Académique Documents
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1 Introduction
1.1 A bit of history ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage I, 15001630: from speculation to science ... . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage II, 16301680: science is written in the language of mathematics!
1.1.3 Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage III, around 1680: how to speak the language of mathematics! . .
1.2 Style of the course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Revision of some elementary mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Powers of real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Solving quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Functions, inverse functions, and graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Exponential function, logarithm, laws for logarithms . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 Proof by induction
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3 Complex numbers
3.1 Introduction and definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Elementary properties of complex numbers . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Absolute value and division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 The complex plane (Argand diagram) . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Complex numbers as points in a plane . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 The exponential form of numbers on the unit circle
3.5 Complex numbers in exponential notation . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Definition and general properties . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Multiplication and division in exponential notation
3.5.3 The argument of a complex number . . . . . . . . .
3.6 De Moivres Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Statement and proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Complex equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3
4 Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
4.1 Definitions of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Definition of sine and cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Elementary values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Related functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Elementary properties of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Symmetry properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Addition formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Applications of addition formulae . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 The tan(/2) formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Definitions of hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Definition of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine . . .
4.3.2 General properties and special values . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Connection with trigonometric functions . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Applications of connection with trigonometric functions
4.3.5 Inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Functions, limits and differentiation
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Rate of change, tangent of a curve . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Finding tangents and velocities why we need
5.2 The limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Left and right limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Asymptotics - limits involving infinity . . . . .
5.2.3 When left/right limits exists and are identical
5.2.4 Rules for limits of composite expressions . . .
5.2.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Derivatives of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Rules for derivatives of composite expressions
5.3.3 Derivatives of implicit functions . . . . . . . .
5.3.4 Applications of derivative: sketching graphs .
6 Integration
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Area under a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Examples of integrals calculated via staircases
6.1.3 Fundamental theorems of calculus: integration
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vs differentiation
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6.1.4 Indefinite and definite integrals, and other conventions . . . .
6.2 Techniques of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 List of elementary integrals and general methods for reduction
6.2.2 Examples: integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Examples: integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Further tricks: recursion formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.5 Further tricks: differentiation with respect to a parameter . .
6.2.6 Further tricks: partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Some simple applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Calculation of surface areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Calculation of volumes of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Calculation of the length of curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Taylors theorem and series
7.1 Introduction to series and questions of convergence . . .
7.1.1 Series notation and elementary properties . . .
7.1.2 Series convergence criteria . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3 Power series notation and elementary properties
7.2 Taylors theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Expression for the coefficients of power series . . .
7.2.2 Taylor series around x = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Taylor series around x = a . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Series expansions for standard functions . . . . .
7.3.2 Indirect methods for finding Taylor series . . . . .
7.4 LHopitals rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 Exercises
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5
1. Introduction
1.1. A bit of history ...
1.1.1. Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage I, 15001630: from speculation to science ...
6
Tycho Brahe , 15461601:
7
Keplers First Law (1605):
the orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one of the two foci
8
1.1.2. Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage II, 16301680: science is written in the language of mathematics!
Ren
e Descartes , 15961650:
1637: Discours de la Methode pour bien conduire
la raison et chercher la Verite dans les Sciences
invented Cartesian coordinates:
each position in space represented by three numbers
introduced letters x, y, z to denote
unknown quantities in mathematical problems
published Principia Philosophiae (1644)
9
1.1.3. Birth of modern science and of calculus
Stage III, around 1680: how to speak the language of mathematics!
(i) state a hypothesis,
(ii) devise an experiment to test it,
(iii) carry out the experiment,
(iv) accept or reject the hypothesis
The problem in making it work in practice:
To test hypotheses on forces and movements of objects, one needs to be
able to calculate the trajectories that would be caused by the assumed forces ...
1673
Christiaan Huygens: outward force on
object in circular orbit of radius R
is proportional to R2
1674
Robert Hooke: object that feels no force
will move along a straight line
(Newtons first law of motion ...)
Huygens
Hooke
Halley
Wren
10
The two parents of Calculus:
Isaac Newton , 16421727:
developed mechanics, calculus, theory of light
before the age of 30 ...
then spent 20 years of his life on alchemy ...
1687: publishes
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
1704: published Opticks
brilliant but obsessive and nasty piece of work ...
great re-writer of history (in his own favour ...)
e.g. Hooke
(no references in Principia or Opticks!
... by standing on the shoulders of Giants ...
move of the Royal Society and a missing portrait)
or Leibniz
(independent commission of the Royal Society)
11
Newton and his successors established the principles and the mode of work
for all quantitative sciences (physics, biology, economics, etc):
science: no longer descriptive, but aimed at finding the (usually mathematical) laws
underlying the observed phenomena
ones degree of understanding of an area of science is measured by the extent to which one
can predict new phenomena from the discovered laws
Galileos principles define the procedure for finding the underlying laws.
They now (i.e. after Newton and Leibniz) take the form:
(i) state a hypothesis,
(ii) devise an experiment to test it,
(iii) calculate the predicted outcome of the experiment from the hypothesis
(iv) carry out the experiment,
(v) accept or reject the hypothesis
When there are several distinct hypotheses, that are all consistent with the available data:
select the simplest hypothesis (Occams Razor)
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1.2. Style of the course
Description of contents:
Calculus: the related areas of differentiation, integration, sequences and series, that are
united in their reliance on the idea of limits.
Additional topics: complex numbers and trigonometric functions. This simplifies
the discussion of the classical functions of calculus (i.e. trigonometric, hyperbolic,
exponential, logarithmic) and their relations.
Relation between calculus and analysis:
Calculus:
intuitive and operational ideas, no emphasis on strict step-by-step logical derivation
e.g. derivative as limit of a ratio, integral as limit of a sum
initially (Newton, Leibniz) without rigorous definition of limit.
Analysis:
logical, rigorous proofs of the intuitive ideas of calculus.
stage 1 (calculus): find a method to crack the problem
stage 2 (analysis): determine carefully why and when the method works
(this order of developing maths continues today: see e.g. path integrals in particle physics)
Rationale behind this division of work:
Hard to prove a theorem without being already familiar with the unproven (but strongly
believed in) result.
Hard to understand the need for the rigorous style of analysis until one has sufficient
experience with calculus to realize the need to prove theorems, and to appreciate the
beauty and elegance of such a logical formal treatment.
Too much initial attention to the details of proofs while learning a subject often conceals
the relative simplicity of the result.
Variation in approaches to calculus:
there are different but mathematically equivalent routes via which to develop calculus,
e.g. alternative definitions of trigonometric functions:
(i) introduce series,
(ii) define sin and cos as power series
(iii) proof of the properties of sin cos through study of the series
since all are equivalent, we will jump between definitions, dependent on the problem
you should, however, never be satisfied by results without any derivation; we will try to
give as many (full or partial) proofs as feasible within the time constraints of the course
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1.3. Revision of some elementary mathematics
1.3.1. Numbers
First we start with some terminology and definitions:
definition :
set :
e.g. : S = {a, b, c, d}
definition :
={}
definition :
IN = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
definition :
ZZ = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
definition :
ZZ+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .} = IN
(positive integers)
definition :
ZZ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
definition :
Q
| = set of all numbers of the form p/q with p, q ZZ
1
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1
Q
| ,
/ ZZ
Q
| ,
ZZ
e.g.
2
2
3
3
definition :
e.g. IR,
/Q
|
2 IR, 2
/Q
|
64 IR, 64 IN
definition :
(rational numbers)
IN ZZ Q
| IR
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Every element x IR can be represented by a point on the number line:
3/2
-4
-3
-2
-1
The set IR is an ordered set. Let x, y IR, then the ordering symbols are defined as:
x < y : x is smaller than y ,
x < y x y x, y
x > y x y x, y
xy xy x=y
or
(a, b] = {x IR | a < x b}
A B = {x | x A x B}
A B = {x | x A x B}
Example:
(5, 4) [2, 5] = (5, 5]
15
1.3.2. Powers of real numbers
In an expression of the form xn we call x the base and n the power.
First define natural powers of real numbers. Let n IN and x IR, x 6= 0:
definition x0 = 1
definition xn = x.x. . . . .x
Generalize to integer powers, by giving a definition for negative powers. Let n IN, n > 0:
1
definition xn =
(nfold product in denominator)
x.x. . . . .x
xm .xn = xn+m
second law :
xm /xn = xmn
third law :
(xm )n = xmn
(i) prove these laws from the definitions, by checking the different case for the signs of m and n
(ii) note that (ii) can be derived from (i) and (iii)
Generalize to fractional powers of positive real numbers x IR+ , by giving a definition for
powers of the form 1/n with n IN, n > 0:
a/n = ( n a)
aq+/n = aq .a/n = aq .( n a)
Generalize to real powers of positive real numbers x IR+ . Each real number y IR can
be approximated to arbitrary accuracy by fractions n/m, where m IN+ , n ZZ. One then
defines xy similarly by substituting for y this fraction approximation. Let m IN and n ZZ:
n
is the best approximation of y by a fraction with denominator m
if
m
16
1.3.3. Solving quadratic equations
Quadratic equations are equations of the following form (or can be reduced to this form), where
x is the unknown quantity to be determined, and a, b, c IR (the coefficients) are given:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
(always possible!)
b b2 4ac
x=
2a
Solutions x IR exist only if b2 4ac.
