on a reversible reaction between two salt solutions (sodium bromide and sodium
polysulfide). It is often marketed under the trade name Regenesys developed by Regenesys
Technologies Ltd. The PBR cell has a voltage of 1.5 V.
Vanadium redox flow batteries have a special advantage over other flow batteries because the
positive and negative electrolytes, in their discharged states, are identical. This makes shipment
and storage simple and inexpensive, and greatly simplifies electrolyte management during
operation. Further, since the active species in both electrolytes are the same, there is no question
of ions from one electrolyte diffusing into and contaminating the other.
Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries
Vanadium redox flow batteries operate on an electrochemical couple based on two different
reactions of vanadium ions in acidic aqueous solution. This is made possible because vanadium
ions are stable in an unusually high number of valence states: vanadium can be found in +2, +3,
+4, and +5 valence states. All four of these valence states are used in vanadium redox batteries.
History
Early work on various redox batteries was undertaken by NASA in the 1970s and later by the
Electro-Technical Laboratory (ETL) in Japan. In 1984, this foundation was applied to the
vanadium redox battery at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) in Sydney, Australia.
Their work focused on the vanadium / vanadium redox couple, electrolyte stability at high
concentrations, and production of electrolyte from raw materials. Several proof-of-concept
systems were built by UNSW and others including a battery to store electricity produced by solar
photovoltaic panels (Thai Gypsum Products, Thailand), an emergency back-up system for
submarines (Australian Department of Defense), a battery for an electric golf car, and a 450 kW /
900 kWh load-leveling battery (Kashima-Kita Electric Power Corporation, Japan).
In 1998, intellectual property rights to the technology were sold to Pinnacle VRB, Ltd.
(Melbourne, Australia). Sumitomo Electric Industries (Osaka, Japan) acquired the ETL
technology and, under license from Pinnacle VRB, further developed the technology by
designing cell stacks and complete integrated systems.
Pinnacle VRB was acquired in 2001 by VRB Power Systems, Inc., of Vancouver, British
Columbia. VRB Power Systems claims worldwide patents related to vanadium redox batteries,
having retained all technology previously owned by Pinnacle VRB (except for Australian-based
patents), and having acquired an exclusive worldwide license (excepting Japan) to aspects of the
VRB technology developed separately by Sumitomo Electric Industries 2,3.
In addition to the UNSW/Sumitomo development efforts, several vanadium redox battery-related
technologies have been under development since 1995 by Squirrel Holdings, Ltd (Thailand).
These include a series-flow battery, electrolyte production, and a vanadium-based fuel cell that is

Ibid.

Communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, 2/21/2007.

2-3

fueled by locally-grown agricultural crops 4. These technologies were subsequently licensed to

Cellennium Company, Ltd. for the Thailand market. A number of Chinese companies are also
developing vanadium redox technology 5.
Vanadium Redox Batteries Construction and Operation
Vanadium Redox Electrochemistry
A vanadium redox battery consists of an assembly of electrochemical cells, each consisting of
two half-cells. Separate reactions occur in each half-cell. During discharge, electrons are
produced in the reaction in the negative half-cell and are consumed in the reaction in the positive
half-cell, forming the basis for an electric current.
In the negative half-cell during discharge, vanadium (II) ions in solution are converted to
vanadium (III) ions, with the loss of an electron which is available for conduction:

V 2 + V 3+ + e

E o = 0.255V

(1)

In the positive half-cell during discharge, vanadium (V) ions are converted to vanadium (IV)
ions, gaining an electron in the process.
VO2+ + e +2 H + VO 2+ + H 2 O

E o = 1.000V

(2)

The overall equation is 6:

VO2+ + 2 H + + V 2+ VO 2+ + H 2 O + V 3+

o
Net E = 1.255V

(3)

Note that hydrogen cations are consumed in the process, meaning that the pH of the positive
electrolyte can be expected to change over time. To maintain charge balance within the halfcells, there must be a mechanism for the transit of hydrogen ions from the negative half-cell to
the positive half-cell, which is generally accomplished by placing an ion-conducting membrane
between the two.
The vanadium redox chemistry described here has two important advantages over the chemistries
used in other flow batteries:
1. In the discharged state, the positive and negative electrolytes are essentially the same.
This means that migration of ions from one electrolyte to the other through the membrane
does not cause contamination. The ions in the two electrolytes are in different valence
states when the electrolytes are charged, and mixing would cause self-discharge; for this
reason, an ion exchange membrane is still required between the two cells.

EPRI-DOE Handbook of Energy Storage for Transmission and Distribution Applications, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
and the U.S. Department of Energy, Washington DC: 2003. 1001834

Zhao et. al, Characteristics and performance of 10 kW class all-vanadium redox-flow battery stack JPower
Sources (2006), doi: 10.1016/j.powsour.2006.08.016
6
M. Gattrell, J. Park, B. MacDougall, J. Apte, S. McCarthy, and C.W. Wu, A study of the mechanism of the
vanadium 4+/5+ redox reaction in acidic solutions, Journal of the Electrochemical Society (J. Electrochem. Soc.),
2004, vol. 151, no1, pp. A123-A130

2-4

2. Halide-based electrolytes used in some other flow battery technologies have the potential
of releasing poisonous or corrosive vapors during charge or discharge. The sulfuric acidbased electrolyte used in vanadium redox batteries does not exhibit this feature 7.
Vanadium Redox Battery Construction
Figure 2-1 shows the main components of a system powered by a single vanadium redox cell.

Figure 2-1
High-level Block Diagram of a Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
(Courtesy Sumitomo Electric Industries)

The cell is composed of two half-cells, each with a solid electrode in contact with the liquid
electrolyte. The charge and discharge reactions occur on the surface of the solid electrodes.
Between the two half-cells is an ion exchange membrane, which allows protons but not other
reactants or reaction products to migrate between cells.
Electrolytes are stored in separate electrolyte tanks, and are pumped into the cell with external
pumps. The total amount of energy stored in the system is determined by the concentration of the
vanadium species in each electrolyte and by the volume of the reservoirs.
The system power is determined by the rate of reaction of the vanadium species at each
electrode. Vanadium ions must be adsorbed onto the surface of the electrodes before they can
change their valence states, so reaction rates are limited by the total surface area of the
electrodes. The larger the electrodes, the more vanadium ions can react at a given moment and
the greater the power.
In practice, vanadium redox batteries are constructed by stacking several cells together in series
to form a battery stack. Electrodes are placed on either side of a bipolar plate, which separates
each cell from the next cell. The bipolar plate acts as the current conducting mechanism between
the negative electrode of one cell and the positive electrode of the next. The positive electrode of
7

A. Butler, Vanadium, [Online document], http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/vanadium.html

2-5

the most positive cell in the stack and the negative electrode of the cell at the other end of the
stack form the positive and negative ends of the battery, and are connected to the power
conditioning system.
The cells in the battery are electrically connected in series, but in most designs the electrolyte
flows through the cells in parallel. The number of cells used in the complete battery depends on
the desired voltage level of the final battery. A cell stack is shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2
Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Cell Stack
(Courtesy Kansai Electric Power Co)

The key components of the vanadium redox battery cell stack are the electrolyte, the carbon felt
electrode, the ion exchange membrane, and the bipolar plate that separates cells. The battery
also includes components such as the electrolyte tanks, the pumps, and piping. These
components are examined in detail in the following sections.
Electrolyte
The two electrolytes in the vanadium redox battery are composed of vanadium ions in an
aqueous sulfuric acid solution at very low pH. The acidity level of the electrolyte is
approximately the same as that in the electrolyte of a lead-acid battery. Note that the acidity of
the electrolyte serves two purposes in the battery: to increase the ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte, and to provide hydrogen ions to the reaction at the positive electrode.
The electrolytes are produced through one of several processes. Most commonly, vanadium
3+
+
pentoxide (V2O5) is dissolved in aqueous sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and is reduced to VO2 and V
ions in solution. The starting solvent is often 1 to 2 M H2SO4, with a resulting 1 to 3 M
vanadium ion solution. At least one developer claims to use 3 M H2SO4 with a resulting 1.6 M
concentration of vanadium sulfates 8. Because vanadium pentoxide is only slightly soluble in
aqueous sulfuric acid, a complex and expensive series of chemical and electrochemical processes
are typically used to produce the electrolyte.
8

Martha Schreiber, Adam H. Whitehead, Martin Harrer and Ren Moser, The Vanadium Redox Battery an
energy reservoir for stand-alone ITS applications along motor- and expressways, Proceedings of the 8th
International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vienna, Austria, September 13-16, 2005, pp.
936-940.

2-6

The selection of sulfuric acid for the solvent arises from the high solubility of the four vanadium
species in the form of sulfates, while vanadium halides tend to form precipitates. In addition, as
stated before, a sulfuric acid-based electrolyte has a distinct advantage over those based on
halide salts, which can release poisonous, corrosive vapors during charge and discharge. Other
acids are also unsuitable, as vanadium ions can form complexes with other dissolved ions that
can reduce reactivity. Sulfuric acid is also generally the preferred electrolyte for use with most
ion exchange membranes used for vanadium redox batteries.
One developer, Cellennium, has claimed to have a relatively simple and inexpensive method for
producing the vanadium electrolyte. Vanadium pentoxide powder, sulfuric acid and water are fed
continuously into vanadium electrolyte solution circulating through a cascade of electrolytic
cells. This process is claimed to produce vanadium electrolyte very cheaply and will be portable
so that electrolyte production can take place in-situ saving transportation and handling costs 9.
The electrolyte becomes more viscous with reduced temperature resulting in slower electrolyte
flow rates. This decreases the maximum power, especially at high and low states-of-charge. At
the other extreme, there is some danger of precipitation of V2O5 in the positive electrolyte if
electrolyte temperature exceeds 40 C for an extended period of time. For these reasons, the
temperature of the electrolyte is regulated between 0 C and 40 C in all states of operation.
Electrodes
The electrodes used in vanadium redox batteries are composed of high-surface area carbon
materials. These materials operate across a wide range of voltage potentials with minimal
hydrogen and oxygen evolution, are chemically stable with respect to the acidic electrolytes at
both the anode and cathode of a cell, and are available at reasonable costs. Carbon materials
have a very wide range of characteristics depending on the methods of manufacturing and
preparation. Commercial vanadium battery electrodes typically use carbon felt made from the
pyrolysis of either rayon or polyacrylonitrile based. The felt is treated to increase the number of
reaction sites on the surface and heated to increase crystallinity and conductivity. The electrodes
are held in a PVC frame, chosen for its resistance to acidic corrosion. Ruthenium may be used as
a catalyst and the electrodes are also sometimes coated with niobium to avoid hydrogen
evolution 10.
Ion Exchange Membrane
The two half-cells in each cell are separated by an ion exchange membrane (PEM). The
membrane physically separates the two vanadium-based electrolyte solutions, preventing self
discharge while allowing for the flow of ions to complete the circuit. Several membranes can be

used in vanadium redox batteries. One commonly used family of products is DuPonts Nafion ,
which is also commonly used as a separator in fuel cells and other electrochemical systems.
Some developers have used Flemion or Selemion membrane material, manufactured by

http://www.vanadiumbattery.com/technology/technology4.asp
Investigation on Storage Technologies for Intermittent Renewable Energies: Evaluation and recommended R&D
strategy, REDOX SYSTEMS REPORT, WPST 7 Redox Systems INVESTIRE-NETWORK, May 2006.
10

2-7

Asahi Glass Company. Daramic separators have also been considered for use in this
technology 11.
Bipolar Plates
The cells in a vanadium redox battery are separated by bipolar plates, which physically separate
each cell from the next, while connecting the two electrically. The plate must be highly
conductive and chemically stable in the highly acidic environment of the cell, with the ability to
connect with the electrode material with low contact resistance. Most developers use proprietary
plastic carbon electrodes for this component. The special materials used are expensive at low
volume, with the potential for decreased costs in the long run.
Electrolyte Storage Tanks
The vanadium electrolytes are stored in separate large electrolyte tanks outside the cell stack.
The tanks must be composed of materials which are resistant to corrosion in the very low pH
environment. Preferably, tanks must be either constructed or situated in a manner such that there
is secondary containment in the event of a leak.
In the past, off-the-shelf plastic or fiberglass tanks, such as those used to store gasoline, have
been used to store electrolyte. More innovative methods of electrolyte storage have also been
proposed, such as flexible plastic bags contained in secondary containment units 12.
Pumps, Valves, and Piping
Pumps, valves, pipes, and other piping components must be corrosion resistant and stable in low
pH environments. For this reason, pumps using plastic impellers are used in most installations.
Similarly, valves must be rated for low pH environments.
For piping, most developers use standard polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping, which is inexpensive
and readily available. Laying out pipe can be a labor intensive process, however. At least one
major developer has made an effort to cut down on the amount of piping used, using
prefabricated piping wherever possible and minimizing placement of valves 13.
Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stack Construction
Most manufacturers assemble the cell stack components into PVC frames, which are then bolted
together under pressure to produce the stack. The stack is designed and built horizontally, so that
the electrical current flows horizontally along the long axis of the stack. The electrolytes are
pumped into the cells from the bottom of the stack up through the cells and out the top, where it
then flows back to the storage tanks.
Squirrel Holdings Limited has put forward a somewhat different design for the vanadium redox
battery. The electrolytes are fed through the stack of cells in series instead of in parallel as in
11

High energy density vanadium electrolyte solutions, methods of preparation thereof and all-vanadium redox cells
and batteries containing high energy vanadium electrolyte solutions, VRB Power Systems, Inc. (Vancouver, CA) ,
United States Patent 7078123. [Online] http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7078123.html.
12
T. Sasaki, Evaluation of Demand and Supply Control, Maintaining Electric Power quality using rechargeable
Battery System, http://electricitystorage.org/pubs/2001/IEEE_PES_Winter2001/wm01vanadiumredox.pdf
13
E-mail correspondence with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, November 29,2006.

2-8

conventional designs. The cells are placed horizontally in a vertical stack with the electrolyte
flow upwards. The stack is compact and structurally stable. The cells are formed from molded
structural components designed for speedy "LEGO" style leak-tight assembly. Channels in the
moldings provide paths for the flow of the electrolytes between the cells. Figure 2-3 illustrates
this configuration.

Figure 2-3
Flow Architecture in a Cellennium stack of cells. The cells are placed horizontally in a vertical pile.
The electrolytes are fed upwards through the cells in series
(Courtesy: Cellennium\)

According to Squirrel Holdings and their licensee Cellennium, this technology can be expected
to deliver higher power efficiency, as a smaller percentage of the total power is required to pump
the electrolytes through the stack 14.
Performance of Vanadium Redox Batteries
Energy Capacity
The capacity of a battery energy storage system (BESS) is measured in both maximum power
level (kW) and energy storage capability (kWh). In the case of the vanadium redox battery,
these two system ratings are independent of each other. In principle, the battery stack and PCS
capabilities determine the kW rating, while the electrolyte concentration and storage tank
dimensions determine the amount of energy that can be stored.
The usable energy storage capacity of the vanadium electrolyte is about 20 to 30 Wh/L 15. A 75
kWh design would require between 2500 to 4000 liters of electrolyte, which would be evenly
divided between positive and negative tanks.
For a given power level, the incremental cost of energy storage is based primarily upon the cost
of additional electrolyte storage. The vanadium redox battery technology favors applications
having a high kWh/kW ratio that is, applications requiring several hours of storage. Most
vanadium redox battery systems fielded to date are capable of discharging at maximum design

14
15

http://www.vanadiumbattery.com/technology/technology3.asp
E-mail communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, March 7, 2007.

2-9

power for a period of 4-10 hours. The PacifiCorp project at Castle Valley, Utah, for example,
produces 250 KW for 8 hours 16.
Power
The power capability of the vanadium redox battery cell is determined by the electromotive force
(voltage) produced by the cell at a given current drawn. As with any electrochemical cell, cell
voltage drops as the current drawn grows larger. Cell voltage also drops as the reactants are used
up. In the vanadium redox battery, reactants flow through the cell continuously, and the
electrolytes are assumed to be well-mixed. This means that the cell voltage can be assumed to
follow the overall state-of-charge of the electrolyte in the system.
Open-circuit cell voltage for the vanadium redox battery can range from about 1.55Vdc for a
fully-charged battery, down to close to about 1.25 Vdc for a fully-discharged battery; this voltage
changes slightly depending on electrolyte composition. The voltage on discharge is somewhat
lower, with an average voltage of about 1.3 Vdc during discharge. For sizing purposes, however,
a nominal voltage of 1.4 Vdc is assumed.
The current capacity of each cell is defined by the surface area of the electrode: the larger the
electrode, the higher the current rating. The maximum practical current density in most
vanadium redox batteries is about 100 mA/cm2 of electrode area; at current densities larger than
this, ohmic losses heat the electrode and reaction products, causing damage to cell components.
With an average discharge voltage of 1.3 V and an electrode area of 400 cm, a single cell can
supply about 26 W. A stack of 40 such cells will produce about 1 kW, at an average discharge
voltage of about 52V 17.
In practical vanadium redox battery systems, the cell stacks can be significantly larger than this.
One vendor, for instance, produces a 50 kW cell stack with over a 100 cells measuring about 1
meter long, 1 meter wide, and 1 meter deep, with a nominal voltage of 150 Vdc 18.
Over-charge and over-discharge
As with any battery chemistry, overcharge of the vanadium redox battery can have detrimental
effects on the electrolyte and on the cell components, and should be avoided. Overcharge
beyond a certain voltage results in electrolysis of water into hydrogen on the negative electrode
and oxygen at the positive. Most systems are designed to allow the small amount of hydrogen
generated to quickly dissipate in the atmosphere, minimizing the danger of accumulation.
Luckily, the vanadium redox battery has an advantage over many other battery systems in that
overcharge of individual cells is unlikely. Because the same electrolyte flows through all cells,
individual cells are all at the same state-of-charge. As a result, all individual cell voltages are the
same as average cell voltage, and cell balance is automatically maintained. Most vanadium
16

VRB Energy Storage for Voltage Stabilization: Testing and Evaluation of the PacifiCorp Vanadium Redox
Battery Energy Storage System at Castle Valley, Utah, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1008434.
17
Martha Schreiber, Adam H. Whitehead, Martin Harrer and Ren Moser, The Vanadium Redox Battery an
energy reservoir for stand-alone ITS applications along motor- and expressways, Proceedings of the 8th
International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vienna, Austria, September 13-16, 2005, pp.
936-940.
18
E-mail correspondence with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, January 21, 2007

2-10

redox battery designs incorporate controls that ensure that the battery as a whole is not
overcharged, by watching the open circuit voltage in a reference cell outside the power
generating stack.
The vanadium redox battery is highly tolerant of over-discharge. Because the two electrolytes
are identical in the discharged state, it is possible in principle to over-discharge the battery to a
point at which the cell polarities are completely reversed, turning the negative electrolyte into the
positive electrolyte, and vice-versa. In practice, the ability to perform this reversal is dependent
on the construction of the cell and cell components, which may not be optimized for such
operation.
Electrolyte Crossover
The unique chemistry of the vanadium redox battery also makes it very tolerant of the movement
of reactive species from one half-cell to the other. In almost every redox flow battery design, ion
exchange between the half-cells is accomplished through the transfer of protons across an ion
exchange membrane. For an ideal membrane that conducted only protons, the use of different
chemical species in the two electrolytes would present no difficulty. However, real ionexchange membranes are not, and cannot be, perfectly selective. Other chemical species also
travel from one electrolyte to the other, albeit at a slow rate. This phenomenon is often called
crossover.
For flow batteries other than vanadium redox batteries, crossover can be a serious contamination
issue, leading to irreversible degradation in capacity and performance. In vanadium redox
batteries, however, crossover does not result in contamination, since both electrolytes are based
on the same chemical constituents. Crossover does result in temporary self-discharge, which is
easily corrected through charging. This characteristic is another way in which vanadium redox
batteries show their relative robustness over similar technologies.
Space Requirement
The main components of the vanadium redox battery include the storage tanks, pumps and
plumbing, cell stacks, and power conversion equipment. Footprint and volumetric space
requirements scale with system ratings and can be very site-specific.
In one project, for example, the tanks and stacks were located on separate floor, increasing the
height requirement, but decreasing the footprint. In another project, tanks were made from
rubber bladders that could be folded and passed through confined passageways and then
19
expanded and installed in an unused underground office basement area or cistern .
One study estimated the size of a 2.5 MW/10 MWh vanadium redox battery system to be 12,000
17,000 sq. ft. This was significantly larger than the 5,000 7,000 sq. ft. footprint estimated for
the other technologies included in the study, sodium/sulfur and zinc/bromine 20. These results
would suggest that the vanadium redox battery is more suited to locations in which space is not a
primary constraint. More recent designs have sought to be as space efficient as possible to
19

N. Tokuda, T. Kanno, T. Hara, T. Shigematsu, Y. Tsutsui, A. Ikeuchi, T. Itou, and T. Kumamoto, Development
of a Redox Flow battery System, SEI Technical paper.
20
G.P. Corey, and L.E. Stoddard, Boulder City Battery Energy Storage Feasibility Study. Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM: March, 2002. Report SAND2002-0751.

2-11

reduce the costs associated with land, construction, and piping. The 12 MWh battery designed
by VRB Power Systems for the Sorne Hill Wind Farm in Ireland is expected to occupy about
12,000 sq. ft., which includes 10% room for future expansion 21. This figure puts the area
towards the lower end of the projection above.
Maintenance
Several vanadium redox battery systems have been in operation for the last several years, and
some maintenance requirements have been established. For new installations, monthly visual
inspections of piping and tanks are required, with detailed inspection at six month intervals.
Pumps and HVAC systems require inspection every six months. Pump bearings and seals may
require replacement at five year intervals. Electronic parts such as boards, sensors, relays, and
fuses, may require replacement as necessary.
The vanadium redox battery cell stacks have a life estimated at over ten years. They require
minimal maintenance over their lifetime, amounting to a visual inspection every six months and
an exterior cleaning and bolt torque check every year. As the technology matures, intervals
between regular maintenance may become longer.
The vanadium electrolyte does not degrade and does not require changing. Early research
suggested that electrolyte rebalancing between the positive and negative sides is necessary to
cancel the effect of water migration across the ion exchange membrane, but recent investigations
have indicated that such rebalancing is probably not necessary. The addition of water may be
required to replace water lost due to electrolysis during charging.
Life
The critical system component in determining the life of a vanadium redox battery system is the
cell stack, which can degrade in performance over time and require replacement or
refurbishment. The life-limiting components in the stacks are the membranes, which gradually
wear out with time. Possible degradation may occur in the electrodes during overcharge, but
careful management of battery operation should minimize this possibility.
At 1000 charge/discharge cycles per year, the cell stack is expected to have a lifetime of 10 to 15
years. Pumps are expected to also last at least 10 to 15 years. Tanks, plumbing, structural
elements, power electronics, and controls are expected to have significantly longer useful
lifetimes. With replacement or refurbishment of stacks and pump components, a vanadium
redox battery system can be expected to operate for more than 20 years.
Efficiency
As with any energy conversion system, there are energy losses associated with operating a
vanadium redox battery system. Several losses must be accounted for in characterizing the
vanadium redox battery performance:

21

Transformer losses: Most utility scale and industrial PCS systems are designed with outputs
close to 480 Vac or 600 Vac. A transformer is used to connect the vanadium redox battery
system to utility distribution voltages. Even for non-utility systems, isolation transformers
E-mail communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, 21 February 2007.

2-12

are installed to prevent dc injection into the ac grid. Transformer inefficiencies result in
energy losses of about one percent, during both charging and discharging.
PCS losses: Whether charging or discharging, power flow through the PCS is subject to
losses related to voltage drops across the switching devices. PCS throughput efficiency
depends somewhat on load and PCS design, but is typically in the 92-96% range. Higher
efficiencies may be possible by using PCS designs operating at higher voltages, or by using
GTO-based inverters operating at slower switching frequencies.
Battery losses: There are several inefficiencies associated with battery processes, arising
from thermodynamic limitations, reaction kinetics, and ohmic resistance, as well as
competing reactions in the cell stack. The dc-dc round-trip efficiency of a vanadium redox
battery can change with temperature, charge rate, and age. Most investigators have reported
dc-dc efficiency figures between 70% and 85%.
Previous vanadium redox battery systems in actual operation have exhibited dc-dc roundtrip
efficiencies of over 75%. Several methods have been identified to improve dc-dc efficiencies
to as high as 80%. Efforts to improve efficiency will be discussed in the next chapter.
Parasitic loads: Parasitic losses are not associated with intrinsic characteristics of the battery,
but instead represent the power drawn by loads auxiliary loads required for operation of the
battery, such as pumps and HVAC systems. The size of parasitic loads can vary greatly with
the application for which the battery is designed, and with the location of the battery. One
would expect, for example, that a battery designed for an extreme environment would require
more heating and cooling than a battery designed for a mild climate, and would therefore
have higher parasitic losses.
The ac-ac round trip efficiency for a vanadium redox battery system including transformer
losses during charge, PCS losses during charge, battery DC losses during charge and discharge,
PCS losses during discharge, transformer losses during discharge, and all parasitic losses can
be expected to fall between 60% and 70%. Recent studies by at least one vendor suggest that the
higher end of this range should be achievable for mature systems 22.
Response Time
A vanadium redox battery is capable of transitioning from zero output to full output in
microseconds, provided the stacks are primed with electrolyte. The measured response time for
the Sumitomo vanadium redox battery electric storage commissioned for the Kansai Electric
23
Power Company, for instance, was 350 s . The response time is often driven by power
electronics, controls, and communications systems, which might require slightly more time.
Vanadium redox battery systems capable of response within milliseconds can be used for power
quality and UPS applications.
When response time is important, the cell stack must be primed with charged electrolyte so that
the battery is in a standby mode of operation. During standby mode, electrolyte need not be
pumped through the systems, provided the electrolyte in the stacks remains charged. Once
discharge begins, the pumps should be turned on to replace the electrolyte in the cells as it is
22

Conversations with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, June 2006.

Shigematsu, T.; Kumamoto, T.; Deguchi, H.; Hara, T., Applications of a vanadium redox-flow battery to
maintain power quality, Proceedings of the IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition,
2002, pp. 1065-1070.
23

2-13

depleted. Depending on the design of the cell stack, the pumps can remain off for several
minutes before the electrolyte in the stack is discharged 24.
If response time is not critical, the stacks can be drained and the pumps turned off. When the
battery is called into service, a minute or two would be required to start the pumps and fill the
stacks with electrolyte.
DC Electrical Characteristics
It is likely that future vanadium redox battery systems will be manufactured in several standard
configurations to eliminate project-specific engineering costs. Todays systems, however,
include custom-specified PCS systems and project specific dc designs. In most vanadium redox
battery systems, the dc bus is connected directly to the cell stack terminals. The dc voltage is
determined by the cell count, and is typically 100 Vdc or more. Multiple stacks can be
connected in parallel to achieve the required current level in the event it exceeds the current
rating of a single stack.
Stacks can also be placed in series to boost dc voltage. Depending on the design of the battery
such a configuration may require separate electrolyte hydraulic plumbing and storage to
minimize shunt current losses through the parallel electrolyte flows feeding the battery. One
25
vendor has claimed to develop an unconventional power conversion technology in which
individual cells are tapped and switched, which is said to produce near-sinusoidal output with
incremental voltage steps equal to the cell voltage.
As the battery is charged and discharged, the dc bus varies in voltage. The open-circuit voltage
varies with the battery state-of-charge, and charging or discharging produces a corresponding
increase or decrease in bus voltage. The PCS must be designed to handle the full voltage
window. The voltage may range from 1.08 to 1.42 volts per cell. Since the battery is
occasionally fully discharged to 0 Vdc (for maintenance and transport), a mechanism must be
provided to accommodate voltages below the operating range of the PCS; this is often
accomplished through the use of switched dc resistive loads.
An alternative configuration inserts a dc-dc converter between the battery and the dc bus so that
the PCS operates at a voltage independent of the battery state of charge. This configuration can
be used to optimize the PCS according to switching device characteristics and the required ac
interface voltage. It might also be used to place additional devices on the DC bus, such as fuel
cells, flywheels, or photovoltaic systems. The enhanced flexibility is offset by the cost of the dcdc converter and by the inefficiencies associated with the conversion.
AC Electrical Interconnection
Most vanadium redox battery applications require a PCS to convert the DC energy of the battery
into usable ac electric power. Modern power conversion technology provides for bi-directional
power flow, so the same equipment can be used for both charging and discharging the battery.
A wide range of PCS configuration options are possible. Off-grid systems may be appropriate
for remote renewable energy applications that provide constant ac voltages to the load. In most
24
25

E-mail communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, February 21, 2007.
Reference to Cellennium

2-14

utility and industrial applications, however, PCS systems must be grid connected. Gridconnected systems must be designed to match the voltage and frequency at the connection point.
The systems may be either grid commutated (in which the grid frequency dictates the frequency
of the power electronics), or synchronized to the grid through the use of sophisticated controls.
PCS systems must be designed to meet all utility interconnection requirements, including:

Over/under voltage protection

Overcurrent protection
Over/under frequency protection
Manual disconnect switches
These requirements vary by utility, and may also vary by power rating or interconnection
voltage.
PCS technology has found its way into a number of applications over the past 20 years, including
variable speed wind turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaics, other battery energy storage technologies,
and variable speed drives. These markets have increased the reliability of PCS systems while
reducing their costs.
Applications of Vanadium Redox Battery Technology
Due to its relative mechanical complexity and economies of scale, the vanadium redox battery is
most suited for utility-scale power systems in the 100 kW to 10 MW size range in applications
having low power/energy ratios (long discharge durations). Transmission and distribution
applications with these characteristics include:

Peak Shaving
Spinning Reserve
Wind Farm Stabilization & Dispatch

This list is hardly exhaustive. Vanadium redox batteries can also be used in other energy storage
applications, such as backup power. At least one vendor is producing 5 kW units for backup
power applications, particularly in telecom, substation, and UPS applications.
While this is not an exhaustive list, these applications are generally considered the most valuable
in enhancing the reliability and stability of the power distribution network. Another application
for the vanadium redox battery is in providing backup power. 5 kW units for providing backup
26
power are now commercially available .
It is generally accepted that the viability of electricity storage is dependent upon cases in which
multiple operating modes and multiple economic benefits can be exploited. For example, the
economics of peak shaving are driven primarily by the benefit of local T&D peaking capacity
that the storage system provides. However, dispatch during peak times also reduces the import
power requirements from generation sources, thereby reducing generation costs. In this

26

http://www.vrbpower.com/applications/telecommunications.html

2-15

example, the economic benefits of the two applications can be combined. Naturally, using the
battery for multiple applications requires that the battery be operated in a manner such that all
requirements for all operating modes are met.
Table 2-1 presents an overall summary of requirements for these applications. The remainder of
this section covers the applications in additional detail.
Table 2-1
Summary of Applications Requirements
Application

Size

Duration

Plant
Capacity

Response
Time

Duty
Cycle

Roundtrip
Efficiency

Plant
Footprint

Environmental
Impact

DR/Peak
Shaving

0.5
25
MW

4-8 hours

1 MWh
100 MWh

1-10 min

20-50
events/yr

Low
(<70%)

0.002
MW/m2

Low noise;
aesthetics
depends upon
location;
medium
emissions

Spinning
Reserve

1
1000
MW

2 hr

22000
MWh

10 min

560
events/yr

Low
(<70%)

0.002
MW/m2

Low noise;
medium
emissions

1 sec
(stability)

Continuous
for
stability
(when
operating);
10-50
events/yr
for
dispatch

Medium
(70-90%)

Not a
constraint

windplant
space
available

Low emissions;
medium
aesthetics

Windfarm
Stabilization
& Dispatch

100
kW
100
MW

48 hours

0.5800
MWh

DR/Peak Shaving
Description
By strategically locating BESS technology such as the vanadium redox battery in the T&D
system, utility planners can efficiently manage load growth. Rather than constructing new
substations (or upgrading capacity in existing substations) to meet future growth, the planner can
use storage to add only the required incremental capacity, sized to serve peak loads for a year
or two. To further enhance its value, the vanadium redox battery can be constructed so that it
can be easily dismantled and relocated at another location if and when a capacity upgrade is
actually installed.
This use of storage defers T&D capacity additions, shifting substation capital costs into the
future. In cases where forecasted load growth does not occur, temporary BESS installations
would eliminate the substation capital expenditure entirely. Under this strategy, where load
forecasts are uncertain, storage would be used as a risk management tool.
Whether temporarily deferring capacity upgrades or providing risk management, a transportable
vanadium redox battery could be scheduled and moved to other locations on the utility system as

2-16

necessary. This strategy would allow the planner to target the most critical planning areas,
capturing multiple benefits over the service life of the BESS. Unlike other generator
technologies, the vanadium redox battery can be easily sited with no emissions permits or fuel
handling (although local regulations and standards related to occupational health and safety,
materials handling, and transportation must be followed).
Alternatives
While other distributed resource (DR) technologies (such as diesel gensets and fuel cells) can
also provide peak shaving service, the primary alternative to the vanadium redox battery is the
conventional method by which T&D planners provide for capacity: T&D upgrades. These
generally include new substations and substation upgrades, and may also include line capacity
increases. The vanadium redox battery is most useful when such conventional methods are not
possible, for environmental, cost, or other reasons. The PacifiCorp VRB project in Castle
Valley, Utah, for instance, was built because a capacity upgrade in the area would require a long
and expensive construction process and would be environmentally undesirable.
Control/Dispatch Strategy
To maximize the peak power reduction for a given kWh energy rating, the vanadium redox
battery would be controlled to follow load above a user-defined threshold load. This caps the
load at the threshold value and fully utilizes the energy storage capabilities of the battery.
The peak shaving technical requirements for interconnection and controls would be very similar
for customer peak shaving. For large industrial or commercial customers, the vanadium redox
battery could be used to reduce the demand charges by capping load at a fixed threshold.
The system would be cycled for several weeks out of the year, depending upon the actual loads
relative to the T&D capacity constraints. In many cases, the required T&D capacity is set by
narrow needle load peaks of a few hours on a few days per year, totaling a small number of
hours per year.
Prospects for Success
The key issue for the vanadium redox battery in this application will be system reliability and
cost. The vanadium redox battery can be packaged and controlled for this application, and could
be a very effective load management tool. However, in order for the vanadium redox battery to
be successful, it must demonstrate a level of reliability that is comparable to substation
transformers and other T&D equipment. Given that the vanadium redox battery incorporates
equipment (e.g., pumps, power electronics) for which there is little or no experience with failure
modes and effects in the substation environment, this may be difficult to verify in the near term.
Data from the PacifiCorp VRB plant shows over 98% availability over the course of 3 years of
operation. Extended field experience will be required to validate this level of reliability.
Spinning Reserve
Description
Grid operators increasingly procure ancillary services in open competitive markets, either in
long-term contracts or in daily auctions. These services provide stability to the grid in the event

2-17

of loss of generation units. For example, the California Independent System Operator (CAISO)
auctions four services as shown in Table 2-2:
Table 2-2
CAISO Reserve Power Definitions 27
Regulation Reserves

Generation that is on-line and synchronized with the ISO

control grid so that the power can be increased or decreased
instantly by the energy management system (EMS) through
automatic generation control (AGC). Regulation is used to
maintain continuous balance of resources and load to maintain
frequency during normal operating conditions.