6x2 + 5x = 4
x2 8x = 0
x2 = 4x 5
17
Example 1:
let the recipe of a function f be: take any input x IR, add 2 to this input number
We write
f : IR IR
f (x) = x + 2
Example 2:
let the recipe of a function g be: take any input x [1, 1] and square it, then subtract 7
We write
g : [1, 1] [7, 6]
g(x) = x2 7
Note:
a recipe is allowed to take different forms on different intervals, e.g.
Example 3:
f : [0, ) [0, 12] (14, 16) {9}
3x
f (x) = 2x + 6
for x [0, 4]
for x (4, 5)
for x 5
definition:
The inverse f 1 of a function f : D R is defined by the following:
f 1 : R D
In words: f 1 restores the original number x after the action of the function f .
Claim:
f 1 can not not exist if there exist two different numbers x1 , x2 D with f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Intuitively: how would f 1 select from the two candidates x1 , x2 which one to restore?
Formal proof: call f (x1 ) = y and substitute x1 and x2 into the above definition of f 1 , one
then finds the simultaneous requirements
f 1 (f (x1 )) = x1 f 1 (y) = x1
f 1 (f (x2 )) = x2 f 1 (y) = x2
The assumption of the existence of f 1 would thus lead to x1 = x2 , in contradiction with the
starting point x1 6= x2 . Hence f 1 cannot exist.
definition:
A function f : D R is invertible if and only if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) for any two values x1 , x2 D
with x1 6= x2
18
How to find the inverse of a given function f ?
(i) write y = f (x)
(ii) transpose this formula, to make x the subject (i.e. obtain x = some recipe on y)
(iii) interchange x and y
(iv) result: y = f 1 (x), then verify ...
Work out the inverse functions for
x IR, f (x) = x + 4
x IR, f (x) = 6x + 4
x IR+ , f (x) =
loga (ax ) = x
eln(y) = y
ln(ex ) = x
19
Manipulation identities for logarithms:
switching base :
loga (x) =
logb (x)
logb (a)
(1)
products, fractions :
(2)
(3)
(4)
powers :
Proof of (1):
Strategy: we prove the equivalent statement loga (x). logb (a) = logb (x)
using the manipulation identities for powers
Show that the left-hand side (LHS) of the latter equation has the property bLHS = x:
bLHS = bloga (x). logb (a) = (blogb (a) )loga (x) = aloga (x) = x
By the definition of logb (x) this implies that LHS= logb (x), which is exactly the right-hand
side. This completes the proof.
Proof of (2):
Strategy: we use the manipulation identities for powers
We show that the right-hand side (RHS) of (2) has the property aRHS = xy:
aRHS = aloga (x)+loga (y) = aloga (x) .aloga (y) = x.y
By the definition of loga (x) this implies that RHS= loga (xy), which is exactly the left-hand
side of (2). This completes the proof.
Proof of (3):
Strategy: we use the manipulation identities for powers
We show that the right-hand side (RHS) of (3) has the property aRHS = x/y:
aRHS = aloga (x)loga (y) = aloga (x) .a loga (y) = x/y
By the definition of loga (x) this implies that RHS= loga (x/y), which is exactly the left-hand
side of (3). This completes the proof.
Proof of (4):
Strategy: we use the various manipulation identities for powers
We show that the right-hand side (RHS) of (4) has the property aRHS = xy :
aRHS = ay loga (x) = (aloga (x) )y = xy
By the definition of loga (x) this implies that RHS= loga (xy ), which is exactly the left-hand
side of (4). This completes the proof.
20
5
ex
4
3
ln(x)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
21
tan(x)
sin(x)
cos(x)
x/
-1
-2
-2
-1
Consequences:
(i) cos2 (x) + sin2 (x) = 1 for all x IR
(definition of the unit circle!)
(ii) cos(x) and sin(x) are periodic, with period 2
(since 2 rotation gives a complete turn)
(iii) special values of sin(x) and cos(x) follow immediately,
,...
e.g. for x = 0, 4 , 2 , 3
4
(iv) more general than definition in terms of ratios of sides in triangles
(the latter do come out for x [0, 2 ], here we have a definition for any value of x)
(v) zero points:
sin(x) = 0 for x = n with n ZZ, cos(x) = 0 for x =
+ n with n ZZ
+ n with n ZZ
22
2. Proof by induction
Induction is a method that allows us to prove an infinite number of statements, by proving just
two statements. The basic ideas are
Let a set S IN have the following properties:
(i) 1 S,
(ii) if n S then also n + 1 S
this construction generates all natural numbers: S = IN
If we prove
(i) that a statement is true for n = 1 (the basis)
(ii) that if it is true for a given n, it must also be true for n + 1 (the induction step)
then we will have proven that the statement is true for all n IN
definition: the summation symbol
n
X
(n, m ZZ, n m)
k=m
n!
k!(n k)!
0! = 1
meaning:
the number of distinct ways to select k elements from a set of n elements
(where permutations are not counted separately)
Example 1:
Let n IN. Use induction to prove that
n
X
1
k = n(n + 1)
2
k=1
Proof:
n+1
X
1
k (n + 1)(n + 2)
2
k=1
23
n
X
1
k + (n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)
(next use An = 0 !)
2
k=1
1
1
= n(n + 1) + (n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)
2
2
1
1
= (n + 1)[ n + 1 (n + 2)] = 0
2
2
We have shown: if An = 0 then also An+1 = 0. Knowing already that A1 = 0 (the basis), this
completes the proof that An = 0 for all n IN.
=
Example 2:
use induction to prove Newtons binomial formula for all integer n 0:
n
(a + b) =
n
X
k=0
Proof:
n
k
ank bk
Pn
n nk k
b .
k=0 ( k )a
n+1
X
( n+1
)an+1k bk
k
k=0
= (a + b)(a + b)n
=
=
n+1
X
( n+1
)an+1k bk
k
(next use An = 0)
k=0
n+1
X
(a + b)
( n+1
)an+1k bk
( kn )ank bk
k
k=0
k=0
n
n
n+1
X
X
X
( nk )an+1k bk +
( kn )ank bk+1
( n+1
)an+1k bk
k
k=0
k=0
k=0
n
X
n
X
( nk )an+1k bk +
n+1
X
( n1 )an+1 b
n+1
X
( n+1
)an+1k bk
k
k=0
=1
k=0
n+1 n+10 0
n
n n+10 0
b ( 0 )a
b + ( n+11 )an+1n1 bn+1
( 0 )a
n
h
i
X
)
+
an+1k bk ( nk ) + ( nk1) ( n+1
k
k=1
n+1n1 n+1
( n+1
b
n+1 )a
24
=
n
X
k=1
k
(n k)!k! (n k + 1)!(k 1)! (n + 1 k)!k!
"
#
n!
1
n+1
1
=
+
xk =
k=0
Proof:
1 xn
1x
n1 k
We subtract the two sides and define An = k=0
x
We must now prove that An = 0 for all integer n IN
1x
1x
1xn
.
1x
n
X
k=0
xk
1xn
.
1x
It follows that
X
1 xn+1 n1
1 xn+1
=
xk + xn
1x
1x
k=0
(next use An = 0)
1 xn+1
1 xn
+ xn
=
1x
1x
1 xn + (1 x)xn (1 xn+1 )
=
=0
1x
Thus we have shown: if An = 0 then also An+1 = 0. Knowing already that A1 = 0 (the basis),
this completes the proof that An = 0 for all n IN.
=
Exercises:
Similarly, prove the following statements for n IN by induction:
n
n
X
X
1
1
k 3 = n2 (n + 1)2
k 2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
4
k=1
k=1
25
3. Complex numbers
3.1. Introduction and definition
definition:
The number i is defined as a solution of the equation z 2 + 1 = 0
(note: this eqn had no solutions z IR)
definition:
The set C
| of complex numbers consists of all expressions of the form a + ib with a, b IR,
C
| = {a + ib | a, b IR}
definition:
Addition and multiplication of numbers in C
| is defined as follows. Let a, b, c, d IR:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
(a + bi)(c + di)
26
3.2. Elementary properties of complex numbers
Every quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0 can be solved in C
| , giving the solutions
b b2 4ac
z =
2a
2
(where for b 4ac < 0 one has b2 4ac = 1 4ac b2 = i 4ac b2 )
proof:
!
!
!
b + b2 4ac
b b2 4ac
b + b2 4ac b b2 4ac
2
+a
+
= az az
2a
2a
2a
2a
1
1
= az 2 z (2b) +
b + b2 4ac b b2 4ac
2
4a
1 2
= az 2 + bz +
b ( b2 4ac)2
4a
1 2
b b2 + 4ac = az 2 + bz + c
= az 2 + bz +
4a
It now follows immediately that az 2 + bz + c = 0 for z = z . This completes the proof.
Every n-th order polynomial with real-valued or complex coefficients,
P (z) = z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a1 z + a0 , can be factorized into linear factors to give
P (z) = (z z1 )(z z2 ) . . . (z zn1 )(z zn )
z + w = z + w (proof in tutorials)
zw = z.w
(proof in tutorials)
For every z C
| : zz IR, with zz 0 and where zz = 0 if and only if z = 0
(proof in tutorials)
If z is a root of a polynomial P (z) with real coefficients, then also z will be a root
proof:
We know that P (z) = 0, i.e. z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a1 z + a0 = 0.