Spinning Reserves

Generation that is already on-line and "spinning" with

additional capacity, capable of ramping over a specified range
within 10 minutes and running for at least two hours.

Non-spinning Reserves

Generation that is available but not on-line. This generation

must be capable of starting, synchronizing with the grid, and
ramping to a specified level within 10 minutes, and it must be
capable of running for at least two hours. Effectively, nonspinning reserves provide the same benefit to the ISO as
spinning reserves, but differ only in that non-spinning
reserves are not kept on-line continuously.

Replacement Reserves

Generation that is capable of starting up (if not already

operating), synchronizing with the grid, ramping to a
specified load within one hour, and running for at least two
hours.

The vanadium redox battery is capable of serving in any of these four capacities, provided the
regulations in the area of operation permit it.
Alternatives
For this application, the vanadium redox battery would compete with thermal plants in a
competitive marketplace. For purposes of the benefits analysis, the vanadium redox battery is
evaluated against typical market prices for spinning reserve.
Control/Dispatch Strategy
The battery system would be charged to full capacity and kept in service to discharge its energy
as required. Depending upon the technical requirements, the pumps may be turned off and the
electrolyte tanks drained in order to minimize losses (full power could be delivered in 1-2
minutes). The system would be cycled only a few times per year, extending the useful service
life of the equipment.
Prospects for Success
This application is a very good match for the vanadium redox battery. The required cycling (i.e.,
the number of events per year) is relatively low, there is an emerging competitive marketplace,
27

Ancillary Services Overview, Settlements Guide (Draft), CAISO, May 8, 2002.

2-18

and it provides the opportunity for multiple applications (the energy storage rating could be
increased beyond the spinning reserve requirements to serve other applications, such as peak
shaving)
Windfarm Stabilization & Dispatch
Description
As the penetration of wind energy on a power grid grows to a significant portion of the overall
generation mix, system impacts such as frequency stabilization and system reliability become
increasingly important planning considerations. Wind energy has always been penalized as nondispatchable resource (e.g., by not qualifying for capacity payments). Large-scale energy storage
potentially overcomes these issues by absorbing undesirable power fluctuations and providing
firm, dependable peaking capacity.
This is of considerable interest in Europe as wind energy is approaching significant penetration
levels. Even today, the problems are present on smaller island grids where wind plant power
fluctuations cause system frequency excursions.
Alternatives
In this application, the primary purpose of storage whether provided by the vanadium redox
battery or another storage technology is to maximize the production and delivery of wind
energy during periods of high wind turbulence and ramping. In the absence of storage, grid
operators occasionally curtail production to ensure stability, forcing wind plants to spill
otherwise valuable energy by feathering turbine blades or disabling selected turbines. The value
of storage in mitigating the effects of wind turbulence is therefore defined by the value of spilled
energy, set by the power purchase contract or wholesale market prices in effect at the time.
As for dispatchability, storage can absorb wind energy produced during off-peak periods (rather
than deliver it to the grid) and later discharge this energy during on-peak periods. The value of
this service is determined by the turnaround efficiency of the BESS and the contract or market
prices for on-peak and off-peak periods.
Control/Dispatch Strategy
To mitigate the effects of power fluctuations from wind plants, the vanadium redox battery
would charge and discharge in response to real-time load measurements at the point of utility
interconnection. During power surges the battery would charge, and during sags it would
discharge, damping the power fluctuations and allowing the windplant to operate at full power.
The battery system could be dispatched by the grid operator or energy supplier during peak
periods.
The stability function would be invoked as necessary during the turbulent wind conditions.
Dispatching would be invoked during the system peaks, on a daily basis over several weeks per
year.
The energy to perform both of these functions would be allocated in the control system.
Through simple energy accounting, the energy margins to charge and discharge during power
fluctuations would never be compromised by the peaking function.

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Prospects for Success

Vanadium redox technology meets the cycle life and storage capacity requirements for this
application. One study 28 estimated that the energy discharged by a 1.5 MW / 1.5 MWh flow
battery to stabilize a 20 MW windplant would be only 28 MWh per year, equivalent to 19
complete charge-discharge cycles , well within the capability of the vanadium redox battery.
The energy storage specifications (MWh) of the battery system would be optimized to meet
specific project objectives.
Again, it will be important to validate reliability in the field. For a battery system to qualify as
firm capacity, for example, it will be necessary to prove a level of reliability equivalent to
other generating sources. The successful track record at existing plants indicates that this level
of reliability is likely to be met.
Notable Vendors and Developers
Intellectual Property and Licensing of Vanadium Redox Battery Technology
VRB Power Systems, Inc., based in Vancouver, British Columbia, is the principal manufacturer
of vanadium redox batteries and the holder of key intellectual property related to the battery
technology. The technology was originally developed by the University of New South Wales
(UNSW) in Sydney, Australia. In 1998, UNSW sold the intellectual property rights for
vanadium redox batteries in stationary applications to Pinnacle VRB, Ltd., based in Melbourne.
In 2001, VRB Power Systems acquired Pinnacle VRB, along with all patents and intellectual
property rights. Pinnacle VRB was spun off in April, 2005 as a separate company with rights to
develop vanadium redox battery technology for the Australian market.
Sumitomo Electric Industries, based in Japan, also developed vanadium redox battery technology
for the Japanese market under license from Pinnacle. VRB Power Systems has since developed
its own manufacturing capability and has patent licensing agreements with Sumitomo Electric
Industries.
Another manufacturer, Cellennium, is based in Thailand. Cellennium has exclusive rights to a
number of international patents as the sole licensee of Squirrel Holdings, Ltd. Cellennium is not
licensee of VRB Power Technologies, and it is unclear whether it plans to enter a licensing
agreement, delay commercialization until after patents expire, or contest the legality of the
patents.
Key patents held by VRB Power Systems relate to the use of vanadium in each of the two halfcell reactions, certain key aspects of cell components such as the bipolar electrodes, and the
electrolyte formulae that allow high concentrations of vanadium sulfate in solution without
causing precipitation.

28

B. L. Norris, R. J. Parry, and R. M. Hudson, An Evaluation of Windfarm Stabilization and Load Shifting Using
the Zinc-Bromine Battery, American Wind Energy Association, June 2002.

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According to VRB Power Systems, the companys suite of patents licensed from Sumitomo
Electric Industries, in addition to its own recently issued systems patents, protect the company
from the illegal use of its intellectual property in most countries 29.
There are several other smaller firms that have developed vanadium redox flow storage systems.
These include Funktionswerkstoffe F & E GmbH and Vfuel, Inc. Not much is known of these
firms. Vfuels is an offshoot of the University of New South Wales, Australia and primarily
engages in research to develop vanadium bromine systems. In addition, Electrosynthesis, a New
York company involved in the Regenesys technology, has had a dedicated research contract from
VRB Power Systems since 2004 30.
The following sections describe the major developers of vanadium redox technology in further
detail.
Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd.
Sumitomo Electric Industries (SEI) is a major supplier to the electric power industry with 8,500
employees and nearly $7B in annual sales. SEI has researched and developed vanadium redox
battery technology since 1985, and has fielded a number of demonstration systems in Japan, as
shown in Table 2-3.
In 1999, SEI recognized intellectual property then held by Pinnacle VRB of Australia and
entered into a licensing agreement with Pinnacle. SEI achieved direct sales in Japan and
marketing efforts in North America occurred through a US based licensee, Reliable Power, Inc.
In 2004, Reliable Power sold its rights to VRB Power Systems, leaving VRB Power Systems as
the sole licensee and manufacturer for the North American market.

29
30

Communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, February 21, 2007
Communication with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, February 21, 2007

2-21

Table 2-3
Sumitomo Electric Industries Vanadium Redox Battery Project Experience
Location

Application

Ratings

Operation

Kashima Kita Power Station

Japan

Load leveling

200kW x 4h

1996

Sumitomo Densetsu Co., Ltd.

Load leveling

100 kW / 8h

Feb 2000

The Institute of
Applied Energy

Stabilization of wind
turbine output

170kW / 6h

Mar 2001

Tottori SANYO
Electric Co., Ltd.

Power quality (voltage sag

compensation) and load leveling

1500kW / 1h
Apr 2001
(3000 kW / 1.5 s)

Obayashi Corp. (Dunlop Golf

Course)

Solar PV storage (DC only)

30kW / 8h

Apr 2001

Kwansei Gakuin University

Peak shaving

500kW / 10h

Jul 200l

(Italy) CESI

Peak shaving

42kW / 2h

Nov 2001

Tomamae Wind Villa

Wind Turbine Output Stabilization and

4 MW x 90 min
Storage

2005

VRB Power Systems, Inc.

VRB Power Systems is a technology development company based in Vancouver, BC, publicly
traded on the TSX Venture Exchange under the trading symbol VRB. The company
characterizes itself as an energy storage technology company, with a principal focus on the
vanadium redox battery technology.
In addition to the vanadium redox battery, VRB Power Systems is also the present owner of
intellectual property related to the Regenesys flow battery technology, which it acquired from
RWE in 2004. While the company retains the right to develop this technology in the future, it is
not significantly involved in developing it at present.
As of early 2007, VRB Power Systems is the only North American manufacturer selling
vanadium redox battery systems for stationary applications, and is the only manufacturer selling
vanadium redox battery products for the North American market. The company has also
established sales agreements and relationships for its products in several foreign countries,
including Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Mexico, Chile, Slovenia, and Australia (where it continues to
sell its products through Pinnacle).
In 2005, the company began development of a 24,000 square foot manufacturing facility in
Richmond, B.C. As of early 2007, the facility has been outfitted for the manufacture and test of
5 kW cell stacks and 5 kW systems, and is being expanded to accommodate a new line for 50

2-22

kW cell stacks. By the end of 2007, VRB Power Systems plans to have sufficient capacity to
produce 2,500 5 kW cell stacks and 300 50 kW cell stacks per year per shift31.
The company has been involved in the development and construction of several vanadium redox
battery systems, most notably a 250 kW, 8-hour system in Castle Valley, Utah in 2003. The
Castle Valley system, commissioned by PacifiCorp, is a load-shifting device used to provide
peak shaving to defer the construction of additional transmission and distribution to a relatively
remote and environmentally sensitive area in Utah 32.
In March 2007, VRB Power Systems agreed to build a 2 MW, 6 hour vanadium redox battery
system for the Sorne Hill Windfarm in Donegal, Ireland. The 12 MWh battery system is
intended to reduce the effect of intermittent wind generation to the grid.
Cellennium Company, Ltd.
In 1993, the University of New South Wales (UNSW) issued a license to Thai Gypsum Products
in Thailand, for a vanadium redox battery for solar applications. Some time later, the company
reappeared under the name Cellennium as a developer of a vanadium fuel cell technology in
utility applications. Cellennium claims that its technology stems from earlier patents for
vanadium battery technology dating to the late 1970s. The company is not a licensee of the
patents and intellectual property owned by VRB Power Systems, and takes a somewhat different
approach to vanadium redox technology.
Cellennium is headquartered in Thailand, with subsidiaries in US and Europe. Research is
conducted by a variety of organizations in the US (Washington and Arizona), Sweden, Italy,
Switzerland, and Thailand. Several million dollars of private investment has funded its
development activities, and an additional $5-10M will be required for commercialization over
the next two years.
According to the companys website, Cellennium is pursuing three separate vanadium
technologies:

A 1 kW battery with a unique series flow design and biomass application;

A technique for dissolving vanadium pentoxide in acid to produce electrolyte; and
A power conversion technology that uses the vanadium redox battery stack design.

Cellennium uses a unique arrangement in which electrolyte flows through the stack in series.
This design has the advantage of significantly reducing shunt currents and ensures that each cell
has the same flow rate. These advantages come with a price, however, as each successive cell
operates at a lower voltage, so that a larger stack is required to achieve the same voltage.

31

VRB Power Systems Management Discussion and Analysis for 3Q2006, available at
www.vrbpower.com/investor-relations.reports.html.
32
The purpose and construction of the Castle Valley VRB project is described in detail in EPRI 1008434, VRB
Energy Storage for Voltage Stabilization, available from EPRI.

2-23

Figure 2-4
Cellennium Vanadium Redox Battery Prototype
(Courtesy Cellennium Thailand)

Cellennium also claims to be developing other non-storage vanadium technologies, including a

vanadium sulfate fuel cell technology that is capable of converting carbohydrates from locallyproduced sugar crops into electricity.
While the Cellennium vanadium redox battery is capable of connecting to a conventional PCS,
the company is developing a unique inductionless power conversion technology that would
replace the conventional PCS. This design would tap individual cells within the stack to produce
an AC waveform by switching individual cells. According to the company, the AC terminals
on the battery will produce a relatively smooth waveform with a peak of 170 V and a step
resolution of 1.3 V (the cell voltage). The company intends the device for use as a frequency
33
converter or a standard AC/DC converter .
According to a representative of the company, Cellennium is now working on a two-year
program sponsored by the Thai Ministry of Energy, with total funding of over $5 million towards
the development of four projects:
1) A 30 kW storage system for used with distributed generation systems (solar, wind, or
diesel);
2) A 100 kW storage system for load leveling applications;
3) A 30 to 50 kW storage system for an electric bus;

33

Cellennium website, www.vanadiumbattery.com. Accessed December 13, 2006.

2-24

4) Basic research and development for the carbohydrate fuel cell technology.
According to Cellennium, the first three projects are targeted for completion by early 2008 34.
The company is planning commercialization around a strategy to offer load-leveling services,
through the Very Small Power Producer (VSPP) program sponsored by the Thai Ministry of
35
Energy . Other commercial applications may follow. At this time, the company does not appear
to be planning to sell their vanadium redox products to other users.
V-Fuel Pty Ltd.
V-Fuel Pty Ltd, an Australian company, was established in January 2005 with the support of the
Victorian Government-funded Centre for Energy and Greenhouse Technologies Pty Ltd to
commercialize a vanadium-bromine redox technology. The companys principal shareholder,
Magnam Technologies Pty Ltd is a start-up company formed in 2003 by Professor Maria
Skyllas-Kazacos of the School of Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry, University of
New South Wales and Mr. Michael Kazacos, both of whom previously worked with the
vanadium redox flow battery technology.
V-Fuel has secured an exclusive world-wide license for the vanadium bromine technology from
the commercial arm of the UNSW, Unisearch Pty Ltd. At present, the products offered by
Vfuels include conducting plastic materials for use in bipolar electrode manufacture as well as
redox fuel cell stacks with power output ranging from 0.5 kW to 5 kW for research and testing
purposes 36.
Funktionswerkstoffe Forschungs & Entwicklungs GmbH (FWG)
FWG is a small German firm working on a number of technologies, including several battery
demonstration projects. The company was commissioned by a consortium consisting of
ASFINAG (the Austrian motor and expressway operator), Autostrade del Brennero (an Italian
motorway operator) and Autostrade per lItalia (another Italian motorway operator) to explore
the possibility of using a novel battery system coupled with renewable energy power sources to
supply electricity along the motor- and expressway network. As a part of this project FWG has
built a vanadium redox battery pilot system (nominal power of 1 kW and an energy content of 50
37
kWh). The device completed a field trial in mid-2006 .
Major Field Demonstrations
PacifiCorp Castle Valley Project
PacifiCorp is a utility based in Portland, Oregon, with operations in six Western states. Among
its service locations is Castle Valley, Utah, a relatively remote site in an environmentally pristine
34

E-mail communication with Piritathep Kanchanadul, Director, Cellennium Thailand, February 20, 2007.
Ibid.
36
VFuel Pty Ltd website, http://www.vfuel.com.au, accessed 22 March 2007.
37
Martha Schreiber, Adam H. Whitehead, Martin Harrer and Ren Moser, The Vanadium Redox Battery an
energy reservoir for stand-alone ITS applications along motor- and expressways, Proceedings of the 8th
International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vienna, Austria, September 13-16, 2005, pp.
936-940.
35

2-25

area. The site is serviced by a 25 kV feeder over 85 miles long, with 209 miles of total line. The
length of the feeder led to complaints of low reliability and power quality. In addition, the feeder
could not supply any significant amount of new load without causing low voltage to existing
customers. As traditional alternatives to add capacity and improve service in this area would
have been costly and environmentally difficult, PacifiCorp sought viable alternatives to meet
these goals.
To address these issues, PacifiCorp built and commissioned a vanadium redox battery energy
storage system. Vanadium redox flow batteries store energy in two electrolytes, which are
pumped from separate storage tanks across proton exchange membranes in the cell stacks,
producing a DC current. The reaction is reversible, so that the battery can be charged and
discharged repeatedly with high efficiency.
The vanadium redox battery system at Castle Valley was built by VRB Power Systems of
Vancouver, British Columbia. It is sized to provide 250 kW for 8 hours. A power conditioning
system (PCS) converts the DC power provided by the battery to AC power during discharge, and
vice versa during recharge. The power conditioning system also provides reactive power
compensation and overload capability for short periods of time.
The battery system was commissioned in November, 2003, and has been operational since
March 2004. The system went through the critical summer peak season in 2004, and
successfully demonstrated peak shaving and voltage support functions.
In September 2004, the power conditioning system was upgraded to a larger, more powerful
version capable of simultaneously delivering real and reactive power at the full rating. In
January, 2005, the vanadium redox battery cell stacks were replaced with new stacks capable of
higher power and better efficiency.
The system at Castle Valley has now completed two peak load seasons. The system has
demonstrated its ability to meet peak shaving and voltage support functions, and has now also
demonstrated its capabilities in arbitrage operation.
According to PacifiCorp, the battery system has shown several benefits. The battery allows
better control over voltage and reactive power in the Castle Valley area, and has allowed new
connections to be installed in the area. In addition, the battery system is valuable from an
arbitrage standpoint when the costs of energy lost to line losses are taken into account. The total
cost of charging the system at off-peak periods and delivering the power to local loads at peak
periods is substantially less than the cost of delivering power at the higher daytime rate.
According to PacifiCorp, the savings resulting from this arbitrage have offset the losses due to
inefficiency.
Additionally, PacifiCorp and VRB Power Systems are planning to implement a self-healing
grid plan, under which the Castle Valley area would be islanded in the event of a larger outage
on the grid. The area could then be powered from the battery system for at least 4 hours. This
plan would improve the reliability of connections in the area.
The design and operation of the PacifiCorp plant is described in more detail in an earlier EPRI
report, VRB Energy Storage for Voltage Stabilization: Testing and Evaluation of the PacifiCorp
Vanadium Redox Battery Energy Storage System at Castle Valley, Utah (EPRI 1008434, 2005).

2-26

King Island Project

King Island is a small island to the northwest of the main island of Tasmania. The island has a
population of about 1,500 and is largely rural, with a number of small towns on the coast. Most
land is agricultural, and there are no large industries. As such, the island has a small grid with a
maximum demand of about 3 to 3.5MW during the day, and about 1 MW at night. Traditionally,
power has been provided by diesel generators. The relative expense of bringing diesel to the
island encouraged HydroTasmania, the local utility, to explore alternative options, including
wind generation.
In 1998, HydroTasmania established the Huxley Wind Farm near the town of Currie, in close
proximity to the islands main diesel power station. The three 250 kW Nordex wind turbines
installed at Huxley provided about 18% of the islands power requirements, with the balance
serviced by a diesel power station. HydroTasmania found that the three wind turbines caused
considerable fluctuations on the King Island grid, and explored various ways of mitigating these
fluctuations before settling on an energy storage system. In 2003, the utility acquired funding
from the Australian Greenhouse Office, an Australian government agency, to expand the wind
farm with two 850 kW Vestas wind turbines and a 200 kW vanadium redox flow battery
supplied by Pinnacle VRB, an Australian developer of vanadium redox systems.
The flow battery consists of six stacks produced by Sumitomo Electric, with the capability of
delivering 200 kW for four hours (for load shifting) and a peak power capability of 400 kW for
10 seconds (for fluctuation mitigation). The battery was originally intended for both fluctuation
stabilization and time shifting applications. After the installation of the Vestas turbines, it was
found that fluctuation problems had been significantly reduced by the mitigation technology
incorporated into the turbines themselves. As a result, it is now expected that the battery will be
used primarily for time shifting.

Figure 2-5
Vanadium Redox Battery Facility on King Island, Tasmania
(Courtesy HydroTasmania and Pinnacle VRB)

Grid voltage and frequency are managed by a sophisticated control system, which delivers power
from a combination of the wind turbines, the battery, and diesel generators. Grid voltage and
frequency are usually controlled through the diesel generators, rather than through the battery.
2-27

This is because the battery is too small to adequately compensate for the long-duration
intermittency on the wind turbines. The battery can, however, reduce the rate of change
produced by short-term intermittency on the wind turbines, reducing the rate at which they affect
the voltage and frequency on the grid.
As of this writing, the King Island energy storage system is undergoing final testing and
verification in preparation for full-time operation scheduled to begin in mid-2005 38.
NEDO Project
A vanadium redox battery was sited at the Horikappu Power Plant operated by Hokkaido Electric
Power and located near Tomamae in Hokkaido, Japan. The vanadium redox battery, supplied by
Sumitomo Electric Industries, is used to stabilize the output of a 250 kW wind turbine. The
battery is sized to provide 170 kW for 6 hours. The battery entered service in March 2001, and
39
provided both fluctuation suppression and time shifting capability .
Subaru Project
Under the Kyoto protocol, Japan is now seeking to reduce its greenhouse gas output through
wind generation and other renewable sources. The country has a short-term target of 3,000 MW
of installed wind generation by the year 2010, three times its wind capacity installed in mid2005.
Japans power generation mix is fairly varied. The nation relies on a large base generation
capacity of nuclear and run-of-the-river hydro, with relatively little coal capacity. Most peak
generation and regulating reserve is provided by natural gas and oil-fired plants, and by a
significant amount of pumped hydro. This mix is relatively short on regulating reserve, making
the planned increase in wind power a daunting prospect.
In a proactive attempt to find an answer to this issue, the Japanese government, in collaboration
with several utilities, began an investigation of energy storage in this application. One result of
this investigation is the SUBARU Project, which was initiated by J-Power, a major Japanese
energy wholesaler in cooperation with the Institute of Applied Energy, the Central Research
Institute of the Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), and Sumitomo Electric Industries, with
funding from the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO).
The principal purpose of the SUBARU Project is to use energy storage to mitigate short-term
winder power fluctuation in the vicinity of the wind farm, as well as stabilize frequency on the
power network. Located at the 30.6-MW Tomamae Wind Villa wind farm on the northern island
of Hokkaido, the project comprises a 4-MW, 6-MWh vanadium redox battery system
manufactured by Sumitomo Electric Industries. However, the battery has the capability to deliver
pulse power of 6 MW for up to 30 seconds when required for grid regulation. The Hokkaido grid
is an independent power network connected to the rest of Japan by an underwater high-voltage
DC connection.

38
39

Conversation with Andrew Hickman, HydroTasmania, November 2004.

Sumitomo Electric Industries website, http://www.sei.co.jp/redox/youto/furyoku.html

2-28

Figure 2-6
SUBARU Vanadium Redox Battery Energy Storage System in Tomamae, Japan
(Courtesy J-Power)

The SUBARU project vanadium redox battery was installed at Tomamae in January 2005 and is
scheduled to remain in operation until January 2008. In addition to testing, evaluating, and
optimizing the energy storage hardware, the SUBARU project is also developing the optimal
control methods for the system. To this end, the project is testing the batterys response to such
conditions as sudden massive fluctuations in power output.
Planned Present and Future Demonstrations
Sorne Hill Wind Farm
VRB Power Systems Inc. has entered into a sale agreement with Tapbury Management Limited
of Letterkenny, Co. Donegal, Ireland (Tapbury) for the sale of a 2 MW x 6 hour (12 MWH)
vanadium redox battery system. Tapbury oversees the management of Sorne Hill Windfarm, a
recently commissioned 32MW windfarm which is located in Buncrana, Inishowen, Co. Donegal,
Ireland (Sorne). The footprint of the 12 MWh Ireland plant would be 25 meters x 30 meters for
40
a one-story building .
This 12MWH battery system will be coupled to phase II of the Sorne project which is an
additional 6.9 MW of wind power for which turbines have been ordered and are due to be
installed in the Fall of 2007. This will make Sorne, at 38 MW, one of the largest wind farms in
Ireland.

40

Tim Hennessy interview, November 2005.

2-29

The total contract value for VRB Power Systems from this sale is approximately US$ 9 million.
The sale is subject to the execution of final contracts between VRB Power Systems and Tapbury.
Subject to the performance results from this initial 12MWH system, Tapbury has the option to
expand the power and storage elements of the system to cover the existing 32MWs of wind
power at Sorne which would equate to approximately 50 MWh of additional vanadium redox
battery energy storage.
The presence of the 12MWh vanadium redox battery energy storage system will enable Sorne,
Phase II to provide more electricity to the grid on a much smoother basis improving the
reliability and predictability of electricity generation and alleviating issues of intermittency. This,
together with the ability to store excess wind energy which would otherwise be lost, has
positioned Sorne to negotiate better than usual commercial terms for the off take agreement
relating to the electricity that will be generated from Phase II as well as qualifying Phase II for
higher capacity and ancillary payments. These value streams provide a strong value proposition
for wind farm operators in Ireland and other countries and territories around the world and this
sale will provide a blue-print for other such sales.

2-30

3
VANADIUM REDOX BATTERY TECHNOLOGY STATUS
This chapter describes the results of a detailed technical investigation into the vanadium redox
battery. Here we assess the ability of vanadium redox batteries to be a viable commercial energy
storage technology for the utility industry at present and into the future. As part of this effort, we
attempt to identify the key technical gaps related to the widespread implementation of vanadium
redox batteries, including design and manufacturability, potential for scale-up, operational issues,
and environmental and disposal issues.
Design and Manufacturability of Vanadium Redox Battery Systems
Vanadium redox battery energy storage systems are composed of a number of subsystems. From
a mechanical standpoint, the system includes two electrolyte flow loops, one for the positive
electrolyte and one for the negative electrolyte. Each loop includes an electrolyte storage tank,
piping, pumps, and valves.
The system includes a third loop, the electrical circuit that delivers power from the battery
during discharge and to it during charge. This circuit includes the cabling and interconnects as
well as the power conditioning system.
The three loops come together and interact in the vanadium redox battery cell stack, which forms
the heart of the energy storage system. The stack converts the chemical energy in the
electrolytes into electrical energy, and vice versa. As can be expected, the cell stack is the most
important and most complex part of the vanadium redox battery system.
The following sections examine the design and manufacturability of the most important
components of the vanadium redox battery system.
Vanadium Electrolyte
The vanadium electrolyte is composed of vanadium ions in a highly acidic solution based on
sulfuric acid. Typical concentrations for the electrolyte range from 1.0 M to 2.4 M vanadium in
2.0 M to 5.0 M aqueous sulfuric acid. The acidity of the sulfuric acid is comparable to that of
the electrolyte found in lead-acid batteries, with a pH of between 0.1 and 0.5.
The vanadium electrolyte used in vanadium redox battery systems is an energy-dense fluid,
capable of storing about 20 to 30 Wh/L when fully charged (assuming half of the electrolyte is
charged as anolyte and the other half as catholyte). Other chemical forms of energy storage,
such as gasoline, can store upwards of 500 Wh/L. It should be noted, however, that while the
vanadium electrolyte can be discharged and recharged indefinitely, gasoline can be burned only
once 41.

41

Gasoline and other fossil fuels are remarkably energy dense because of the high energy content of the C-H bond.

3-1

A great deal of research, much of it highly proprietary, has gone towards improving the
electrolyte, with the basic goal of increasing the energy density and capacity of the battery. The
principal approach to increasing capacity is to increase the vanadium ion concentration of the
electrolyte. Typical concentrations have ranged from 1.0 M to 2.2 M, with higher numbers
possible through the addition of stabilizing compounds. The stabilizing compounds are some of
the most proprietary ingredients in the battery system.
A number of methods are used to produce the vanadium electrolyte. Most involve the slow
dissolution of vanadium pentoxide in sulfuric acid using a time-consuming and potentially costly
electrochemical process.
Reduction of manufacturing costs is another important area of research. Most approaches seek
to improve the efficiency of the electrochemical processes used to improve dissolution of
vanadium pentoxide. At least one developer has claimed to develop an in-situ process for
developing the electrolyte, with the claim that this approach would reduce costs of
manufacturing 42. Others may also be pursuing this approach. Although this approach would
allow delivery of the raw vanadium pentoxide directly to the site and reduce the significant costs
associated with transport of the electrolyte, it would add some safety-related and regulatory costs
associated with processing vanadium pentoxide on site. The trade-offs in this approach would
differ with the regulatory jurisdiction and are difficult to assess.
The vanadium pentoxide and sulfuric acid used in electrolyte manufacture are industrial
chemicals readily available on the spot market. The availability and expected price of these
materials is discussed in a later section.
Vanadium electrolyte manufacture is not a significant obstacle to expanded use of the vanadium
redox battery, although there are several opportunities to improve the performance of the
electrolyte and cost related to the production process.
Electrolyte Tanks
The electrolyte tanks can be composed of coated fiberglass, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or other
materials resistant to corrosion from acidic substances. The PacifiCorp project used standard,
off-the-shelf fiberglass tanks designed to store industrial liquids, as shown in Figure 3-1. Two
tanks were installed, one for the positive electrolyte and another for the negative electrolyte.
Double-walled tanks were specified to minimize the risk of leakage. Leak detection sensors are
placed on the tanks to detect electrolyte leakage should it occur.

42

Cellennium website, www.vanadiumbattery.com. Accessed December 13, 2006.

3-2

Figure 3-1
Double walled horizontal electrolyte tank installed at the Castle Valley vanadium redox battery
(Courtesy VRB Power Systems)

Many other vanadium redox battery installations use a series of vertical tanks for each
electrolyte, in the place of one large tank, as demonstrated in the Figure 3-2, which shows tanks
at the Tomamae Wind Villa plant. This option has the advantage of modularity, allowing the
manufacturer to design standard systems with the duration of energy storage determined by the
number of tanks used. Furthermore, should the user choose to hold the option of increasing
energy capacity later, space can be left in the facility for additional tanks.

3-3

Figure 3-2
Vertical Electrolyte Tanks Installed at the Tomamae Wind Villa
(Courtesy J-Power)

In some cases, flexible bladders have been used in the place of tanks. In one demonstration by
Sumitomo in Japan, the electrolytes were stored in flexible rubber bags in the basement of the
building, allowing the efficient use of existing space 43. Such a bag is shown in Figure 3-3.
In general, tanks are not a technical challenge for vanadium redox battery systems. Standard,
off-the-shelf products can be used to produce a cost-effective design with todays technology.

43

N. Tokuda, T. Kanno, T. Hara, T. Shigematsu, Y. Tsutsui, A. Ikeuchi, T. Itou, and T. Kumamoto, Development
of a Redox Flow battery System, SEI Technical Review, Number 50 (June 2000).

3-4

Figure 3-3
Rubber bag used for vanadium electrolyte storage
(Courtesy Sumitomo Electric Industries)

Piping, Pumps, and Auxiliary Components

The pipes, pumps, valves, and other auxiliary components of the vanadium redox battery
electrolyte circulation system are specified to tolerate the corrosive acidic nature of the
electrolyte, and are designed to expand and contract minimally with temperature. Both of these
specifications ensure that the piping will last well past the life of the facility without leaking or
corroding.
Pumps, valves, and heat exchangers used in vanadium redox battery systems must use materials
that allow them to under such stringent requirements. For the most part, this involves using
plastic or Teflon-clad impellers and moving parts to minimize chemical interaction with the
electrolyte. Products meeting these requirements are commonly used in industry, particularly
when handling corrosive chemicals, and are available off-the-shelf, albeit at slightly higher
prices than conventional versions of the same products.
The vanadium redox battery has two sets of piping, one for the positive electrolyte and one for
the negative electrolyte. The piping is typically constructed from commercial-grade polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe, selected for its resistance to corrosion. Such piping is readily available at
low prices.
Because most components are commercially available, there are no significant technical or
manufacturing challenges related to these components of the vanadium redox battery system.

3-5

Figure 3-4
Pumps and heat exchangers used in the Castle Valley vanadium redox battery project
(Courtesy: VRB Power Systems)

Electrical Cabling and Interconnection Hardware

The electrical power path from the cell stacks to the electrical grid is relatively simple. The cell
stacks are connected to the power conditioning system (PCS) through copper cables or electrical
bus bars connected to the end cells in the stack. If more than one stack is used in series, an
additional cable or bus bars provides a power path between the two. Similarly, if several stacks
are arranged in parallel, additional cables connect them to the PCS. Standard interconnection
hardware is used between the cables and the ends of the stacks.
Power Conditioning Systems (PCS)
Most existing commercial vanadium redox battery systems have used power conditioning
systems purchased from power electronics specialists. For example, SatCon Technology
Corporation provided the PCS for the PacifiCorp Castle Valley project.
In general, power converters are a mature field. Many utilities have extensive experience with
IGBT, IGCT, and GTO-based power converters used in a standalone configuration as reactive
power compensators, and the addition of energy storage to provide real power for other benefits
is straightforward and well-understood.
In the context of vanadium redox battery systems, most projects have used lower voltage IGBTbased converters, which are relatively simple and provide good performance and efficiencies up

3-6

to 95%. For larger systems, even higher efficiencies may be possible through the use of GTObased converters which operate at higher voltage. 44
Interconnection between the PCS and the AC grid
Power flow from the PCS to the AC grid is handled through a transformer and filter circuitry.
Most PCS systems include control systems which synchronize frequency with the grid; it is also
possible to use grid-commutated inverters. Such components are mature and commonly used
throughout the utility industry, and do not pose significant obstacles in the implementation of
vanadium redox batteries.
Cell Stacks
The vanadium redox battery cell stack is perhaps the most critical technology in the vanadium
redox battery system, and therefore deserves the most attention in terms of analysis of design and
manufacturability. While the physical construction of the stack is relatively straightforward, the
design contains several critical components which must be addressed individually, such as the
ion exchange membrane, the electrode, and the bipolar plate. These components are examined in
detail in later sections.
The cell stack is composed of several cells in series to obtain a pre-determined dc voltage. The
stack voltage is determined from the operating voltage on the dc bus of the power conditioning
system (PCS). The cell stack voltage must fall within the operating range of the PCS in all
modes of operation, from the highest voltage achieved during charge to the lowest voltage
exhibited during discharge. Where necessary, the stack can be divided into a number of smaller
stacks placed in series, to ease design, construction, and assembly.
The size of individual cells is based on several considerations. In theory, cell size can be
determined from the desired power rating of the cell stack, by first calculating the number of
cells required to achieve the required cell stack voltage, and then calculating the required current
to meet the power rating. Finally, the required square area of the stack is calculated from the
optimal current density of the cell technology. In practice, cell size is often driven by other
design considerations, such as mechanical strength of components, thermal characteristics, and
available sizes of base materials of the components.
Most developers settle on a single standard cell and stack size, which they place in series/parallel
combination to obtain the desired power and voltage characteristics for various products. This
modular approach simplifies manufacturing and tooling design and streamlines the engineering
effort at both the cell and stack level and at the system level. As applications develop, standard
cell sizes may change, and developers may choose to offer more than one stack size. For
instance, VRB Power Systems offers two stack sizes, a 5 kW design for smaller applications, and
a 50 kW building block for larger systems.
Most cell stacks are constructed in a parallel-fed design, in which the cells are connected
electrically in series but the electrolytes are pumped into all cells in parallel. Batteries produced

44

Private communication with David Vandermeyer, SatCon Systems, February 09, 2007.