Now, since z + w = z + w and zw = z.w, also
0 = z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a1 z + a0
0 = z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a1 z + a0
0 = z n + an1 z n1 + . . . + a1 z + a0
Thus P (z) = 0. This completes the proof.
27
3.3. Absolute value and division
definition:
The absolute value (or modulus) of a complex number is defined as |z| = z.z
Consequences:
If z = a + ib with a = Re(z) and b = Im(z), then |z| =
proof:
(z) = z
|z| =
z.z =
(a + ib)(a ib) =
a2 + b2
a2 (ib)2 =
a2 + b2
(due to z + z = 2Re(z))
(due to |Re(z)| |z|)
Taking the square root of both sides then completes the proof.
The property |z| IR makes it easy to work out the ratio of complex numbers, and write it in
the standard form v = Re(v) + iIm(v). Method: multiply numerator and denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator.
Let z = a + ib and w = c + id, with a, b, c, d IR and w 6= 0:
a + ib
a + ib c id
(a + ib)(c id)
=
=
c + id
c + id c id
|c + id|2
ac + bd
bc ad
ac + ibc iad + bd
= 2
+i 2
=
2
2
2
c +d
c +d
c + d2
In particular: 1/i = i,
1/z = z/|z|2
28
3.4. The complex plane (Argand diagram)
3.4.1. Complex numbers as points in a plane
underlying idea:
there is a one-to-one correspondence between complex numbers z C
|
2
and points in the ordinary plane IR , namely
z = a + ib C
|
(a, b) IR2
z C
| :
(1, 0)
1 = 1 + 0.i
(1, 0)
2 + 3i
(2, 3)
1 = 1 + 0.i
i = 0 + 1.i
i = 0 1.i
1 i 2
1 + 2i
3
3 i
2
2 + i
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
(1, 2)
3
(3, )
2
(2, )
(1, 2)
definition:
The complex plane (or Argand diagram) is defined as the plane in which complex numbers
z = a + ib (with a, b IR) are represented by points with coordinates (a, b) = (Re(z), Im(z)).
The horizontal axis is called the real axis, and the vertical axis the imaginary axis.
notes:
(i) The real axis is the set of all real numbers,
(as it contains all z = a + ib C
| for which b = 0, i.e. of the form z = a)
(ii) The imaginary axis is the set of all purely imaginary numbers,
(it contains all z = a + ib C
| for which a = 0, i.e. of the form z = ib)
29
Im(z)
4i 6
2 + i
3i
2+3i
1 + 2i
2i
i
-4
-3
-2
-1
3 23 i
Re(z)
-i
1i 2
-2i
-3i
-4i
30
y-axis
( 43 2,
4 6
@
@
@
@
3
@
@
@
@
2
@
@
@
( 3, 1) = 2(cos( ), sin( ))
@
1
6
6
3
2) = 23 (cos( 34 ), sin( 43 ))@
4
@
@
@
-
x-axis
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
underlying idea:
We can represent each point in the plane with Cartesian coordinates (x, y)
alternatively by so-called polar coordinates (r, ).
The same is then also true for each complex number z C
|.
examples:
polar coordinates:
(r, )
Cartesian coordinates:
(x, y) = (r cos(), r sin())
complex number:
z = r cos + ir sin
(r, ) = (1, 0)
(r, ) = (1, 2 )
(r, ) = (1, )
(r, ) = (1, 2 )
(r, ) = ( 23 , 3
)
4
(r, ) = (2, 6 )
(x, y) = (1, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 1)
(x, y) = (1, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 1)
(x, y) = ( 43 2, 34 2)
(x, y) = ( 3, 1)
z
z
z
z
z
z
= 1 + 0.i = 1
= 0 + 1.i = i
= 1 + 0.i = 1
= 0 1.i = i
= 43 2 + 34 2i
= 3 + 1.i = 3 + i
31
Notes:
(i) each complex number can thus be written as z = r(cos() + i sin()),
with r 0 and IR
(ii) due to periodicity of sin() and cos():
for all n IN also r(cos( + 2n) + i sin( + 2n) = z
(iii) If z = r(cos() + i sin() then r = |z|
Proof:
|z|2 = z = r 2 (cos() + i sin()(cos() i sin()
= r 2 (cos2 () i2 sin2 ()) = r 2
f (0)
=1
32
Some examples:
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
z = e3i/2 = cos( 3
) + i sin( 3
) = 0 1.i = i
2
2
33
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
z = e2i/3 = cos( 2
) + i sin( 2
) = 12 +
3
3
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
1
2
3i
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Im(z)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
1
2
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
proof: |z| =
zz =
rei .rei =
r2 = r
2+
1
2
2i
34
(iii) z = rei
proof: z = r cos() + i sin() = r cos() i sin() = rei
(iv) 1/z = 1r ei
proof: multiply numerator and denominator by z:
1
1 rei
rei
1
1
= i = i i = 2 = ei
z
re
re re
r
r
(v) 1/z = 1r ei
proof: multiply numerator and denominator by z:
1
1 rei
rei
1
1
= i = i i = 2 = ei
z
re
re re
r
r
(vi) The angle in z = rei is as yet not uniquely defined,
changing + 2n with n ZZ leaves one with the same number z
proof:
rei
r
r
= ei ei = ei()
i
e
35
Examples:
1
2ei/4
1
3e3i/2 . ei/2
2
1
= ei/4
2
3
= ei
2
6ei/6
3ei/4
= 2ei(1/41/6) = 2ei/12
i.rei
In a nutshell:
adding or subtracting complex numbers is easier in standard notation z = a + ib
multiplying or dividing is easier in exponential notation z = rei
3.5.3. The argument of a complex number
motivation
The angle in z = rei is not unique, we could add multiples of 2
This also makes it impossible to define ln(z) in C
| as the inverse of ez
definition:
The natural logarithm ln(z) of a complex number z C
| can now be defined as follows
A common task is to write a complex number from standard into exponential form,
i.e. to find r = |z| and arg(z) when z = a + ib is given
36
Three-step method for finding |z| and arg(z) when z is given:
(i) calculate |z| = r using r 2 = zz
r 2 = zz = i.(i) = i2 = 1 hence r =
1=1
solutions : = /2 + 2n (n ZZ)
(, ] :
z = 3 + 3i :
18 = 3 2
i
1
1
ei = z/r = (3 + 3i) = + , hence
3 2
2
2
i
1
1
1
cos() = , sin() =
cos() + i sin() = +
2
2
2
2
solutions : = 3/4 + 2n (n ZZ)
(, ] :
z = 3i:
r 2 = ( 3 i)( 3 + i) = 3 + 1 = 4 hence r = 4 = 2
1
1
3 i, hence
2
2
3 i
3
1
cos() =
, sin() =
cos() + i sin() =
2
2
2
2
solutions : = 7/6 + 2n (n ZZ)
ei = z/r =
(, ] :
z = e2i/3 :
1=1
1 i 3
e = z/r = e
= cos(2/3) i sin(2/3) =
, hence
2
2
1
3
1 i 3
cos() = , sin() =
cos() + i sin() =
2
2
2
2
i
2i/3
37
solutions : = /3 + 2n (n ZZ)
(pi, ] : = /3 (i.e. n = 0), thus arg(z) = /3
common pitfalls
(see last example):
If z = e2i/3 this does not imply that r = |z| = 1 and arg(z) = 2/3
note that always |z| 0
If you arrive at ei = e2i/3 this does not imply that there has been a mistake,
note that 1 = ei , so we may write e2i/3 = ei e2i/3 = e5i/3
3.6. De Moivres Theorem
3.6.1. Statement and proof
theorem:
For all IR and n IN:
cos() + i sin()
n
= cos(n) + i sin(n)
n+1
=0
If An = 0 for some n, then also An+1 = 0. Hence, in combination with the basis,
we have now shown that An = 0 for all n IN. This completes the proof.
proof 2:
cos() + i sin()
n
38
3.6.2. Applications
First application:
easy derivation of identities for trigonometric functions of multiple angles
n = 2:
n = 3:
Second application:
finding the roots of unity, i.e. the n solutions of z n = 1 (integer n)
We know that |z| = 1, due to 1 = |z n |n = |z|n , so we may put z = ei
For any integer m = 0, 1, 2, . . . we may write 1 = cos(2m) + i sin(2m)
Our equation then becomes (ei )n = cos(2m) + i sin(2m), or ein = e2mi
It follows that for every integer m we have a solution = 2m/n,
i.e. a complex root z = e2im/n
Note, finally: for m n we will generate solutions already found earlier
Hence: the n solutions of z n = 1 are given by
z = e2im/n
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1
39
For example:
Im(z)
Im(z)
Im(z)
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
-1.5
-1.5
1.5
-1.0
z2 = 1
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
-1.5
-1.5
1.5
Im(z)
Im(z)
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
Re(z)
0.0
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
-1.5
-1.5
z5 = 1
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.0
1.5
Re(z)
0.0
-0.5
0.0
0.0
Im(z)
1.5
-0.5
-0.5
z4 = 1
1.5
-1.0
-1.0
z3 = 1
1.5
-1.5
-1.5
Re(z)
0.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0
z6 = 1
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
z7 = 1
1.5
40
Lines in the complex plane:
these are found as solutions of linear equations, i.e.
uz + vz + w = 0 with u, v, w C
| (check this)
Discrete sets of points that are not arranged around the origin:
Im(z)
Im(z)
5.0
4.0
3.0
1
2.0
Re(z)
0
1.0
-1
Re(z)
0.0
-2
-1.0
-2.0
-2.0
-3
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
(z 2 i)6 2 = 0
-3
-1
Ellipses:
these are solutions of equations of the type
|z u| + |z w| R = 0
with u, w C
| and R IR+
(u and w will be the foci of the ellipse)
-2
Im(z)
2
Re(z)
-1
-2
-2
-1
|z 1| + |z + 1| 3 = 0
Im(z)
3
Re(z)
-1
-2
-3
-3
-2
-1
41
4. Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
4.1. Definitions of trigonometric functions
4.1.1. Definition of sine and cosine
We need only define sin() and cos(), since all other trigonometric functions are simply
combinations of these elementary two.