3-7

by VRB Power Systems and Sumitomo Electric Industries follow this design 45. There have been
proposals for series-fed designs, in which the electrolytes flow through cells successively. Such
batteries have been proposed by Squirrel Holdings Ltd, and are being developed by
Cellennium 46. For the purposes of this analysis, the parallel-fed design will be considered the
most likely technology to be used in large-scale utility applications, at least in the near future.
The construction of cell stacks is a straightforward mechanical process. Electrodes, membranes,
and bipolar plates are stacked in order to form the stack. Large steel endplates at either end of
the stack provide mechanical integrity. Bolts run through each endplate outside of the cells
themselves to keep the stack together. The construction of a stack is described in Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5
Construction of a Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stack
(Courtesy Sumitomo Electric Industries)

Each bipolar plate has inlet and outlet ports to allow the insertion of the manifold which supplies
electrolyte to the individual cells.
Figure 3-6 shows representative vanadium redox battery cell stacks, produced for the PacifiCorp
vanadium redox battery project in Castle Valley, Utah. Sumitomo Electric Industries
manufactured the stacks for VRB Power Systems, the prime contractor and system integrator.
The stacks are roughly cubic in form, each measuring about 1.3 meters by 1.0 meter by 1.1

45

VRB Energy Storage for Voltage Stabilization: Testing and Evaluation of the PacifiCorp Vanadium Redox Battery
Energy Storage System at Castle Valley, Utah, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1008434.
46

R. H. B. Exell, P. M. Spaziante, and P. Kanchanadul, New Vanadium Batteries -- A Breakthrough Solution for
Electricity Storage, [Online]: http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/3589/vanadiumdec2000.pdf.

3-8

meters. It should be noted that this aspect ratio is patented by the manufacturer of the stacks.
The stacks use a parallel-feed design, with 100 cells connected electrically in series. The stack is
rated at 140 V and can produce 42 kW continuously, but can also provide 150 kW for brief
periods of time.

Figure 3-6
Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stacks Installed at the Castle Valley Vanadium Redox Battery
(Courtesy VRB Power Systems)

The vanadium redox battery project at Tomamae, Japan, uses similar stacks. In this case,
however, the cell stacks are enclosed within metal cabinets, as shown in Figure 3-7.

3-9

Figure 3-7
Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stacks Installed at the Tomamae Wind Villa Farm
(Courtesy J-Power)

Cell stack assembly is a relatively simple manufacturing process, and holds no significant
technical challenges at present. The method of construction is relatively labor intensive
requiring the stacking of components onto the end plate and the careful torquing of bolts to
ensure proper compression. This manufacturing process can, however, be optimized and
automated. Any technical challenges related to the cell stack lie mainly with the nature of its
components, particularly the ion exchange membrane, the bipolar plate, and the carbon felt
electrode. The availability and cost of these components is discussed in the following section.
In general, there appear to be few concerns with the construction and assembly of vanadium
redox battery systems, as the equipment and design methodologies are very similar to those used
in the electrical power and chemical process industries. The more important technical issues
arise when considering the component materials, which we will explore next.
Availability, Cost, and Sources for Components and Raw Materials
To fully understand the viability of vanadium redox battery energy storage systems, it is
important to examine the availability and cost structure of the materials used in their
construction.
The viability of vanadium redox battery energy storage systems in large-scale utility applications
depends on the availability and cost structure of the materials used in their construction. Some
of these materials are specialty products which are relatively expensive now, and for which the
cost and availability can be expected to improve as more vanadium redox battery systems are
installed. Other materials are commodities; prices for such materials may not change or may
actually increase with widespread use of vanadium redox battery technology.

3-10

In the following pages, we examine availability, costs, and sources for the vanadium ions used in
the electrolyte, the sulfuric acid solvent, and the constituent components of the cell stack (bipolar
plates, ion exchange membrane, and carbon felt electrodes).
Vanadium
Vanadium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol V and atomic number
23. It belongs to group 5, period 4 of the periodic table, and has a cubic body centered crystal
structure. Figure 3-8 shows the crystal structure and position of vanadium in the periodic table.

Figure 3-8
Vanadium in the Periodic Table
(Source: Wikipedia article on Vanadium, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium)

Vanadium was discovered in the early 1800s, and named after the Scandinavian goddess Vanadis
for the beautiful array of colors produced by its various ions in solution. Pure vanadium is a soft,
grayish metal that occurs in two natural stable isotopes, 50V and 51V, of which the latter occurs
most commonly in nature. The pure metal resists corrosion by alkali solutions,, sulfuric and
hydrochloric acid.
Like chromium, vanadium produces valence oxides with acid properties. Common valence states
of vanadium include +2, +3, +4 and +5. It is the numerous valence states of vanadium that
makes the vanadium redox battery possible.

Figure 3-9
Vanadium ions in solution. From left to right, V(II), V(III), V(IV), and V(V) 47
(Source: American Chemical Society,
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/images/8136element.vanadium.JPG)

47

A. Butler, Vanadium. [Online] http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/vanadium.html

3-11

Vanadium is never found pure in nature. It is commonly bound in a variety of ores, including
patronite (VS4), vandinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl), carnotite (K2(UO2)2(VO4)23H2O). Vanadium is also
present in bauxite, and in carbon-containing deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar
sands. These materials are refined to produce the vanadium compounds used in industry. About
65% of the world production currently comes from South Africa and Russia, whereas 85% of the
supply is used in Europe, Japan, China and the USA. This mix is changing, as new sources in
Canada and Australia are developed.

Figure 3-10
World Vanadium Production by Country
(Source: Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 2001)

Almost 95% of vanadium produced is used in metallurgical applications. Approximately 80% is

used in steel manufacture, where it is added as ferrovanadium or vanadium carbide. Vanadium
is most commonly sold and quoted on the open market as vanadium pentoxide anhydride (also
called flake).

3-12

At present, world vanadium resources are estimated at 63 million metric tons, sufficient to meet
demand into the next century 48. Figure 3-10 shows the approximate world production of
Vanadium by country 49. The reserves indicated do not include additional vanadium that could be
recovered from petroleum and industrial byproducts, such as fly ash. Vanadium is also produced
in the United States by recovery of vanadium from various industrial waste materials, such as
vanadium-bearing iron slag, fly ash, petroleum residues, and spent catalysts. Canadian tar sands
and heavy oil are also a possible source of vanadium.
The price of vanadium has been rather volatile over the last few years. A surge in the demand
for high strength ferrovanadium steel, coupled with a decrease in supply and increase in
transportation costs, has contributed to sharp jumps in prices recently. Before 2004, vanadium
pentoxide flake commonly sold for around $1.5 per pound. In 2004, the average price jumped to
$5.28 per pound, before jumping sharply to a high over $25 per pound in 2005 before settling to
an average of about $7 per pound more recently. In November, 2006, the cost for flake ranged
from $7.000 per pound to $7.357 per pound 50.
The 5 year price variation for vanadium pentoxide computed from USGS data is shown in
Figure 3-11.
Vanadium Pentoxide 12 Month High Side Price Variation
30

Price ($/lb)

25
20
15
10
5

9/1/2006

5/1/2006

1/1/2006

9/1/2005

5/1/2005

1/1/2005

9/1/2004

5/1/2004

1/1/2004

9/1/2003

5/1/2003

1/1/2003

9/1/2002

5/1/2002

1/1/2002

9/1/2001

5/1/2001

1/1/2001

Month

Figure 3-11
5 Year Price Variation in Vanadium Pentoxide Anhydride
(Data source: USGS Mineral Survey)

48

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries -Vanadium, January 2006. [Online]:
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/vanadmcs06.pdf
49

Vanadium, Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 2001. [Online]: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/ms/cmy/content/2001/65.pdf

50

USGS Mineral Industry Surveys Vanadium in November 2006, February 2007. [Online]:
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/vmis1106.pdf

3-13

The high volatility and increase in price of vanadium is attributed in part to the increased demand
for vanadium steel. Demand is unlikely to fall, but new sources of vanadium such as fly ash and
heavy oil are expected to appear to fill rising demand. While these resources are abundant,
extraction of vanadium from them requires complex chemical processes and is not inexpensive.
Extensive development of these sources will occur only if vanadium market spot prices remain
high enough to make the extraction process profitable. However, the existence of these sources
puts a brake on the volatility of vanadium in the short term, and makes vanadium shortages
unlikely in the long-term.
Future prices of vanadium pentoxide flake are expected to hover in the range of US$4-5/lb as
new capacity from mines in Australia and elsewhere come on-line after 2008 51,52. A return to the
low levels seen between 1999 and 2003 is unlikely because of underlying growth in special
steels, titanium alloys and batteries. World vanadium demand is estimated to grow by 6-7%
every year. 53 If prices remain high enough, vanadium capacity could increase by as much as
20% in the next five years as the increased demand encourages the extraction of vanadium from
new sources such as slag and fly ash 54.
The most notable companies involved in the mining of vanadium and vanadium complexes are:

South Africa: Highveld, Vametco, Xstrata

Russia: Nizhny Tagil Iron and Steel Works; Chusovskoy Metallurgical Works; Tulachermet
Vanadium; Evraz
China: Panzhihua Iron & Steel Company

Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid, the other component of the vanadium electrolyte in vanadium redox battery
systems, is one of the largest manufactured chemicals in US and in the world. Sulfuric acid is
sold most commonly in two forms: 98% pure sulfuric acid and fuming sulfuric acid (a form of
sulfuric acid stabilized with the addition of SO3). The most important use for sulfuric acid is in
the production of agricultural fertilizers, although its use in lead-acid batteries in automobiles is
also a significant contributor to sales.
Of late there has been a drop in demand for sulfuric acid. One of the reasons cited for this drop is
the significant reduction in lead-acid battery sales. As of mid-2006, the price of high-purity
55
sulfuric acid was around $70/ton . Figure 3-12 shows recent trends in the price of sulfuric acid.

51

The Economics of Vanadium, 11th edition, 2007. http://www.roskill.com/reports/vanadium

52

Vanadium and Precious Metals. http://www.roskill.com/reports/vanadium

53

USGS Mineral Industry Surveys Vanadium in November 2006, February 2007. [Online]:
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/vmis1106.pdf
54

M. Magyar, Vanadium 2004, USGS Minerals Yearbook, 2004. [Online]:

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/vanadium/vanadmyb04.pdf
55

Sulfuric acid prices continue to decline as demand dries up [Online]:

http://www.purchasing.com/article/CA6368261.html

3-14

Figure 3-12
Recent price variation for sulfuric acid
(Source: www.purchasingdata.com)

Because sulfuric acid is one of the most important and mass-produced industrial chemicals, and
because its price is relatively low, its cost and availability is not generally a major concern for
manufacturers or users of vanadium redox batteries.
Ion Exchange Membrane
The ion exchange membrane is an important component of the cell stack, acting as both
separator and ion conduction material between the two half-cells in each electrochemical cell in
the stack. The most popular ion exchange membrane historically has been DuPonts Nafion
product, which is commonly used as a separator in many industrial electrochemical processes. It
is perhaps most familiar in the electric power industry as the membrane used in proton exchange
membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Nafion is a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, which
conducts protons by allowing them to hop from one sulfonyl functional group to another
through the material.
Other manufacturers have developed alternatives to Nafion that provide many of the same
properties. One such product is Flemion, a product manufactured by Asahi Glass Company.
Flemion is similar to Nafion in function, but does not incorporate sulfonyl groups.
Ion exchange membranes can be fairly expensive. DuPonts prices for Nafion range from $250
56
to $1000 per square meter, depending on thickness and volume . Vanadium redox battery
developers have worked with multiple vendors to cut the costs. Note that the cost of the
membrane is dependent on the membrane thickness, which is considered proprietary information
by vanadium redox battery technology developers.
The membrane industry is a volume driven business and future cost will be driven by volume.
Figure 3-13 shows future cost projections for Nafion membranes provided by Dupont.
56

E-mail communication with DuPont, Feb. 22, 2007.

3-15

300

Price ($/sq.meter)

250
200

NR-112 (2-mil)

150
100
50

NR-111 (1-mil)

0
100

250

500

1,000

2,000

Annual Volume (1,000 sq.meters)

Figure 3-13
NAFION Future Pricing Projections
(Source: DuPont Chemical)

Prices for other membrane products can similarly be expected to come down in volume orders.
There is also significant research into improving the conductivity of the membrane, which would
decrease internal resistance and improve round-trip efficiency. It is unlikely that any such
advancement would be incorporated into current designs, however, unless the price of the
membrane was also to come down.
The high cost of the membrane is an important obstacle in broader acceptance of the vanadium
redox battery technology. The membrane constitutes a large percentage of the total cost of the
battery system, perhaps as high as 10-15%. This cost is unlikely to fall significantly without
volume manufacture.
Carbon Felt Electrodes
As described in the previous section, the electrodes in the cell stack are generally composed of
high-surface area carbon felt. These materials are usually made through a straightforward
production process. The base fiber is woven into yarns, which are then pyrolized to form carbon
filaments. The yarns are woven into carbon felt fabric, which can be cut into appropriate sizes
for electrodes. The felt fabric is available from a number of materials suppliers in the U.S.,
Europe, and Asia.
Of late, the price for carbon felt has been relatively high because of short-term shortages of
polyacrylonitrile and other precursors. Prices are expected to fall when producers of these
materials gear up production in response to the increasing demand.
Carbon felt electrodes used at present provide good corrosion resistance and electrochemical
properties, and do not present a technical barrier to performance. Nevertheless, there is scope to
improve performance through the use of alternative materials. In particular, enhanced electrical

3-16

conductivity and electrochemical stability are desirable, as well as superior catalytic properties to
improve coulombic efficiency. This is an important area of research for present vanadium redox
battery developers, with graphite and polymer technologies holding the most interest. Most
materials under consideration are similar to those used at present, and it is unlikely that a shift to
these materials would strongly affect cost of the overall technology.
Bipolar Current Collectors
The felt electrodes are bonded onto a conductive plate that serves to conduct current from one
cell to the next. This conductive plate is usually composed of either graphite or a graphite-filled
polymer. Graphite-filled polymers are strongly favored over conventional graphite for several
reasons, including superior tensile strength, flexibility, and ease of manufacturing and handling
during assembly.
The design of the conductive plate, including the thickness, the material used, and the bonding
agents and process used to minimize contact resistance between the electrode and the plate are
considered highly proprietary by vanadium redox battery vendors. The manufacture of the
conductive plate itself is likely to be a relatively costly part of the production process at present,
though not as expensive as the ion exchange membrane. It is also an important part of the
research into the continuous improvement of the technology. Vanadium redox battery
developers continue to seek ways of making this material more conductive and more
inexpensive.
The underlying technology of the bipolar plate does not seem to present a technical obstacle to
the success of the vanadium battery, although the expense of this component may be an obstacle
in the short run. From a longer term perspective, although the conductive plate is a specialty
component that requires a unique production process, it does not contain rare or exotic materials
that would be difficult to acquire in mass production. As a result, the price of this component
can be expected to fall in volume production.
Assessment of Potential Technical Challenges for Vanadium Redox Battery
Energy Storage Systems
Great progress has been made with the vanadium redox battery technology in the past few years.
As more experience is gained with the technology, we are in a better position to gauge the
strengths and weaknesses, and its ability to meet performance requirements. The following
sections address issues that have been brought up as concerns for the vanadium redox battery
technology in the past, as well as how technology developers are addressing them.
Potential for Scale-Up
Because the power and energy ratings for vanadium redox batteries are independent, scale-up is
(in principle) relatively simple. The energy capacity depends on the amount of stored
electrolyte, while the power capacity depends on the number and size of the cell stacks in the
system. A scaled system for any power (MW) and energy (MWh) rating can be built by
combining an appropriate number of modules with an appropriate amount of electrolyte storage.
Naturally, scale up is easier when appropriate building blocks are available. Building blocks
should be large enough to minimize the effort required to put together the appropriately sized

3-17

system. VRB Power Systems, for instance, works with two sizes of cell stacks a 5 kW stack
and a 50 kW stack. A 250 kW system could be built with 50 of the 5 kW models, or 5 of the 50
kW models; the latter approach would allow simpler and more efficient construction.
Scale-up in terms of energy is still simpler. Electrolyte tanks can be added to provide as much
energy storage capacity as desired. Since commercially available tanks can be used with little
modification, there are few limitations in terms of step size.
Power electronics hardware must also be scaled up with the vanadium redox battery hardware
itself. This is a relatively straightforward process. Higher power levels may actually result in
superior performance of the vanadium redox battery system, since higher power allows the
possibility of using higher voltage stacks and power electronics, reducing ohmic and switching
losses.
Expansion of an existing plant is also possible. This is easiest when provision has been made in
the initial design for the incorporation of additional cell stacks or electrolyte tanks, and when the
PCS and other components have been sized to accommodate future expansion.
Reliability and Operation
Vanadium redox battery energy storage systems are designed for automatic operation. In
principle, an energy storage system can be placed in a remote site and controlled with SCADA or
other control and date interface systems, with little or no human intervention.
As is the case with any new technology, early vanadium redox battery prototype and
demonstration systems occasionally exhibited operational issues that required the presence of
operations and maintenance personnel. As the technology has matured, the number of such
issues has been reduced significantly. Recent vanadium redox battery projects have
demonstrated remarkable reliability in operation.
As an illustration, operational data for the PacifiCorp vanadium redox battery facility at Castle
Valley, Utah is presented in Figure 3-14. In the 12 months from February 2005 through January
2006, the vanadium redox battery system was engaged in charge and discharge (together defined
as run time) for a total of 5,341 hours over this 12 month period, and spent an additional 2778
hours in an idle mode between charge and discharge, for a total of 8118 operational hours.
During this period, the vanadium redox battery system required 523 hours of scheduled
downtime for planned maintenance. In addition, the system required 330 hours of unplanned
downtime. Most of this downtime was caused by a lightning-induced failure of a capacitor in the
power conditioning system, which resulted in system shutdown in December 2005. The system
encountered only one other failure, an unknown trip in October 2005 which reset itself quickly.
The availability of the vanadium redox battery system over the one year period was about 94%,
where availability is defined as the percentage of the scheduled run time that the vanadium redox
battery system was fully operational. The system experienced 8118 hours of operational time
with only two reported interruptions a remarkable achievement for a first-of-a-kind energy
storage installation.