There are different but mathematically equivalent options:
Option I. geometric definition:
Consider a half-line with its one end-point in the origin. Choose it first to lie along the positive
x-axis, then rotate it anti-clockwise around the origin; call the rotation angle (in radians).
Find the coordinates (X(), Y ()) of the point where the half-line intersects the unit circle.
Now define
tan()
2
cos() = X()
sin() = Y ()
1
sin()
cos()
/
-1
-2
-2
-1
X
zn
z
z2 z3 z4
ez =
= 1+ +
+
+
+ ...
1! 2!
3!
4!
n=0 n!
42
(note: one defines 00 = 1). We turn later in detail to existence and convergence questions for
infinite series. For now we assume (rightly, as will turn out) that this infinite sum is always
finite and well-behaved.
One then finds
X
(1)k z 2k+1
z3 z5 z7
sin(z) =
= z
+
+ ...
3!
5!
7!
k=0 (2k + 1)!
(1)k z 2k
z2 z4 z6
= 1
+
+ ...
(2k)!
2!
4!
6!
k=0
cos(z) =
proof:
Let us start with sin(z):
sin(z) =
Note:
n n
1 X
1X
(iz)n
(iz)n
i z 1
1 X
=
(1 (1)n )
2i n=0 n!
2i n=0 n!
i n=0 n! 2
2k+1 2k+1
1 X
in z n
1X
i
z
=
i n odd n!
i k=0 (2k + 1)!
X
(1)k z 2k+1
(i2 )k z 2k+1
=
=
k=0 (2k + 1)!
k=0 (2k + 1)!
n n
X
1X
i z 1
1 X
(iz)n
(iz)n
+
=
(1 + (1)n )
2 n=0 n!
2i n=0 n!
n!
2
n=0
2k 2k
X
in z n
i z
=
even n!
k=0 (2k)!
X
(1)k z 2k
(i2 )k z 2k
=
(2k)!
k=0
k=0 (2k)!
43
0 2 4 6
x
sin(x)
-1
-2
1 3 5 7
-3
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 1. Building sin(x) as a power series, by taking more and more terms in the summation.
PN
Dashed: sin(x). Solid: f (x) = k=0 (1)k x2k+1 /(2k + 1)! for different choices of N (values of
N are indicated in italics). As N increases: f (x) starts to resemble sin(x) more and more, but
f (x) is only fully identical to sin(x) for N .
2 4 6
cos(x)
-1
-2
1 3 5 7
-3
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 2. Building cos(x) as a power series, by taking more and more terms in the summation.
PN
Dashed: cos(x). Solid: f (x) = k=0 (1)k x2k /(2k)! for different choices of N (values of N are
indicated in italics). As N increases: f (x) starts to resemble cos(x) more and more, but f (x)
is only fully identical to sin(x) for N .
44
4.1.2. Elementary values
These can all be extracted from either (i) suitably chosen triangles, and/or (ii) projections of
special points on the unit circle onto (x, y)-axes, or (iii) simple transformations to reduce to
one of the previous two classes:
= 0, inspect projections of point on unit circle,
cos(0) = 1, sin(0) = 0
= /4, inspect inspect projections of point on unit circle, use sin2 () + cos2 () = 1
cos(/4) = sin(/4) = 1/ 2
= /6: cut a triangle with three equal sides in half and pick a suitable corner,
sin(/6) = 12 , cos(/6) = 21 3
= /3: cut a triangle with three equal sides in half and pick a suitable corner,
45
4.1.4. Inverse trigonometric functions
Recall our definitions:
The inverse f 1 of a function f : D R
is defined by:
f 1 : R D
f
tan()
sin()
-1
-2
-2
-1
cos()
arcsin(x)
46
2.0
1.5
/2
1.0
arcsin(x)
sin(x)
0.5
0.0
/2
-0.5
sin(x)
-1.0
-1.5
arcsin(x)
-2.0
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Special values:
arccos(x)
47
3.5
3.0
arccos(x)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
cos(x)
0.5
0.0
arccos(x)
-0.5
cos(x)
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Special values:
arctan(x)
48
4.0
tan(x)
3.5
3.0
2.5
arctan(x)
2.0
/2
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
/2
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
arctan(x)
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
tan(x)
-4.0
-4.0-3.5-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.5-1.0-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Special values:
49
y
-1
-1
We see that:
sin( ) = sin()
cos( ) = cos()
-1
-1
We see that:
sin( + ) = sin()
cos( + ) = cos()
-1
-1
We see that:
sin(/2 ) = cos()
cos(/2 ) = sin()
-1
-1
50
4.2.2. Addition formulae
Trigonometric functions of sums or differences of angles:
claim: for all , IR one has
proofs:
= e
2i
2i
4i
1 i(+)
e
ei() + ei() ei(+)
4i
1
1 i(+)
1 i(+)
2e
2ei(+ = 0
ei(+)
= e
2i
2i
4i
LHS2 RHS2 = cos( + ) cos() cos() + sin() sin()
1
1
1
= (ei(+) + ei(+) (ei + ei )(ei + ei ) (ei ei )(ei ei )
2
4
4
1 i(+) 1 i(+) 1 i(+)
i()
i()
= e
e
+e
+e
+ ei(+)
+ e
2
2
4
1 i(+)
i()
e
e
ei() + ei(+)
4
1 i(+) 1 i(+) 1 i(+)
2e
+ 2ei(+) = 0
+ e
= e
2
2
4
This completes the proofs.
From the formulae for sine and cosine follow also:
(dont memorize, but derive when needed!)
sin() cos() + cos() sin()
sin( + )
=
cos( + )
cos() cos() sin() sin()
sin()/ cos() + sin()/ cos()
=
1 sin() sin()/ cos() cos()
tan() + tan()
=
1 tan() tan()
tan( + ) =
51
observation:
we rely on the property ez+w = ez .ew
interesting to prove this property
from the series representation of ez alone!
use Newtons binomial formula and (
ez+w =
am )(
n bn )
n,m
am bn :
n
X
(z + w)n
1 X
n k nk
=
z w
n!
n=0
n=0 n! k=0 k
X
1
1 n k nk X
n!
z w
=
z k w nk
ez+w =
n!
n!
k!(n
k)!
k
k=0 n=k
k=0 n=k
X
1
z k w nk
k!(n
k)!
k=0 n=k
Finally, switch from the index n to = n k, so = 0, 1, 2, . . .:
!
!
X
X
X w
X
1 1 k
zk
z+w
e
=
= ez .ew
z w =
k=0 =0 k! !
=1 !
k=0 k!
=
52
half-angle formulae:
1
1
1
1
cos() + cos() = cos( ( + ) + ( )) + cos( ( + ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= cos( ( + )) cos( ( )) sin( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
+ cos( ( + )) cos( ( )) + sin( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
= 2 cos( ( + )) cos( ( ))
2
2
1
1
1
1
sin() + sin() = sin( ( + ) + ( )) + sin( ( + ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= sin( ( + )) cos( ( )) + cos( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
+ sin( ( + )) cos( ( )) cos( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
= 2 sin( ( + )) cos( ( ))
2
2
1
1
1
1
cos() cos() = cos( ( + ) + ( )) cos( ( + ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= cos( ( + )) cos( ( )) sin( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
cos( ( + )) cos( ( )) + sin( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
= 2 sin( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
1
1
1
1
sin() sin() = sin( ( + ) + ( )) sin( ( + ) ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= sin( ( + )) cos( ( )) + cos( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
sin( ( + )) cos( ( )) cos( ( + )) sin( ( ))
2
2
2
2
1
1
= 2 sin( ( )) cos( ( + ))
2
2
Claim: one can always write linear combinations a cos() + b sin() in the form c sin( + )
with some suitable c, IR and with c 0
(lets disregard the trivial case a = b = 0)
Proof & construction in three steps:
53
(i) First note that
c sin( + ) = c sin() cos() + c cos() sin()
Hence we seek c and such that
a/c = sin()
b/c = cos()
a2 + b2
b/c = cos()
= /2 + 2n (n ZZ) if a > 0
b/c < 0 :
2 tan( 21 )
2t
=
2 1
1 tan ( 2 )
1 t2
1
1
1
2
1
cos() = cos2 ( ) sin2 ( ) = 2 cos2 ( ) 1 =
2
2
2
2
cos ( 12 )
2
2
1
1=
=
1
1
2 1
2 1
2
2
tan ( 2 ) + 1
[sin ( 2 ) + cos ( 2 )] cos ( 2 )
2
1 + t2
1 t2
=
=
1 + t2 1 + t2
1 + t2
sin() = cos() tan() =
2t
1 t2 2t
=
2
2
1+t 1t
1 + t2
54
4.3. Definitions of hyperbolic functions
4.3.1. Definition of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine
Option I. definition via differential equations:
We can define the hyperbolic sine sinh(z) and hyperbolic cosine cosh(z) as the solutions of the
following equations, with specific initial values:
d
d
sinh(z) = cosh(z),
cosh(z) = sinh(z),
cosh(0) = 1,
sinh(0) = 0
dz
dz
(note:
difference with previous eqns defining sine and cosine
is only in a minus sign in the second eqn!)
cosh(x)
cosh(x)
sinh(x)
tanh(x)
0
-1
tanh(x)
-2
-3
sinh(x)
-4
-5
-5
-4
-3
-2
Related functions:
hyperbolic tangent :
hyperbolic cotangent :
hyperbolic secant :
sech(z) = 1/ cosh(z)
hyperbolic cosecant :
cosech(z) = 1/ sinh(z)
-1
55
4.3.2. General properties and special values
Properties involving both sinh and cosh:
One immediately confirms from the direct analytic definition:
d
d
sinh(z) = cosh(z)
cosh(z) = sinh(z)
dz
dz
For any z C
| : cosh2 (z) sinh2 (z) = 1
proof:
cosh2 (z) sinh2 (z) =
1
(ez + ez )
2
1
(ez ez )
2
2
2
1
1 2z
= (e + 2 + e2z ) e2z 2 + e2z )
4
4
1 2z
= (e + 2 + e2z e2z + 2 e2z ) = 1
4
Consequence:
if for z IR the two are regarded as coordinates (X, Y ) in a plane,
i.e. X = cosh(z) and Y = sinh(z), then the possible points (X, Y )
define the branches of a hyperbole X 2 Y 2 = 1 (hence the name!)
Properties of sinh:
sinh(z) = sin(z)
proof: follows directly from definition,
1
1
sinh(z) = (ez ez ) = (ez ez ) = sinh(z)
2
2
for z IR: sinh(z) increases monotonically
proof: differentiate the analytic definition,
d az
e = aeaz ,
using dz
1
d
sinh(z) = cosh(z) = (ez + ez ) > 0
dz
2
consider z IR:
56
Properties of cosh:
cosh(z) = cosh(z)
proof: follows directly from definition,
1
1
cosh(z) = (ez + ez ) = (ez + ez ) = cosh(z)
2
2
for z IR+ : cosh(z) increases monotonically
for z IR : cosh(z) decreases monotonically
proof: differentiate the analytic definition,
d az
using dz
e = aeaz ,
d
cosh(z) = sinh(z)
dz
consider z IR:
>0
=0
<0
for z > 0
for z = 0
for z < 0
Properties of tanh:
tanh(z) = tanh(z)
proof: follows directly from definition,
tanh(z) = sinh(z)/ cosh(z) = sinh(z)/ cosh(z) = tanh(z)
for z IR:
d
d
tanh(z) =
dz
dz
sinh(z)
cosh(z)
sinh(z)
e e
tanh(z) =
= z
=
cosh(z)
e + ez
57
4.3.3. Connection with trigonometric functions
More than just similarity between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions,
When defined for complex numbers they can be expressed in terms of each other!
Let x IR:
trigonometric functions are hyperbolic functions of imaginary arguments:
sin(x) = i sinh(ix)
cos(x) = cosh(ix)
tan(x) = i tanh(ix)
proofs:
just write RHS in terms of exponentials ...
hyperbolic functions are trigonometric functions of imaginary arguments:
sinh(x) = i sin(ix)
cosh(x) = cos(ix)
tanh(x) = i tan(ix)
proofs:
just write RHS in terms of exponentials ...
4.3.4. Applications of connection with trigonometric functions
All previous identities for trigonometric functions
whose derivation did not rely on argument being real (e.g. addition formulae),
translate via the above into identities for hyperbolic functions!
Addition formulae:
sin( + ) = sin() cos() + cos() sin()
give:
58
= cosh() cosh() + sinh() sinh()
tanh( + ) =
i tan(i) i tan(i)
tanh() + tanh()
=
1 tan(i) tan(i)
1 + tanh() tanh()
give:
sinh(x)
tanh(x)
0
-1
A function f : D R is invertible
if and only if:
cosh(x)
f 1 : R D
cosh(x)
tanh(x)
-2
-3
sinh(x)
-4
-5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
59
definition of the inverse of sinh(x):
arcsinh(y)
arcsinh : IR IR
arcsinh(y) in words:
gives the value x IR such that sinh(x) = y
In fact: we can produce a simple formula:
1
y = sinh(x) : y = (ex ex ) ex ex 2y = 0 e2x 2yex 1 = 0
2
q
q
1
(ex )2 2y(ex ) 1 = 0 ex = (2y 4y 2 + 4 = y y 2 + 1
2
2
2
x
x
since e > 0: e = y + y + 1, so x = ln(y + y + 1)
hence:
arcsinh(y) = ln(y +
y 2 + 1)
for all y IR
sinh(x)
3
arcsinh(x)
2
1
0
-1
arcsinh(x)-2
-3
sinh(x)
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
60
definition of the inverse of tanh(x):
arctanh(y)
arctanh : (1, 1) IR
arctanh(y) in words:
gives the value x IR such that tanh(x) = y
In fact: we can produce a simple formula:
y = tanh(x) : y =
ex ex
ex + ex
1 + y = e2x (1 y) e2x =
hence:
1
1+y
arctanh(y) = ln
2
1y
1+y
1y
arctanh(x)
3
2
tanh(x)
1
0
-1
tanh(x)
-2
-3
arctanh(x)
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
61
definition of the inverse of cosh(x):
arccosh(y)
x
x
since x [0, ): e 1, and hence e = y + y 1, so x = ln(y + y 2 1)
hence:
arccosh(y) = ln(y +
y 2 1)
cosh(x)
arccosh(x)
1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
62
5. Functions, limits and differentiation
5.1. Introduction
5.1.1. Rate of change, tangent of a curve
limits resolved two long-standing problems:
(i) mechanics: how to define and find the instantaneous rate of change of a quantity
(ii) geometry: how to define and find the tangent to arbitrary curves in arbitrary points
Consider time-dependent quantity x(t), t IR denotes time
(e.g. position of a particle moving along a line)
rate of change over interval t [t1 , t2 ]: average velocity v during the interval
v=
change in x
x(t2 ) x(t1 )
=
time taken
t2 t1
(t1 , x(t1 ))
4
x(t)
(t2 , x(t2 ))
2
v at t1
v interval
0
0
63
note:
not all curves are written as x(t) or f (x) or y(x) ...
(liberate yourself from name conventions!)
[a(x + h) + b] [ax + b]
ah
f (x + h) f (x)
=
=
=a
h
h
h
slope = a
slope =
Put h = 0:
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c:
Put h = 0:
Put h = 0:
n
slope = a
xn1 = a
n!
1!(n1)!
xn1 = anxn1
64
But equally often it doesnt ...
f (x) = ax :
f (x + h) f (x)
ax+h ax
ah 1
slope =
=
= ax
h
h
h
Putting h = 0 gives:
f (x) = sin(x):
sin(x + h) sin(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
=
h
h
sin(x) cos(h) + cos(x) sin(h) sin(x)
=
h!
!
sin(h)
cos(h) 1
+ cos(x)
= sin(x)
h
h
Putting h = 0 gives: slope = sin(x)(0/0) + cos(x)(0/0) ... ??
slope =
f (x) = cos(x):
f (x + h) f (x)
cos(x + h) cos(x)
=
h
h
cos(x) cos(h) sin(x) sin(h) cos(x)
=
h!
!
cos(h) 1
sin(h)
sin(x)
= cos(x)
h
h
Putting h = 0 gives: slope = cos(x)(0/0) sin(x)(0/0) ... ??
slope =
The problem:
One cannot set h = 0 in expressions like (ah 1)/h or (cos(h) 1)/h or sin(h)/h
The solution: (Newton, Leibniz)
The correct thing to do is to take h smaller and smaller, and investigate whether
the quantity [f (x + h) f (x)]/h then approaches a well-defined value for h 0.
If so: that value will be the slope at point x, to be called the derivative of f (x) at x
Notes:
(i) Newton & Leibniz had the concept, the intuitive definition of limit
but exact mathematical definition of limit was due to Cauchy, much later ...
(ii) notation for derivative:
f (x + h) f (x)
df
= lim
f (x) =
dx h0
h
65
We saw:
(i) derivatives of functions that are sums of powers are easy to find
(ii) ergo: another important use of power series!
1
= 1 + x + x2 + . . .
2
sin(x) =
(1)n x2n+1
1
1 5
= x x3 +
x + ...