3-18

Normalised Plant Operating Hours

Feb 2005 - Jan 2006

0.8
Planned Downtime
0.6

Unplanned Downtime

0.4

Idle Time

0.2

Run Time

To
ta
l

Ja
n06

No
v05
De
c05

Ju
l-0
5
Au
g05
Se
p05
O
ct
-0
5

Ap
r- 0
5
M
ay
-0
5
Ju
n05

Fe
b05
M
ar
-0
5

Figure 3-14
Normalized Plant Operations Data for the PacifiCorp Vanadium Redox Battery Facility at Castle
Valley, Utah from February 2005 to January 2006
(Source: VRB Power Systems)

Data collected for the Castle Valley facility since the first year has shown even better reliability
for the system. Across the three year operational history of the facility, availability has been
about 98% 57, an impressive figure even in comparison to conventional generation plants.
Round-trip Efficiency
Round-trip efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy delivered by an energy storage system
during discharge to the energy injected into it during charge. For example, consider an energy
storage system rated for 4 MWh. When discharged from a fully charged state, such a system can
deliver 4 MWh before running out of energy. This battery may require a 5 MWh energy input to
go from fully discharged to fully charged. The efficiency of this system would be 4/5 or 80%.
Two different types of efficiency figures are widely expressed. Dc round-trip efficiency
describes the efficiency of the battery alone, not including the power conditioning system or grid
interconnection components. Ac round-trip efficiency describes efficiency at the grid
interconnection point (that is, the meter). Naturally, utilities are generally more interested in the
ac round-trip efficiency.
For vanadium redox batteries, several efficiency figures have been quoted by vendors,
customers, and independent analysts. The battery dc-dc efficiency has been described by most
58,59,60,61
. Typical ac-ac round trip efficiencies
investigators to be between 80 and 87% efficient

57

Conversation with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, February 13, 2007.
Investigation on Storage Technologies for Intermittent Renewable Energies: Evaluation and recommended R&D
strategy, REDOX SYSTEMS REPORT, WPST 7 Redox Systems INVESTIRE-NETWORK, May 2006
59
T. Sasaki, Evaluation of Demand and Supply Control, Maintaining Electric Power Quality Using Rechargeable
Battery System, Kansai Electric Power Company.
60
E-mail from Piriyathep Kanchanadul, Cellennium Thailand, February 20, 2006. Cellennium claims to have
achieved an efficiency of 80-85% 400mm x 400mm cells at current densities of over 1000 A/sqm.
61
Conversation with Tim Hennessy of VRB Power Systems, March 7, 2007.
58

3-19

have been reported to be somewhat lower, at anywhere between 50 75% 62,63,64,65. This relatively
wide range reflects the wide array of conditions at vanadium redox battery facilities built to date.
While the upper end of this range is acceptable and shows that this technology is capable of high
efficiencies, the lower end of this range shows significant opportunity for improvement.
Developers and investigators agree that lower efficiencies are not characteristic of the
technology, and that efficiency improvements are possible through simple design enhancements
to system components and design.
To understand how efficiency can be improved, we will examine efficiencies at the PacifiCorp
vanadium redox battery project at Castle Valley, Utah, which was constructed by VRB Power
Systems. This system is a relatively early demonstration project, and should not be taken as
representative of the capability of the vanadium redox technology. Rather, it is an illustration of
how design and environmental conditions can affect efficiency, and the methods through which
developers are working to enhance that efficiency.
The Castle Valley vanadium redox battery system is operated with defined charge and discharge
times each day, with control overrides based on battery state-of-charge. In the summer and
winter peak load seasons, the schedule is defined by feeder load conditions; at other times, the
schedule is set to maximize efficiency and arbitrage value. In the latter operational mode, the
key operational metric is round-trip efficiency.

62

Investigation on Storage Technologies for Intermittent Renewable Energies: Evaluation and recommended R&D
strategy, REDOX SYSTEMS REPORT, WPST 7 Redox Systems INVESTIRE-NETWORK, May 2006.
63
T. Sasaki, Evaluation of Demand and Supply Control, Maintaining Electric Power Quality Using Rechargeable
Battery System, Kansai Electric Power Company.
64
M. T. Kuntz, Electricity storage for power and energy management, 2005 Energy Conference, August 16, 2005.
65
N. Tokuda, T. Kanno, T. Hara, T. Shigematsu, Y. Tsutsui, A. Ikeuchi, T. Itou, and T. Kumamoto, Development
of a Redox Flow battery System, SEI Technical Review, Number 50 (June 2000).

3-20

60%

Overall Monthly Plant Efficiencies

Feb 05 - Jan 06

50%
40%
30%
20%
10%

Fe
b05
M
ar
-0
5
Ap
r-0
5
M
ay
-0
5
Ju
n05
Ju
l-0
5
Au
g05
Se
p05
O
ct
-0
5
N
ov
-0
5
D
ec
-0
5
Ja
n06
C
ha
rt
Av
g.

0%

Figure 3-15
Overall ac-ac Round Trip Efficiency Across One Year of Operation of the Castle Valley Vanadium
Redox Battery System

The overall ac-ac round-trip efficiency for the Castle Valley vanadium redox battery system in
the first full year of operation is illustrated in Figure 3-15. As can be seen, round-trip
efficiencies are reported to be between 34% and 55% over the course of the year, with an overall
average of about 45%. The relatively low figure in November resulted from outages which
resulted in charge time (to offset self-discharge) without corresponding discharge time. Without
this figure, the efficiency of the system would be greater.
VRB Power Systems has done substantial analysis of the system operating losses to increase
efficiency. System losses arise from three major sources: parasitic losses, battery inefficiencies,
and PCS inefficiencies. The contributions of these losses are shown in Figure 3-16.
Parasitic loads form the largest part of operating losses. These losses include heating for the
building during winter, cooling during summer, and pumping losses in the battery. The extreme
climate of the Utah desert leads to relatively high cooling requirements in the summer, and cold
weather during the winter led to similar requirement in winter months. The building housing the
vanadium redox battery system is not optimized for this environment the roof is open to the
environment, the building is minimally insulated. Because the ambient temperature at the site
can reach as high as 55 C during the summer months, a heavy cooling load is imposed even
when the battery is not in operation. This energy consumption can distort efficiency figures.
Furthermore, the nature of the thermal design means that the air conditioners operate at relatively
low capacity, with backup chillers required to cool the system. VRB Power Systems believes
that, in future projects, these losses can be reduced significantly through appropriate building
design and insulation. These improvements have been demonstrated at the King Island and

3-21

Tomamae facilities. Note that parasitic loads at the PacifiCorp plant are drawn directly from ac
power, and therefore do not create further losses in the power conditioning system.
Normalised Energy Consumption Breakdown
Feb 05 to Jan 06
Parasitic
23%

Net. Output
45%

Battery
22%

PCS
10%

Figure 3-16
Energy Consumption in Various Components of the Castle Valley Vanadium Redox Battery
System

The dc-dc efficiency of the battery alone ranged from 63% to 77% over the year. Close to the
end of the year, VRB Power Systems increased the molarity of the electrolyte from 1.6M to
1.7M in an effort to improve the battery efficiency. According to VRB Power systems, this
change is expected to increase ac-ac round trip efficiency by about 3% to 4%. In addition,
reduced current density through optimized loading or additional cell stacks can be expected to
yield an 11% increase in battery efficiency. VRB Power Systems has already demonstrated dcdc efficiencies approaching 80% in a laboratory setting, and believes that this can be reproduced
in the field.
For the power conditioning system alone, the average charge efficiency and average discharge
efficiency were both about 90%. VRB Power Systems is seeking ways to improve these
efficiencies. One source of PCS inefficiency is the relatively high ambient temperature, as
described above; in future projects, a better thermal design will allow more efficient
performance. According to VRB Power Systems, the use of higher-voltage GTO-based or
IGCT-based converters in the place of IGBT-based converters in larger energy storage systems
may improve ac-ac round trip efficiency by as much as 7 to 8%. This can be accomplished by
using a larger number of stacks in series to achieve a higher dc bus voltage.
Overall, VRB Power Systems believes that future systems can achieve ac-ac round trip
efficiencies of greater than 70% based on these simple, incremental improvements.
Environmental and Disposal Issues
With increasing environmental awareness, there is an increased emphasis and concern on the
environmental effect of the operation and, ultimately, the disposal of equipment used in the
3-22

electrical power industry. With respect to the vanadium redox battery, environmental concerns
center on the components that are not already common in the industry: the cell stack and the
vanadium electrolyte used in the system.
The cell stack is generally environmentally benign. The only material in the stack that might be
considered toxic is the ion exchange membrane, which is composed of highly acidic (or alkaline)
material. During decommissioning, users can dispose of the membranes using the same
processes used to handle highly corrosive substances. In fact, membranes are somewhat simpler
to handle since they are solid and do not require containment.
The vanadium electrolyte requires more detailed analysis. The electrolyte is liquid, and there is
therefore the possibility that it will leak and find its way into groundwater. Vanadium redox
batteries also use large amounts of the vanadium electrolyte in the system, requiring more effort
in disposal than other components of the system. The name of the vanadium redox battery
highlights the presence of vanadium, which may raise concerns in those unfamiliar with the
element and its environmental effects.
In considering vanadium electrolyte toxicity, it should be noted that the electrolyte does not
require change over the lifetime of the battery, as it does not degrade or otherwise require
replacement. At the end of life for the battery system, the electrolyte will almost certainly be
recycled for recover its valuable vanadium content. For these reasons, electrolyte disposal is not
likely to be a significant obstacle to the adoption of vanadium redox batteries.
Vanadium Electrolyte Toxicity
The vanadium electrolyte has two main components: the vanadium ions in solution, and the
highly concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid used as the solvent. These two components will be
discussed in turn in the sections below.
The wide range of valence states in which vanadium is found means that toxicological studies of
vanadium can be quite involved. Every valence state has a different level of toxicity, and
toxicity varies with the type and level of exposure. We will limit discussion here to the potential
effects of the vanadium ions found in operational vanadium redox battery systems, should they
leak and enter the environment.
The vanadium in vanadium redox batteries is encountered in four ionic forms: V(II), V(III),
V(IV), and V(V), representing increasingly oxidized valence states. In the vanadium redox
battery, these four ions are found dissolved in the highly acidic electrolyte (pH ~ 0.5). V(II) and
V(III) are generally unstable except in low pH environments; in other environments they are
quickly oxidized to V(IV). Both V(IV) and V(V) are stable under most environmental
conditions.
In general, the level of toxicity of vanadium is relatively low. Vanadium at concentrations in
water of above 100 g/L (100 ppb) is considered toxic to aquatic plants. Vanadium at
66
concentrations of 10 mg/kg (10 ppm) or more is considered toxic to terrestrial plants.

66 VANADIUM and some vanadium salts: HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDE, IPCS INTERNATIONAL
PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY Health and Safety Guide No. 42.
http://www.inchem.org/documents/hsg/hsg/hsg042.htm

3-23

There appear to be no systematic studies of the effect of vanadium ions in the environment. 67 It
is known that the transport and partitioning of vanadium in water and soil is influenced by pH,
redox potential, and the presence of particulates. In fresh water, vanadium generally exists in
solution as the vanadyl ion (V4+) under reducing conditions and the vanadate ion (V5+) under
oxidizing conditions. It can also exist as an integral part of, or adsorbed onto, particulate
matter 68. For these reasons, spills of vanadium material into the ground should be avoided. The
chemical formulas of the vanadyl species most commonly reported in fresh water are VO2+ and
VO(OH)+, and the vanadate species are H2VO4 and HVO42-. The partitioning of vanadium
between water and sediment is strongly influenced by the presence of particulate in the water.
Both vanadate and vanadyl species are known to bind strongly to mineral or biogenic surfaces by
adsorption or complexing.
The various ions have different levels of toxicity; in general, the toxicity increases with the
oxidation state. V(V), also called the vanadate ion, is an ATPase inhibitor and is potentially
toxic in large doses 69, 70. V(IV), or the vanadyl ion, is less toxic, and has even been reported to
have some medicinal benefits, having shown to have the potential to mimic insulin in
normalizing the blood glucose level in diabetic rats. 71 While each ion can be converted into the
other within the body, V(V) exhibits quicker uptake into the body. 72
In general, the toxicity of vanadium is low. While there is no evidence that the general
population is at risk, over-exposure to vanadium must be prevented 73,74. Ground water/soil

67 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ToxFAQ for Vanadium and Compounds, September 1995.
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts58.html; http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp58-c2.pdf.
68 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ToxFAQ for Vanadium and Compounds, September 1995;
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp58-c5.pdf
69 Mitsutoshi Takaya, Selective Determination Method for Vanadium (V) and Vanadium (IV) Controlling the pH
of Media for a Solid-Liquid Extraction Column, Industrial Health 2000, 38, 9194.
70 Vanadium in the Environment Health Effects, Part Two, Effects of Vanadate in Adrenal Gland of Mammals,
pp. 219-234.
71 Hiroyuki Yasui, Toshikazu Takino, Jun Fugono, Rieko Hirunuma, Shuichi Nomoto, and Hiromu Sakurai, Effect
of vanadium treatment on tissue distribution of biotrace elements in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats:
Simultaneous analysis of V and Zn using radioactive multitracer, RIKEN Review No. 35 (May, 2001): Focused on
New Trends in Bio-Trace Elements Research, pp. 45-47.
72 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ToxFAQ for Vanadium and Compounds, September 1995.
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts58.html; http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp58-c2.pdf.
73

D. G. Barceloux, Vanadium, J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1999; 37(2):265-78. [Journal of toxicology. Clinical
toxicology.]
74

D. M. Opresko, Toxicity summary for Vanadium and Vanadium Compounds, Report prepared for Oak Ridge
reservation environmental restoration program, 1991.

3-24

contamination of toxic V5+ ionic concentration is possible and is dependent on the pH of the
water 75. For this reason, adequate caution should be taken to avoid spillage.
While powdered vanadium metal (like most powdered metals) is combustible, most vanadium
compounds are not combustible and, in general, they do not constitute a fire or explosion hazard.
It should be noted that vanadium powder is used nowhere in the construction of the vanadium
redox battery. Furthermore, the unintentional generation and accumulation of anhydrous
vanadium pentoxide or other dangerous vanadium compounds is highly unlikely because of the
hygroscopic nature of the electrolyte.
Vanadium Regulations
Most concern over vanadium in the past has related to vanadium pentoxide, the most commonly
used industrial form of vanadium. Most countries have occupational exposure limits of 0.05 or 0.1 mg/m3 workplace air. 76 The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
in the US permissible exposure limit (PEL) for vanadium pentoxide dust is 0.05 milligram per
cubic meter of air as an eight (8) hour time-weighted average concentration. 77 The National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the US recommended exposure limit
(REL) for vanadium compounds (measured as vanadium) is 0.05 mg/m3 as a fifteen (15) minute
ceiling. 78
Where possible, vanadium compounds are recycled rather than disposed. Vanadium-containing
products, such as vanadium pentoxide dust, that are spilled or are not being recycled may be
disposed following treatment under current federal and state regulations. In the case of released
vanadium pentoxide fumes, cleanup of the area through ventilation is recommended. For
vanadium spills, ventilation and absorption of the liquid by sand or another similarly
noncombustible absorbent material is required. The contaminated absorbent material should then
be removed to a safe place away from potential human exposure before being placed in a secured
sanitary landfill. Liquid products should be absorbed in dry earth, sand, or other absorbent
material to prevent spread, and shoveled into sealable containers for safe disposal.
Environmental restrictions for vanadium are less stringent than those for lead and cadmium. In
the U.S., spills and discharges of over 1000 pounds of vanadium must be reported to the
Environmental Protection Agency 79.
In 1998, vanadium was included in the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) assembled by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to identify and list unregulated
contaminants which may require regulation in the future. Vanadium was not selected as a

75

Michael R. Schock & Keith C. Kelty, Vanadium Chemistry Essentials for Treatment Studies, EPA EIMS
database.
76

VANADIUM and some vanadium salts: HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDE, IPCS INTERNATIONAL
PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY Health and Safety Guide No. 42.
http://www.inchem.org/documents/hsg/hsg/hsg042.htm
77
78

Code of Federal Regulations, 29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1-A

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Recommendations, 1988

79

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ToxFAQ for Vanadium and Compounds, September 1995.
[Online]: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts58.html

3-25

contaminant for review at that time. The element reappeared on the second version of the CCL
in 2005, but was once again not chosen for regulation. A third version of the CCL is presently in
progress; while it is possible that vanadium will appear on the list, it is unlikely that any U.S.
regulations will occur for a few years 80.
Advanced Research
A great deal of vanadium redox battery research is in progress, in several groups around the
world. A summary of the advanced research is provided here.