6
120
n=0 (2n + 1)!
cos(x) =
1
1
= 1 x2 + x4 + . . .
2
24
ex
xn
n=0 n!
(1)n x2n
(2n)!
n=0
1 h ln a
1 ln(ah )
e
1 = lim
e
1
h0 h
h0 h
1
1
1 + h ln a + (h ln a)2 + . . . 1
= lim
h0 h
2
1
= lim ln a + h(ln a)2 + . . . = ln a
h0
2
= lim
1
1
1
1
1 h2 + h4 + . . . 1
lim (cos(h) 1) = lim
h0 h
h0 h
2
24
1 3
1
= lim h + h + . . . = 0
h0
2
24
1
sin(h)
h0 h
lim
1
1 5
1
h h3 +
h + ...
h0 h
6
120
1 4
1
h + ... = 1
= lim 1 h2 +
h0
6
120
= lim
Hence
d x
a
dx
1
= ax lim (ah 1) = ax ln(a)
h0 h
d
1
1
sin(x) = sin(x) lim (cos(h) 1) + cos(x) lim sin(h) = cos(x)
h0 h
h0 h
dx
d
1
1
cos(x) = cos(x) lim (cos(h) 1) sin(x) lim sin(h) = sin(x)
h0 h
h0 h
dx
66
5.2. The limit
Limit in words:
the output value f (x) to which a function tends (if at all)
as x approaches a specific input value x0
Some simple abbreviations and symbols:
: there exists
: for all
: if and only if
definition
lim f (x) = L ( > 0)( > 0) : |f (x)L| < whenever x (x0 , x0 +)
xx0
in words:
lim f (x) = L for all > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
|f (x)L| < whenever x (x0 , x0 +)
xx0
in sloppy words:
one may get f (x) as close as one wishes to the value L
simply by lowering x sufficiently close to x0
The left limit: approach x0 from the left,
notation: limxx f (x) or limxx0 f (x)
0
definition
lim f (x) = L ( > 0)( > 0) : |f (x)L| < whenever x (x0 , x0 )
xx0
in words:
lim f (x) = L for all > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
|f (x)L| < whenever x (x0 , x0 )
xx0
in sloppy words:
one may get f (x) as close as one wishes to the value L
simply by raising x sufficiently close to x0
67
Notes:
(i) these limits need not always exist
(ii) if they do, then limxx0 f (x) might be different from limxx0 f (x)
(iii) limxx0 f (x) and limxx0 f (x) could exist even if f (x0 ) does not exist
Examples (draw pictures!):
f (x) = 1/x :
x0
f (x) = tanh(1/x) :
x1
x0
x1
x0
x/|x|
0
for
for
x 6= 0
:
x=0
x0
f (0) = 0
x
f (x) =
x1
for
for
for
x>0
x=0 :
x<0
x0
f (0) =
in sloppy words:
one may get f (x) as close as one wishes to the value L
simply by making x larger and larger
68
Approach (always from the right!),
notation: limx f (x)
definition
lim f (x) = L ( > 0)(X < 0) : |f (x)L| < whenever x < X
in sloppy words:
one may get f (x) as close as one wishes to the value L
simply by making x smaller and smaller
5.2.3. When left/right limits exists and are identical
Approach x0 from either side,
notation: limxx0 f (x)
definition (version 1)
lim f (x) = L
xx0
x0
definition (version 2)
lim f (x) = L ( > 0)( > 0) : |f (x)L| < whenever |xx0 | <
xx0
in sloppy words:
one may get f (x) as close as one wishes to the value L
simply by taking x sufficiently close to x0 , from either side
the concept of continuity of a function
definition
A function f is continuous at the point x0 if
limxx0 f (x) exists and limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 )
continuous functions are those for which the graph can always be drawn
without lifting ones pen from the paper
Mathematical expressions may involve multiple limits,
notation conventions:
lim lim f (x, y) = lim
xx0 yy0
xx0
yy0 xx0
yy0
lim f (x, y)
yy0
lim f (x, y)
xx0
69
Note: the order in which limits are taken matters! (jargon: limits do not commute)
e.g.
f (x, y) = x2 y exy :
x0 y1
x0
y1 x0
y1
x0 y0
x0
y0 x0
y0
f (x, y) = 1 + tanh(x + y) :
x y
y x
lim f (x)g(x) = ab
xx
0
if b 6= 0 :
if b = 0 and a 6= 0 :
lim f (x)/g(x)
xx
0
xx0
lim g(x) = a
xx0
70
5.2.5. Examples
0.5
x sin(x1 )
0.0
0.0
x0
y0
1
1
= 11 = 1
0.5
71
(v) limx0 x ln(x) = 0
proof:
more tricky, substitute x = ey with y and think ...
x ln(x) = yey
0 yey 4/y
(a) since ey =
n=0 y /n!, one has e > y /! for any IN and any y > 0
(b) hence we know for y > 0 that 0 yey < ! y 1
(c) take any > 1 and proceed by sandwiching ...
y0
72
(a) we know that ez > z for all z > 0 (was demonstrated under (iv))
(b) now choose z = x/2a: ex/2a > x/2a, so also ex > (x/2a)2a = (2a)2a x2a
equivalently: xa ex < xa /(2a)2a x2a = (2a)2a xa
(c) we can proceed by sandwiching:
x>0:
0 xa ex (2a)2a xa
(a) since ex =
n=0 x /n!, one has e > x /! for any IN and any x > 0
(b) hence we know for x > 0 that 0 xa ex < ! xa
(c) take any > a and proceed by sandwiching ...
5.3. Differentiation
5.3.1. Derivatives of functions
Recall definition of derivative of function f for continuous functions:
(notation: df /dx, or f (x), or dy/dx with y = f (x))
f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h0
h
calculation of f (x) from scratch:
first simplify (f (x + h) f (x))/h if possible
Note:
the formulas are used when you prove that a limit takes a value L
(they do not help in finding the candidate L in the first place ...)
73
Elementary derivatives found earlier:
d
d
sin(x) = cos(x)
cos(x) = sin(x)
dx
dx
d n
x = nxn1 (n ZZ+ )
dx
d x
a = ax ln(a)
dx
Further examples:
d
dx
proof:
d
ln(x + h) ln(x)
ln(x) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
dx
h
h
ln(1 + h/x)
ln(x) + ln(1 + h/x) ln(x)
= lim
substitute y = h/x
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
ln(1 + y)
1
1
ln(1 + y)
= lim
=
use limit (iii) of section 4.25
= lim
y0
xy
x y0
y
x
d a
x
dx
1
= xa lim
= xa lim h1 [ea ln(1+h/x) 1] substitute y = h/x
h0
h0
h
ay y 1 ln(1+y)
a1
= ax
y0
lim z [e
z0
z limy0 y 1 ln(1+y)
1]
z0
dy
= f (x) + g (x)
dx
1]
74
proof:
d
f (x + h) + g(x + h) f (x) g(x)
[f (x) + g(x)] = lim
h0
dx
h)
(
(
)
f (x + h) f (x)
g(x + h) g(x)
= lim
+ lim
h0
h0
h
h
= f (x) + g (x)
dy
= f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)
dx
proof:
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
d
[f (x)g(x)] = lim
h0
dx
h
[f (x + h) f (x)]g(x + h) + [g(x + h) g(x)]f (x)
= lim
h0
h)
(
)
(
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
+ lim f (x)
= lim g(x + h)
h0
h0
h
h
= g(x)f (x) + f (x)g (x)
dy
= f (g(x))g (x)
dx
proof:
f (g(x + h)) f (g(x))
d
f (g(x)) = lim
h0
dx
h
f (g(x + h)) f (g(x)) g(x + h) g(x)
= lim
h0
g(x + h) g(x)
h
(
)(
)
f (g(x + h)) f (g(x))
g(x + h) g(x)
= lim
lim
h0
h0
g(x + h) g(x)
h
f (g(x + h)) f (g(x))
= g (x) lim
substitute = g(x + h) g(x)
h0
g(x + h) g(x)
f (g(x) + ) f (g(x))
= g (x)f (g(x))
= g (x) lim
0
75
(iv) The quotient rule:
dy
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)
=
dx
[g(x)]2
y = f (x)/g(x) :
proof:
write f (x)g 1 (x), use product rule, chain rule, and
d 1
x
dx
i
d h 1 i
d h
f (x)g 1 (x) = f (x)g 1 (x) + f (x)
g (x)
dx
dx
h
= x2
Examples:
"
"
i
d h 2
d
d 2
x sin(x) = x2
sin(x) + sin(x)
x
dx
dx
dx
= x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x)
d
f (ax)
dx
d xn
e
dx
= af (x)
xn
=e
d n
n
x = nxn1 ex
dx
d
1
sinh(x)
ln(cosh(x)) = cosh (x).
=
= tanh(x)
dx
cosh(x)
cosh(x)
d x
x
dx
d ln(xx )
d x ln(x)
e
=
e
dx
dx
"
#
d
d
= ex ln(x) [x ln(x)] = ex ln(x) 1. ln(x) + x ln(x)
dx
dx
x
= xx [1 + ln(x)]
= ex ln(x) ln(x) +
x
=
d
d
f (g(h(x))) = f (g(h(x)))
g(h(x))
dx
dx
d
h(x)
= f (g(h(x))) g (h(x))
dx
= f (g(h(x))) g (h(x)) h (x)
76
5.3.3. Derivatives of implicit functions
Above methods apply only when we can write an
explicit formula for the function f (x) we wish to differentiate.
But: some functions are defined by a property, without a formula ...
A. functions defined as solutions of equations for points in the plane
function y(x): solution of an equation of the type F (x, y) = 0
(for a domain D where each x D is associated with only one y)
How to find y (x) ?
method:
(i) differentiate the equation, using chain rule
(ii) then try to solve the result for dy/dx
y
Example 1:
10
y + sin(y) x = 0
8
6
F (x, y) = y + sin(y) x,
so y(x) is solution of y + sin(y) x = 0
(i) differentiate F (x, y):
dy
dy
+ cos(y) 1 = 0
dx
dx
(ii) solve for dy/dx:
dy
(1 + cos(y)) = 1
dx
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
dy
1
=
dx
1 + cos(y)
-10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
y
Example 2:
1.2
y tanh(xy) = 0
1.0
F (x, y) = y tanh(xy),
so y(x) is solution of y tanh(xy) = 0
(i) differentiate F (x, y):
d
dy
tanh (xy) (xy) = 0
dx
dx
!
dy
dy
1
x +y =0
dx cosh2 (xy)
dx
(ii) solve for dy/dx:
!
y
dy
x
=0
1
2
dx
cosh (xy)
cosh2 (xy)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
dy
y
=
2
dx
cosh (xy) x
77
B. functions defined as inverse of another given function
function f 1 (x): solution of the equation f 1 (f (x)) = x for all x, with given f
Suppose we have no formula for f 1 (x), e.g. arcsin(x)
d 1
How to find dx
f (x) ?
method:
(i) differentiate the equivalent equation f (f 1(x)) = x, using chain rule
d 1
f (x)
(ii) then solve the result for dx
This can be done generally:
d
f (f 1 (x)) = 1
dx
so
d 1
1
f (x) = 1
dx
f (f (x))
d 1
f (x) f (f 1 (x)) = 1
dx
Example 1:
let f (x) = ex , so f 1 (x) = ln(x) (with x > 0)
d
1
1
1
ln(x) =
= ln(x) =
dx
f (ln(x))
e
x
Example 2:
let f (x) = sin(x), so f 1 (x) = arcsin(x) (with x [ 2 , 2 ])
d
1
1
1
arcsin(x) =
=
=q
dx
f (arcsin(x))
cos(arcsin(x))
1 sin2 (arcsin(x))
1
=
1 x2
Example 3:
let f (x) = tan(x), so f 1 (x) = arctan(x)
1
d
arctan(x) =
= cos2 (arctan(x))
dx
f (arctan(x))
1
cos2 (arctan(x))
=
=
2
2
2
tan (arctan(x)) + 1
sin (arctan(x)) + cos (arctan(x))
1
=
1 + x2
78
C. functions defined parametrically
Given two functions x(t) and y(t), varying t traces out a curve in the x-y plane
This curve defines a function y(x) implicitly
(for those t IR where each x is associated with only one y)
How to find y (x) ?
method:
dy/dt
dy
= dx/dt
(i) calculate x (t) = dx/dt and y (t) = dy/dt, then work out dx
(ii) if possible, use formulas for x(t) and y(t) to eliminate t from your result
Example 1:
for t IR:
y
1.0
x(t) = t + cos(t)
y(t) = ln(cosh(sin(t)))
0.5
0.0
x (t) = 1 sin(t)
so
-8
cos(t) tanh(sin(t))
dy
=
dx
1 sin(t)
(ii) cannot simplify further
Example 2:
for t IR:
-4
20
15
x(t) = et
10
y(t) = tan(t)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-10
10
e
dy
=
dx
cos2 (t)
(ii) simplify by removing t:
dy
et [sin2 (t) + cos2 (t)]
tan2 (t) + 1
1 + y2
=
=
=
dx
cos2 (t)
et
x
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
79
Finally ...
dy
Are we at all allowed to put dx
=
(even if these derivatives exist)
dy/dt
dx/dt
Proof 1:
(i) Assume that y can indeed be written as a function (as yet unknown) of x: y(t) = f (x(t))
We aim to calculate dy/dx = f (x)
(ii) Apply chain rule to y(t) = f (x(t)):
dy/dt
,
dx/dt
y (t)
= f (x(t))
x (t)
as claimed.
Proof 2:
Via the original definition:
x (t) = limh0 h1 [x(t + h) x(t)]
y (t) = limh0 h1 [y(t + h) y(t)]
y (t)
y(t + h) y(t)
= lim
h0
x (t)
x(t + h) x(t)
x (t)
5.3.4. Applications of derivative: sketching graphs
standard procedure for sketching the graph of a function f (x)
(a reminder should be secondary school knowledge)
(i) Determine values of x for which f is defined, and those for which it isnt
(ii) Find all stationary points of f (i.e. those x where f (x) = 0, with zero slope)
(iii) Determine the nature of the stationary points (local minimum, local maximum, or neither)
(iv) Find the points where f (x) = 0, and calculate f (x) at these points
(v) State whether f is even, f (x) = f (x) for all x, or odd, f (x) = f (x) for all x, or neither
80
6. Integration
6.1. Introduction
6.1.1. Area under a curve
We define the integral (including notation) in terms of areas:
definition
The integral ab f (x)dx is the total area in the (x, y) plane between the graph of y = f (x) and
the x-axis, counted positively for f (x) > 0 (area above the x-axis) and negatively for f (x) < 0
(area below the x-axis).
R
How to calculate
Rb
a
f (x)dx ?
1.2
1.0
f (x)
0.8
0.6
If x [x , x+1 ) : f (x) = f
0.0
0.4
0.2
x
x x+1
-0.2
Contribution to integral
from interval [x , x+1 ):
-0.4
-0.8
Total integral:
add up contributions of
all intervals between a and b
(let x1 = a, xL = b)
-0.6
-1.0
-1.2
0
f (x)dx =
L1
X
=1
f (x+1 x )
81
Notes:
(i) previous formula is exact only for staircases
(ii) but we can approximate most functions to arbitrary accuracy
using staircases with smaller and smaller steps ... (limits!!)
1.2
f (x)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
x x+1
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
0
Result in a nutshell:
If f (x) is a continuous function on [a, b], then the integral
Rb
Rb
a
f (x)dx exists
If the integral a f (x)dx exists, it will be equal to the limit of any staircase approximation,
where each step touches the curve of f (x), as the width of the widest step goes to zero
Consequence:
to calculate the integral of a continuous function
we can choose the most convenient staircase approximation
and then find its limit
82
Direct route (nor relying on analysis results): sandwich method using staircases
Step (i):
build staircase functions f (x) such that
f (x) f (x) f+ (x) for all x [a, b]
e.g.
f+ (x) = f+ = maxx[x ,x+1 ) f (x)
x [x , x+1 ) :
(let x1 = a, xL = b)
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
staircase: f (x)
0.8
1.2
1.0
f (x)
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.2
-1.2
0
staircase: f+ (x)
0.8
-1.2
i.e.
f (x)dx
L1
X
=1
f (x)dx
Z
f (x+1 x )
f+ (x)dx
f (x)dx
L1
X
=1
f+ (x+1 x )
Step (ii):
take the limit where x x+1 0 for all ,
PL1
PL1 +
in the two bounding areas A = =1
f (x+1 x ) and A+ = =1
f (x+1 x )
lim
step widths 0
f (x)dx
lim
step widths 0
A+
Step (iii):
Conclusion:
if limstep widths
0 A
= limstep
widths 0
A+ = A, then:
Rb
a
f (x)dx = A
83
6.1.2. Examples of integrals calculated via staircases
Example 1:
A=
cos(x)dx,
with b
(so on [0, b]: cos(x) decreases monotonically, i.e. if x > x then cos(x ) < cos(x))
Method: sandwich with staircases
use tutorial exercise 39 (let m ZZ):
n
X
6= 2m :
cos(k) =
k=0
1cos(n+)cos()+cos(n)
2 2 cos()
Step (i):
Build staircase functions f (x) such that
f (x) cos(x) f+ (x) for all x [0, b]
e.g.
f+ (x) = f+ = maxx[x ,x+1) cos(x) = cos(x )
x [x , x+1 ) :
b
:
L1
x1 = 0, x2 = h, x3 = 2h, . . . xL = (L1)h = b
Upper bound to A:
A+
L1
X
f+ (x+1 x ) = h
=1
L2
X
Lower bound to A:
A =
cos(x ) = h
=1
L1
X
=1
cos(( 1)h)
1cos((L1)h)cos(h)+cos((L2)h)
2 2 cos(h)
k=0
1cos(b)cos(h)+cos(b h)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
1cos(b)cos(h)+cos(b) cos(h)+sin(b) sin(h)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
[1cos(b)][1cos(h)]+sin(b) sin(h)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
h
1
h sin(h)
=
1cos(b) + sin(b)
2
2
1cos(h)
=h
eliminate L :
L1
X
L1
X
=1
cos(kh) = h
f (x+1 x ) = h
L1
X
=1
cos(x+1 ) = h
L1
X
=1
cos(h)
84
=h
L
X
k=2
cos((k 1)h) = h
"L1
X
k=1
= A+ + h cos((L1)h) h = A+ + h[cos(b) 1]
h
1
h sin(h)
= h[cos(b) 1] + 1cos(b) + sin(b)
2
2
1cos(h)
We now know that A
Rb
0
cos(x)dx A+ .