One of the principal challenges in vanadium battery technology is the increase in energy
density. Two approaches have been reported to increase the vanadium ion concentration in
the electrolyte.
In one approach, vanadium sulfate is dissolved in sulfuric acid to obtain
supersaturated vanadium electrolytes. Typical saturation solubility of vanadium
sulfate in sulfuric acid is about 2 moles/liter in 3 M sulfuric Acid. An increased
concentration of vanadyl sulfate solute would lead to precipitation. Some research
success has been obtained in stabilizing supersaturated vanadium electrolytes (4 M
vanadium Sulfate in 3 M Sulfuric acid) with sodium hexametaphosphate as a
precipitation inhibitor 81,82. Similarly other inhibitors such as alkali metal sulfate and
83
alkali metal oxalate have been reported to increase the electrolyte stability .

80

A different approach using a vanadium bromide electrolyte has been proposed from
the Skyllas research group in the University of New South Wales. This battery is a
V/halide redox flow cell employing the VCl2/VCl3 or VBr2 /VBr3 couples in the
negative half-cell electrolyte and the Br-/ClBr2- or Cl-/BrCl2- couples in the positive
half-cell. A 3-4 M concentration of vanadium can supposedly be obtained 84. This
battery is presently being commercialized by V-Fuels Pty Ltd. V-Fuel Pty Ltd was
established in January 2005 with the support of the Victorian Government funded
Centre for Energy and Greenhouse Technologies Pty Ltd to commercialize the new
Generation 2 V/Br Redox Cell. Its principal shareholder, Magnam Technologies Pty
Ltd., is the initial start-up company that was formed in 2003 by two of the original
inventors of the Vanadium Redox Battery Technology, Professor Maria SkyllasKazacos of the School of Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry, UNSW

Communication with Michael R. Schock of the USEPA, October 2006.

81

Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, Christina Peng, and Min Cheng, Evaluation of Precipitation Inhibitors for Supersaturated
Vanadyl Electrolytes for the Vanadium Redox Battery, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., Volume 2, Issue 3, pp. 121122 (March 1999).
82

Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, Christina Peng, and Min Cheng, Effect of additives on the properties of electrolyte for
vanadium redox battery,
83

Luo Xong-mei, Xu Qian, and Sui Zhi-tong, Effect of additives on the properties of electrolyte for vanadium
redox battery, Chinese Journal of Power Sources, v 28, n 2, Feb. 2004, 94-6.

84

The novel vanadium bromide redox cell. [Online]:

http://www.arizonaenergy.org/Analysis/FuelCell/Vanadium%20Battery/THE%20NOVEL%20VANADIUM%20BR
OMIDE%20REDOX%20CELL.htm

3-26

and Michael Kazacos, an independent consultant. This technology has many

technological obstacles, however, the foremost being the use of bromine, a toxic
substance. Moreover, the use of dissimilar electrolytes increases the risk of crosscontamination as the membranes available today may not be able to prevent leakage
of one electrolyte into the other.

The round-trip efficiency of the battery can be improved in many ways. Decreasing the area
resistivity of the cell is one of them. A great deal of research is taking place in the
improvement of the bipolar electrodes. New polyethylene based bipolar and end electrodes
have been introduced with resistivities as low as 0.5 ohm/square cm 85. An experimental
vanadium redox flow battery constructed using electrodes based on PP (polypropylene) and
SEBS (styrene-ethylene/butadiene-styrene) blended polymer has shown to reduce resistivity
86,87
of the electrodes to as low as 0.1 ohm/square cm .
Besides the issue of resistivity, the electrodes also play a critical part in the electrochemical
process as the ionic reactions essentially take place on the electrode. It has been shown that
composite carbon electrodes treated with certain transition metal ions and acrylonitrile
possess more active electrochemical performance and stability than untreated equivalents.
The vanadium redox flow batteries prepared with iridium-carbon fiber-acrylonitrile
composite electrodes have been reported to have superior electrochemical reversibility and
stability than conventional electrodes 88. Similarly, recent research has reported that
polyacrylonitrile-graphite electrodes can also improve the electrochemical efficiency of the
vanadium redox process 89.
Preparation of the electrolyte is another challenge where improvement is possible.
Cellennium, for instance, has claimed to prepare a new in situ process of preparing the
electrolyte as opposed to the expensive offsite preparation of the electrolyte 90.
One of the most expensive components of the vanadium redox battery is the membrane or
electrolyte separator. New research in membrane technology has been shown to have
potential in improving battery efficiency. For example, a poly-phthalazinone ether sulfone

85

Haddadi-Asl V., Kazacos M. and Skyllas-Kazacos M. "Conductive Carbon-Polypropylene Composite Electrodes

for Vanadium Redox Battery", Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, In Press.
86

Li Xiao-gang, Liu Su-qing, Huang Ke-long, Sang Shang-bin, and Chen Li-quan, Properties of the current
collector of all vanadium redox flow battery, Battery Bimonthly, v 35, n 2, April 2005, 93-4.
87

Liu Su-qin , Guo Xiao-yi, Huang Ke-long, Liu Yong-gang, and Li Xiao-gang, Studies on the electrode material
PAN-graphite felt used in vanadium battery, Battery Bimonthly, v 35, n 3, June 2005, 183-4.
88

Lu Zheng-zhong, Qiu Xin-ping, Wu Zeng-hua, and Chen Li-quan, Preparation and performance of composite
carbon electrodes for vanadium redox flow batteries, Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals, v 15, spec. issue.1,
Aug. 2005, 232-6.

89

Wu Qiu-mei , Huang Ke-long, Sang Shang-bin, Liu Su-qin, and Li Xiao-gang, Study of PAN-graphite felt
electrode in the vanadium redox flow battery, Chinese Journal of Power Sources, v 29, n 7, July 2005, 456-8.

90

http://www.vanadiumbattery.com. [Online]: Last accessed: September 15, 2006.

3-27

ketone (PPESK) based membrane has reportedly yielded power efficiencies as high as 88% 91.
A membrane-less vanadium redox battery has also been demonstrated, albeit on a small
scale 92.

91

Jian Xi-gao, Yan Chun, Zhang Hua-min, Zhang Shou-hai, Han Tie-min, Wang Jin-yan, and Zhao Ping,
Preparation of quaternary-ammonium poly(phthalazinone ether sulfone ketone) anion-exchange membrane,
Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals, v 15, spec. issue.1, Aug. 2005, 202-4.
92

Rosaria Ferrigno, Abraham D. Stroock, Thomas D. Clark, Michael Mayer, and George M. Whitesides,
Membraneless Vanadium Redox Fuel Cell Using Laminar Flow, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 124 (44), 12930 -12931,
2002.

3-28

4
PRESENT AND FUTURE COST ESTIMATES FOR
VANADIUM REDOX BATTERY TECHNOLOGY
As a part of the in-depth assessment of the vanadium redox battery technology, a bottom-up cost
structure analysis was developed to examine the costs independent of the technical
considerations discussed in the previous chapter. This analysis examined the capital costs
associated with the purchase and construction of a vanadium redox battery, both at present and in
the projected future. In the process, we evaluated cost gaps gaps in knowledge of what the true
costs are likely to be and analyzed the information necessary to resolve them.
Bottom-up System Capital Cost Structure Calculation
In estimating the capital cost of the vanadium redox battery system, we used a procedure similar
to that developed by J. B. George of Arthur D. Little in the 1970s. In this approach, a list of
materials, purchased components, and manufactured components is developed for the
technology, together with the labor hours for all manufacturing steps and the needed capital
equipment. Labor hours and materials are costed in realistic terms for the part of the country
where the manufacturing/assembly plant is located. The vendors overhead and profit are added
to the direct costs in a standard manner. The end result of this type of analysis is a projected
selling price (FOB the factory) as a function of annual production volume (MW of capacity).
Selling price could be expressed both in total dollars per shipped unit as well as in $/kW +
$/kWh + Fixed Cost. If system size, in either MW or MWh, has a substantial impact on these
cost components, then costs for different size ranges are developed and reported.
For estimation of installation costs, typical shipping costs, site preparation, site construction
(e.g., concrete foundations, buildings, switchyard), battery and PCS installation, and system
startup costs are included. The cost for a construction manager and profit is also included, at
least as a percentage of either construction labor cost or actual installation cost, as appropriate.
Shipping is assumed delivery to a (continental North America) destination 1000 miles from the
factory. Where appropriate both labor and materials are estimated separately for various
activities. The methodology uses standard commercial/industrial cost estimating procedures and
sources for standard items such as concrete, tanks, buildings, equipment installation labor, and
electrical switchyards.
Calculating Capital Cost for Energy Storage Systems
Cost analyses in the utility industry have traditionally been oriented towards developing a
scalable cost metric per unit power capacity ($/kW). This approach is not always reasonable for
energy storage systems, however, because some costs do not scale with the power capacity.
There are three different types of costs in energy storage systems systems:
1. Costs that scale in proportional to the power capacity of the system;
2. Costs that scale in proportion to the energy capacity of the system;

4-1

3. Costs that do not scale with size.

This means that the capital costs for energy storage systems can be better described by an
equation:
Capital Cost = (Power Capacity x Scaled Capacity Cost) +
(Duration x Scaled Energy Cost) +
(Fixed Costs)
or
Capital Cost = x * ($/kW) + y * ($/kWh) + z
where x, y, and z correspond to the three numbered areas above.
This assessment can be complex for most energy storage systems, because components cannot be
neatly categorized as dependent on power capacity or on discharge duration. For vanadium
redox batteries, however, costs can be separated with somewhat more accuracy than for other
systems. Costs that scale with power capacity include those for the cell stack, the power
conditioning system, and pumping systems. Costs that scale with energy capacity include those
for the electrolyte and the electrolyte storage tanks. Fixed costs include the control system,
construction management, and a few other balance-of-plant components.
For this study, the cost assessment was repeated several times for plants of various sizes. This
approach was used to calculate $/kW, $/kWh, and fixed costs per the equation above.
Cost Gaps
There is some uncertainty in any cost methodology, because of cost gaps. There are gaps in the
knowledge of even the best-informed investigators as far as cost estimates are concerned. In this
type of assessment, there are two types of gaps:
Costs which are known and understood by vendors, but which they consider secret or
proprietary, and that they will not reveal to others. These might include costs for proprietary
materials, manufacturing costs associated with proprietary processes, and expectations for future
cost reductions through volume production.
Costs which are unknown to both vendors and other interested parties, such as the future costs of
commodity materials and costs for materials not yet developed.
In the course of the analysis, we will discuss all cost gaps and how they are addressed in the
analysis.
Because the vanadium redox battery technology is relatively new, and because the technology
continues to be highly proprietary, a great deal of cost information is unknown. For this reason,
rather than pursuing precise figures, the following assessment explores probable ranges for costs,
which surround most likely figures based on the best information available. As might be
expected, some uncertainties will lead to larger variances in the cost range than others.

4-2

Cost Assumptions
Some basic assumptions were made in this cost analysis:
1. The installation was assumed to be in North America, approximately 1000 miles from the
factory.
2. Costs were split between those incurred in the factory (those related in production of the
cell stacks and the vanadium electrolyte) and those incurred at the site (those related to
site preparation; tank purchase and installation; PCS purchase, shipping, and installation;
and so on). To a large degree, costs associated with standard industrial products were
incurred at the site, while special costs related specifically to the vanadium redox
technology tend to be incurred in the factory.
3. Commercial and industrial costs were used in estimating costs for standard materials and
services, such as tanks, PVC piping, and electrical cabling.
4. Labor cost was assumed to be $35/hour, before overhead and other costs are added.
5. Appropriate costs are assumed for a construction manager on site.
6. Overhead costs are applied as 10% of all material costs and 30% of all labor costs.
7. Profit is calculated as 10% over the overall costs after overhead is added.
Cost structure calculation was done for a variety of power ratings and discharge durations to
calculate normalized costs per unit power ($/kW) and cost per unit energy ($/kWh). Where sizes
much smaller or larger would affect these normalized costs, the effects are documented.
Factory Costs
Vanadium Electrolyte
As discussed earlier, the vanadium electrolyte is manufactured by dissolving vanadium
pentoxide (V2O5) in highly concentrated sulfuric acid using a sophisticated electrochemical
process. The vanadium ion concentration of the electrolyte ranges from 1.6 M to 2.0 M,
depending on the method of developer as well as the individual system. This is approximately
equivalent to 290 g to 350 g of V2O5 per liter of electrolyte.
Figure 4-1 shows the cost breakdown for the vanadium electrolyte. The cost of the production of
vanadium electrolyte is clearly dominated by the market cost of vanadium pentoxide. The other
costs of the vanadium electrolyte are relatively small. Sulfuric acid and water costs are very
small. Manufacturing cost is the only significant cost associated with the electrolyte, and is
estimated to amount to about 10% of the cost of the electrolyte.

4-3

Vanadium Electrolyte Cost Breakdown

Manufacturing
Costs
9%

Water
0%

Sulfuric Acid
0%

Vanadium
Pentoxide
91%

Figure 4-1
Cost Breakdown for Vanadium Electrolyte

As mentioned in the earlier section, vanadium pentoxide prices have risen significantly in the
short run, from roughly $1.50/lb in 2001 to $7/lb today, although those prices are down from
their high of $26/lb in 2005. In the long run, prices are expected to stabilize at between $4/lb to
$5/lb.
In addition to the costs of making the electrolyte, there are also the costs of shipping the
electrolyte to the site, which are not insignificant. These costs are accounted for in the later
section on site installation.
The principal cost gap associated with the vanadium redox battery appears to be the long-run
cost of vanadium. This cost will have heavy implications on the long-term viability of the
vanadium redox battery. If the present expectations of $4 - $5 per lb are borne out, the
electrolyte will not be a significant obstacle to widespread commercialization of the technology.
Cell Stack
The cell stack contains the largest part of the proprietary technology associated with the
vanadium redox battery. For this reason, there are a large number of cost gaps associated with
the stack and its components.
The cost breakdown for the cell stack, assuming present-day costs, is shown in Figure 4-2. As
can be seen, the price of the membrane is the largest single component, but costs for felt and
current collectors are significant. Manufacturing cost is not a significant part of the cost at

4-4

present, but may become a larger part of the cost at a later date if automation or other approaches
are not taken to reduce cost.

Cell Stack Cost Breakdown

Manufacturing
11%

Frame
10%

Felt
19%
Bipolar
Current
Collectors
19%

Membrane
41%

Figure 4-2
Cost Breakdown for Vanadium Redox Battery Cell Stack

Membrane

The ion exchange membrane is perhaps the most expensive single material used in the vanadium
redox battery. As discussed in the previous chapter, the cost of the membrane depends on the
membrane manufacturer, as well as the desired thickness and the purchasing volume. Vanadium
redox battery developers consider these pieces of information proprietary.
For the purposes of this assessment, it was assumed that the Dupont Nafion, with thickness of 1
or 2 mil, is used as the membrane. This allows a price calculation according to the published
prices from Dupont. Prices for the membrane are assumed to range from $125 to $350 per
square meter in small volume, and from $25 to $65 per square meter in large volume.
Bipolar Current Collector

The bipolar current collector is a unique component of the vanadium redox battery, and is
considered proprietary technology by vanadium redox battery developers. As described earlier,
it is made from conductive plastic composites that have high electrical conductivity and can also
tolerate the corrosive environment within the cell. Manufacturers do generally contract
production of the conductive polymer to outside vendors, rather than producing it in-house.
Because the cost and manufacturing process for the current collector is proprietary, there is very
little information on the cost of these components. Based on input from vanadium redox battery

4-5

developers, we have assumed that the prices range from about $60 to $100 per square meter in
small volume, and about $30 to $60 per square meter in large volume.
Carbon Felt

Carbon felt is an industrial product used in applications where very high surface area is desirable.
Felt materials are made from rayon or polyacrylonitrile yarn, which is carbonized through
pyrolysis and then converted into cloth using conventional felting processes. The properties of
the felt vary with the base material, the denier of the yarn, and the thickness of the material.
A wide range of felt materials have been investigated in connection with redox flow batteries,
and every developer has its own favorite variety of cloth optimized for cost and performance.
Because cost varies somewhat with these parameters, there is some uncertainty as to the cost of
this material. In addition, manufacturers sometimes use more than one layer of felt to achieve
the desired thickness.
For this analysis, it was assumed that felt is purchased from standard product catalogs and that
costs range from $35 to $65 per square meter in small quantities, and $15 to $20 per square
meter in large quantities.
Electrode Manufacturing Costs

The carbon felt and conductive current collector are cut to appropriate size and then bonded
together through pressure and heat welding. Two pieces of felt are attached to each current
collector, except for the two electrodes forming the extreme ends of the stack, which each have
one felt electrode. The cutting and bonding operation is straightforward, and not labor intensive;
for this reason, electrode manufacturing is assumed to compose about 20% of the cost of the
electrode cost.
Cell Stack Manufacturing

Electrodes and membranes are placed in frames and assembled into cell stacks. A 100-cell stack
is composed of 101 conductive current collectors, 202 carbon felt electrodes, and 100 ion
exchange membranes, which form the bulk of the cost of the stack. The stack also has several
additional components: the physical frame used to keep the stack together, the manifolds that
allow entry and exit of electrolytes, and the electrical connections that allow electrical current to
pass through the stack. These additional components are estimated to comprise 10% of the stack
material cost.
Cell stack manufacturing itself is a straightforward process. Manufacturing is likely to be a
relatively small part of the stack cost at present, being overshadowed by the material costs. This
may begin to change as material costs come down with manufacturing volume.
Shipping
Shipping costs can be substantial for the vanadium redox battery. Reasonable shipping rates and
methods were assumed for transportation of the material, based on quotes for the shipment of
comparable industrial chemicals. In total, shipping costs amount to about 10% of the overall
cost of the electrolyte and the cell stack.

4-6

Site Costs
Electrolyte Tanks
Electrolyte tanks are assumed to be conventional double-walled HDLP process fluid tanks of
around 5000 gallons each. The double wall ensures secondary containment. The tanks are
assumed to have two leak detection sensors each.
Quotes acquired from a number of sources were used to calculate approximate costs for the
tanks, leakage detection, and shipping costs. This cost was then used in the cost calculation
based on the liters of electrolyte needed for the plant.
Pumps, Piping, and Auxiliary Equipment
Commercial quotes were acquired for a number of pumps in various sizes, designed to handle
process fluids similar to the electrolyte. These quotes were used to develop a figure for pumps
based on $/GPM, which was then used to calculate the cost of pumps for the system. This
method takes advantage of standard size methodologies to ensure that the lowest cost alternative
is used for pumping (i.e. two smaller but standard-sized pumps can and should be used in place
of one larger but non-standard pump).
Piping costs were estimated assuming market prices for PVC piping. No significant cost savings
from volume purchase were assumed; because the piping is a relatively small part of the overall
cost, volume pricing is unlikely to make a significant difference in overall cost.
Auxiliary equipment costs cover items such as heat exchangers and other equipment as may be
necessary for the electrolyte loops. Heat exchanger prices were calculated from publicly
available costs on heat exchangers designed for similar process fluids; other equipment costs
were estimated as a fraction of the cost of the remainder of the electrolyte loop.
Electrical Power System
The electrical power system includes the PCS, the transformer, and the cabling and interconnects
connecting the components to each other. The PCS is assumed to be a commercially available
product such as those used in other vanadium redox battery systems. Based on discussions with
PCS vendors, this cost is estimated to range from $200/kVA for larger systems, to as high as
$500/kVA for smaller systems. The PCS is assumed to have a requirement to simultaneously
provide reactive and real power at the specified level; therefore, a 250 kW inverter is sized at 354
kVA.
The transformer costs are similarly scaled by kVA, and are estimated to cost between $25 and
$40/kVA. Breakers, contactors, and cabling are estimated at about $25/kVA. These relatively
high prices are based on recent costs for such equipment, which are somewhat high from a
historical standpoint because of recent jumps in commodity prices (particularly for copper).
Balance of Plant
The balance of plant includes the costs for land and construction, as well as other equipment not
included in the list above. Many of these costs are fixed costs that do not change with the size of
the plant.

4-7

The vanadium redox battery project is assumed to be built on land already owned by a utility, or
on a utility easement. For this reason, land costs are not built into the cost model described here.
Building and site preparation costs, including all HVAC and other facilities costs, are estimated
at between $700 and $1200 per square meter, with an average figure of $900 per square meter.
Building requirements are estimated from the footprint of stacks and tanks, scaled for the
appropriate power level and duration. In addition to preparation costs, a full-time construction
engineer with a burdened rate of about $175,000/year is also included.
The control system is estimated at costing between $15,000 and $25,000 for hardware and
installation.
The remainder of the balance of plant is presumed to include costs for other equipment besides
those listed above, and is estimated at $50/kW.
Profit
The developer is expected to make a reasonable profit on the vanadium redox battery system. In
this analysis, we assume a 10% profit on all costs incurred during manufacturing and
construction.
As mentioned above, the cost analysis was repeated several times, at various power levels and
discharge durations, assuming present-day costs for components and materials. The cost analysis
for each area was then repeated for projected costs in the future, assuming decreases in material
costs through volume production, and reduction in manufacturing cost through the learning curve
and economies of scale. The end result of the cost analysis is a range of capital costs for systems
of various sizes, which can then be analyzed further to see how various factors affect the end
price.
Present-Day Cost Estimate
The present-day cost estimates are based on present day costs for vanadium pentoxide ($6.50 to
$9.50 a pound), felt, and membrane, as well as estimates for present day cost for the current
collector and stack manufacturing.
The present day costs for vanadium redox batteries of various sizes are shown in Figure 4-3.
Error bars describe the high and low estimates for the cost. Costs are estimated to average from
about $1.1 million for a 250 kW, 4 hour system, to about $4.9 million for a 1 MW, 8 hour
system. As can be seen in, there are substantial uncertainties in this estimate, especially at the
higher end of the power and energy range.
As pointed out earlier, direct calculation of $/kW or $/kWh figures from these capital costs can
be misleading. For example, doubling the discharge duration of a 1 MW system from 4 hours to
8 hours adds over $1M to the price without adding any power capacity, leading to widely
divergent figures in a $/kW rating.

4-8

Present-Day Capital Cost Estimates for

Vanadium Redox Battery Systems

$8.0
$7.0
$6.0

Cost (M$)

$5.0
$4.0
$3.0
$2.0
$1.0
$250 kW for 4
hours

250 kW for 8
hours

1000 kW for 4
hours

1000 kW for 8
hours

Figure 4-3
Present-Day Capital Costs Estimates for Vanadium Redox Battery Systems

Figure 4-4 shows how these costs are estimated to break down by power and energy for a 1 MW
system with 8 hours of capacity. For this system, fixed costs are expected to form a small but
significant part of the total, with the remainder of the cost split roughly evenly between costs
driven by the power rating and those driven by discharge duration.

4-9

Breakdown by Cost Dependencies

Fixed Costs
($)
7%

Costs
Dependent on
Duration
($/kW h)
47%

Costs
Dependent on
Power Rating
($/kW )
46%

Figure 4-4
Breakdown of Vanadium Redox Battery System Cost for a 1 MW, 8 MWh System

An estimate of the cost for the system based on present-day cost estimates for components can
be made through the following equation:
Capital Cost = $2,300 x (kW rating) + $300 x (kWh rating) + $250,000

(2007 dollars)

This equation produces figures within about 5% of the cost figure estimated through the use of
the more sophisticated cost model built for this analysis, for systems with power capacities
ranging from 200 kW to 10 MW and with durations from 2 hours to 16 hours.
Figure 4-5 shows how costs are estimated to break down by component for a 1 MW system with
8 hours of capacity. The vanadium electrolyte is estimated to be the largest single component of
the cost, totaling about 35% of the total cost of the system. The cell stacks follows, at just over a
quarter of the total. The costs of the cell stack itself are dominated by the price of the
membranes and the electrodes (which include both felt and carbon in an integrated assembly).

4-10

Capital Cost Breakdown

(1 MW, 8 MWh Plant at Present)
Electrolyte
Storage and
Piping, 7.5%

Balance of Plant
and Construction
Costs, 10.6%
Electrode, 10.1% Other Material,
2.7%

PCS and
Electrical
Components,
11.7%

Manufacturing,
2.6%

Vanadium
Electrolyte,
35.0%

Cell Stacks,
26.1%
Profit, 9.1%

Membrane,
10.8%

Figure 4-5
Estimated Capital Cost Breakdown for a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium Redox Battery System

Figure 4-6 shows the range of estimated costs for various components of the project. The
broadest ranges correspond to the largest uncertainties; as might be expected, these are
associated with the costs for the electrolyte and the cell stack. The cost range for electrolyte is
related to the relatively volatile market price of vanadium in the recent past, while the wide range
in the cell stack is dominated by uncertainties in the costs of the membrane and current collector.

4-11

Ranges for Estimated Costs

(Present- Day Costs)
$3,000

Cost (K$)

$2,500
$2,000
$1,500
$1,000
$500
$Electrolyte

PCS and
Electrical
Components

Electrolyte
Storage and
Piping

Balance of
Plant and
Construction
Costs

Cell Stack

Figure 4-6
Ranges for Estimated Present-Day Capital Costs for Components of a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium
Redox Battery

Future Volume Cost Estimates

The future cost estimates made here are based on the presumption that vanadium redox batteries
do become popular enough that volume discounts become available for materials, allowing
reasonable reductions in the market prices of specialty components. Adjustments are made for
the effects of inflation, assuming an inflation rate of 2.5%.
This estimate takes into account long-term predictions for the price of vanadium. As mentioned
earlier, vanadium pentoxide prices are projected to fall to $4 to $5 a pound in the next five years
or so, as additional mining and processing capacity comes online. Prices in the current collector
and felt are expected to fall significantly with volume purchasing and with learning curve effects.
Membrane costs are also expected to fall significantly with volume.
The costs of a vanadium redox battery system in the short to medium term are shown in
Figure 4-7. Error bars describe the high and low estimates for the cost. Costs are estimated to
average from about $800,000 for a 250 kW, 4 hour system, to about $3.2 million for a 1 MW, 8
hour system. The present-day cost estimates are also shown for reference.

4-12

Future Projections for Capital Cost of

Vanadium Redox Battery Systems

$6.0
Future
$5.0

Present

Cost (M$)

$4.0

$3.0

$2.0

$1.0

$250 kW for 4
hours

250 kW for 8
hours

1000 kW for 4
hours

1000 kW for 8
hours

Figure 4-7
Future Projections for Capital Costs of Vanadium Redox Battery Systems

Figure 4-8 shows how these costs are estimated to break down by power and energy for a 1 MW
system with 8 hours of capacity. Fixed costs continue to form a small part of the total, but costs
are now more dependent on the discharge duration than on the power rating.

4-13

Breakdown by Cost Dependencies

Fixed Costs
($)
10%

Costs
Dependent on
Power Rating
($/kW)
38%

Costs
Dependent on
Duration
($/kWh)
52%

Figure 4-8
Breakdown of Future Projected Vanadium Redox Battery System Costs for a 1 MW, 8 MWh Battery

An estimate of the cost for the system based on projections for future costs for components can
be made through the following equation:
Capital Cost = $1,250 x (kW rating) + $210 x (kWh rating) + $280,000 (2013 dollars)
This equation produces figures within about 5% of the cost figure estimated through the use of
the more sophisticated cost model built for this analysis, for systems with power capacities
ranging from 200 kW to 10 MW and with durations from 2 hours to 16 hours.
Figure 4-9 shows how costs are estimated to break down by component for a 1 MW system with
8 hours of capacity. The vanadium electrolyte continues to be the largest component of cost.
The cost of the cell stacks is now comparatively small, at only 10% of the total cost. Note that
PCS, electrolyte storage, and balance of plant costs now begin to form a larger percentage of the
total cost.

4-14

Capital Cost Breakdown

(1 MW, 8 MWh Plant in 2013)

Electrolyte
Storage and
Piping, 11.7%

Balance of Plant
and Construction
Costs, 16.2%
Electrode, 4.5%
Other Material,
1.0%

PCS and
Electrical
Components,
18.0%

Manufacturing,
1.5%
Vanadium
Electrolyte,
34.8%

Profit, 9.1%

Cell Stacks,
10.2%

Membrane, 3.1%

Figure 4-9
Estimated Capital Cost Breakdown for a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium Redox Battery System

Figure 4-10 shows the range of projected future costs for various components of the project.
Note that the cost gap is significantly smaller for the cell stack. This is largely because the range
for membrane prices is expected to be much smaller in the future. If this should not come to
pass, there may continue to be some uncertainty in cell stack cost.

4-15

Ranges for Costs in Projected Future

$1,400

Cost (K$)

$1,200
$1,000
$800
$600
$400
$200
$Electrolyte

PCS and
Electrical
Components

Electrolyte
Storage and
Piping

Balance of
Plant and
Construction
Costs

Cell Stack

Figure 4-10
Ranges for Future Capital Costs for Components of a 1 MW, 8 MWh Vanadium Redox Battery

Cost Estimates for Larger Systems

The cost estimates developed so far have described relatively small systems. These systems may
be adequate for some deferral scenarios, such as the PacifiCorp project. In most instances,
however, substantially more power and storage capacity is required for cost-effective upgrade
deferral. One planning estimated that storage with capacity of 5 to 10 MW for up to 8 hours may
be required for effective deferral of substation upgrades at the distribution level 93.
The capital costs for a 10 MW, 4 hour system and a 10 MW, 8 hours system, estimated from the
cost model built for this analysis, are shown in Figure 4-11. A 10 MW, 8 hour system based on
future projected costs is expected to cost close to $30 million.

93

E-mail communication with M. Zwillenberg, March 15, 2007

4-16

Future Projections for Capital Cost of

Vanadium Redox Battery Systems
$50.0
$45.0
$40.0

Cost (M$)

$35.0
$30.0
$25.0
$20.0
$15.0

Future

$10.0
$5.0

Present

$10000 kW for 4 hours

10000 kW for 8 hours

Figure 4-11
Ranges for Future Capital Costs for Components of Larger Vanadium Redox Batteries

Reducing Uncertainty in Cost Estimates

As noted above, there are a number of gaps in knowledge which make accurate assessment of the
costs of the vanadium redox battery difficult. Some of these gaps will shrink with time, as the
technology matures. This is especially true of the costs of the cell stack components and the
balance of plant.
Other uncertainties in price may not shrink with time. There will always be some variability
associated with the market price for critical materials, the most important of which is vanadium.
The capital cost of the battery is highly dependent on this price, and is not yet certain where the
price will settle after new supplies are developed. Another less critical but important
consideration is the cost of electrical components that use copper, for which the market price has
been rather volatile in recent years. The direction of these commodity prices may drive the
viability of vanadium redox batteries in the future.

4-17

5
CONCLUSIONS
Despite the potential of energy storage to improve reliability and efficiency of utility
transmission and distribution networks, the actual implementation of energy storage has been
slow. This has largely been because of real and perceived technical issues, such as reliability and
efficiency, as well as the high cost of storage solutions. As environmental and cost
considerations make traditional solutions more difficult to implement, however, storage is
becoming a more attractive option.
As noted earlier, vanadium redox battery technology is considered to be one of the large-scale
energy storage technologies closest to being commercially available for widespread use. The
technical performance of this technology has benefited from continuing research and
development, along with real-life experience from a number of demonstration projects conducted
in Australia, Japan, and the U.S. over the last few years. These projects have also demonstrated
that vanadium redox batteries do have the capability to address utility problems.
Technical Performance
An in-depth analysis of the technical aspects of the vanadium redox battery technology appears
to show that the technology is very viable in most applications of interest to utilities. Reliability
for VRB systems has been shown to be quite good in several field demonstrations; in at least one
case, the system demonstrated availability higher than what might be expected from
conventional internal combustion engine-based solutions.
Round-trip efficiency appears to still be an open question. Data from an early demonstration
project has shown relatively low efficiency numbers, but the reasons for this low efficiency are
well-understood, and developers have worked to address them through design enhancements of
the fundamental technology as well as improved system design. These enhancements have
already been implemented in more recent vanadium redox battery projects. While efficiency
numbers for these projects are not yet publicly available, they are thought to be substantially
higher than the earlier data.
Environmental and toxicity issues for the vanadium redox battery appear to be minimal. Most
components of the battery are recyclable. The vanadium electrolyte itself does not wear out and
so does not require replacement. Disposal at end of life is not an issue as the electrolyte is likely
to be reused in other batteries or to be processed for its valuable vanadium content. Most present
environmental regulations do not specifically address vanadium, but any future regulations are
unlikely to inhibit the construction of vanadium redox batteries provided reasonable precautions
are taken to prevent spills and leaks.
Cost Performance
As pointed out in earlier EPRI reports, cost figures for energy storage systems cannot be
determined as a function of power rating alone. That is, a simple $/kW figure will not be
meaningful for any energy storage system, since the figure will be different for energy storage

5-1

systems of identical power ratings but different discharge durations. Costs are better understood
as a function of both the power rating and the discharge duration.
The nature of the vanadium redox battery makes it relatively simple to split the battery cost into
components determined by the power rating of the battery and those determined by the duration
of discharge. Both components form significant parts of the cost equation. Present-day capital
cost figures for complete vanadium redox battery systems are estimated to range from about $1.1
million for a 250 kW, 4 hour system to about $4.9 million for a 1 MW, 8 hour system. There
are, however, substantial uncertainties in these estimates, largely because of unknowns in
component costs and because of potential volatility in the price of vanadium in the short run.
In the next five years, volume manufacture of vanadium redox batteries is expected to bring
down both material and manufacturing costs in the cell stack. In addition, new sources of
vanadium are expected to drive the cost of this vital raw material down from $7/lb today (for
vanadium pentoxide anhydrate) to as low as $4/lb in the future. These changes are expected to
result in decreases in the cost of vanadium redox batteries. Capital costs in 2013 are expected to
range from about $800,000 for a 250 kW, 4 hour system, to about $3.2 million for a 1 MW, 8
hours system.
Prospects for the Future
The technical performance of vanadium redox battery systems built to date has apparently shown
their usefulness and reliability in a number of utility applications, including peak shaving, wind
farm stabilization and leveling, and backup power.
While the specifications for batteries will depend on the application and location, batteries
generally are most useful to utilities when they have reasonably high power ratings (5 to 10 MW)
for relatively long durations (8 hours or longer). While no vanadium redox batteries have been
built at these power levels so far, the experience with systems such as that at Tomamae would
seem to indicate that there are few technical obstacles to building batteries of this size. A
successful demonstration at the Donegal site will confirm this prediction.
The main question about the future viability of vanadium redox batteries appears to be the cost of
such systems. This cost is heavily dependent on an independent variable -- the market price of
vanadium. Availability of vanadium does not appear to be an issue new sources such as fly ash
and oil sands are waiting for development the extraction of vanadium from some of these
sources is cost effective only when the market price of vanadium is above a certain level. For
this reason, it is likely that the long term viability of the technology will depend on the direction
of vanadium prices.

5-2

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