Step (ii):
take the limit h 0 in the bounds A+ and A
1
h sin(h)
h
1cos(b) + sin(b)
lim A+ = lim
h0
h0 2
2
1cos(h)
)
(
1
h sin(h)
1
h sin(h)
= lim sin(b)
= sin(b) lim
h0 2
h0 2 1cos2 (h/2)+sin2 (h/2)
1cos(h)
(
)
(
)
h sin(h)
sin(h) (h/2)2
= sin(b) lim
= sin(b) lim
h0 4 sin2 (h/2)
h0
h sin2 (h/2)
!2
h/2
sin(h)
lim
= sin(b)
= = sin(b) lim
h0 sin(h/2)
h0
h
lim A = lim {A+ + h[cos(b) 1]} = lim A+ = sin(b)
h0
h0
h0
We conclude
lim A A lim A+
h0
Example 2:
A=
h0
cos(x)dx,
h0
85
Example 3:
A=
with b /2
sin(x)dx,
(so on [0, b]: sin(x) increases monotonically, i.e. if x > x then sin(x ) > sin(x))
Method: sandwich with staircases
we use tutorial exercise 39 (let ZZ):
n
X
6= 2 :
sin(k) =
k=0
sin(n+)+sin()+sin(n)
2 2 cos()
Step (i):
Build staircase functions f (x) such that
f (x) sin(x) f+ (x) for all x [0, b]
e.g.
f+ (x) = f+ = maxx[x ,x+1) sin(x) = sin(x+1 )
x [x , x+1 ) :
b
:
L1
x1 = 0, x2 = h, x3 = 2h, . . . xL = (L1)h = b
Upper bound to A:
A+
L1
X
=1
f+ (x+1 x ) = h
= =h
eliminate L :
Lower bound to A:
A =
L1
X
L1
X
sin(x+1 ) = h
L1
X
sin(h)
=1
=1
sin(Lh)+sin(h)+sin((L1)h)
sin(kh) = h
2 2 cos(h)
k=0
sin(b + h)+sin(h)+sin(b)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
sin(b) cos(h)cos(b) sin(h)+sin(h)+sin(b)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
[1cos(b)] sin(h) + [1cos(h)] sin(b)
=h
2 2 cos(h)
1
h sin(h)
h
= sin(b) + [1cos(b)]
2
2
1 cos(h)
L1
X
f (x+1 x ) = h
=1
L2
X
=h
k=0
sin(kh) = h
L1
X
k=1
L1
X
=1
sin(x ) = h
L1
X
sin((1)h)
=1
86
We now know that A
Rb
0
sin(x)dx A+ .
Step (ii):
take the limit h 0 in the bounds A+ and A
(
)
h
1
h sin(h)
lim A+ = lim
sin(b) + [1cos(b)]
h0
h0 2
2
1 cos(h)
(
)
1
h sin(h)
h sin(h)
1
= lim [1cos(b)]
= [1cos(b)] lim
h0 2
h0 2 1cos2 (h/2)+sin2 (h/2)
1 cos(h)
)
(
)
(
sin(h) (h/2)2
h sin(h)
= [1cos(b)] lim
= [1cos(b)] lim
h0
h0 4 sin2 (h/2)
h sin2 (h/2)
!
!2
sin(h)
h/2
= = [1cos(b)] lim
lim
h0
h0 sin(h/2)
h
lim A = lim {A+ h sin(b)} = lim A+ = 1cos(b)
h0
h0
= 1cos(b)
h0
We conclude
lim A A lim A+ 1cos(b) A 1cos(b) A = 1cos(b)
h0
Example 4:
A=
h0
sin(x)dx,
with arbitrary b
(sin(x) need no longer increase monotonically, so sandwich method becomes more messy)
Method: use most convenient approximating staircase
(i) sin(x) is a continuous function on any interval
(ii) both f (x) and f+ (x) in example 3 are suitable approximating staircases to sin(x)
(each step in each staircase touches the curve, and all step sizes go to zero)
Hence:
A = lim A = lim A+ = 1 cos(b)
h0
Example 5:
A=
xn dx,
h0
87
Step (i):
Build staircase functions f (x) such that
f (x) xn f+ (x) for all x [a, b]
e.g.
x [x , x+1 ) :
Note:
(i) h > 1 (since we require x+1 > x always)
(ii) ln(b/a) = (L1) ln(a), so L 1 = [ln(b) ln(a)]/ ln(a) = ln(b)/ ln(a) 1
(iii) here x+1 x = ah ah1 = ah1 (h 1)
(iv) largest step size: xL xL1 = ahL2 (h 1) = ahL1 (1 h1 ) = b(1 h1 )
(v) limit of zero step sizes: h 1
Upper bound to A:
A+ =
L1
X
f+ (x+1
=1
= an+1 (h 1)
x ) =
L1
X
L1
X
xn+1 ah1 (h
=1
hn+1 = an+1 (1 h1 )
=1
L1
X
1
= an+1 (1 h )
n+1 n
h (h 1)
=a
eliminate L :
n+1 n
h (h 1)
=a
Lower bound to A:
A =
L1
X
=1
n
=h
=1
L2
X
n+1 n
n+1 k
n+1 n
[h
] =a
] =a
k=0
L1
X
=1
[ah ]n h1
=1
h(n+1)
=1
L2
X
[hn+1 ]+1
=0
1 h(n+1)(L1)
h (h 1)
1 hn+1
n+1 k
[h
k=0
L2
X
A+
Rb
L1
X
[hn+1 ] = an+1 (1 h1 )
f (x+1 x ) =
1) = a(h 1)
L1
X
1 (b/a)n+1
h (h 1)
1 hn+1
xn ah1 (h 1) = a(h 1)
L1
X
[ah1 ]n h1
=1
xn dx A+ .
Step (ii):
take the limit h 1 in the bounds A+ and A
(
!)
1 (b/a)n+1
hn (h 1)
n+1 n
n+1
n+1
lim
lim A+ = lim a h (h 1)
=
a
b
h1 1 hn+1
h1
h1
1 hn+1
88
!
h1
lim n+1
lim h
= b
a
substitute h = ey with y 0
h1 h
h1
1
ey 1
= bn+1 an+1 lim (n+1)y
y0 e
1
!
y
y
e 1 (n+1)y
n+1
n+1
lim
= b
a
y0
y e(n+1)y 1 (n+1)y
!
!
1 n+1
ey 1
(n+1)y
1 n+1
n+1
=
lim
b
a
lim (n+1)y
=
b
an+1
y0
y0 e
n+1
y
1
n+1
n+1
n+1
h1
We conclude
h1
lim A A lim A+
h1
hence A =
1
n+1
h1
1 n+1
b
an+1
n+1
1 n+1 n+1
1 n+1 n+1
A
b a
b a
n+1
n+1
bn+1 an+1 .
f (t)dt
89
Consequence: a new way to calculate integrals!
Need to find a function F (x) such that F (x) = f (x)
But where do these theorems come from?
Sketch of proofs:
Theorem II:
If a function f : [a, b] IR is continuous on the interval [a, b],
and F : [a, b] IR is another function defined by
F (x) =
f (t)dt
x+h
F (x + h) F (x)
1
dF (x)
f (t)dt
= lim
= lim
h0
h0 h
dx
h
a
Z
1 x+h
= lim
f (t)dt
h0 h x
Easy to bound:
on t [x, x + h] one has f (x) Ch f (t) f (x) + Ch, so
x+h
[f (x) Ch]dt
x+h
x+h
f (t)dt
x+h
1 Z x+h
lim[f (x) Ch] lim
f (t)dt lim[f (x) + Ch]
h0
h0 h x
h0
1
F (x) = lim
h0 h
x+h
f (t)dt = f (x)
f (t)dt
[f (x) + Ch]dt
Hence
90
Theorem I:
If a function f : [a, b] IR is continuous on the interval [a, b],
and F : [a, b] IR is another function such that
F (x) = f (x) for all x [a, b], then
Z
proof:
in three steps:
(i) preparation:
R
Since f is continuous on [a, b] the integral ax f (t)dt exists for x [a, b].
R
We define G(x) = ax f (t)dt
Properties of G:
from Theorem II : G (x) = f (x) for all x [a, b]
from definition :
G(a) = 0
(ii) We next show that now G(x) = F (x) F (a) for all x [a, b]
How to show this? Call the difference between F and G: H(x) = F (x) G(x)
d
H(x) = f (x) f (x) = 0 for all x [a, b]
It follows that dx
Hence the function H(x) has zero slope on [a, b],
i.e. its graph is horizontal, so H(x) = H(a) for all x [a, b]
Consequence: F (x) G(x) = F (a) G(a) for all x [a, b],
Consequence (since G(a) = 0): G(x) = F (x) F (a) for all x [a, b]
(iii) Combine previous two intermediate results:
Rb
a
91
definition: any function F such that F (x) = f (x)
Not uniquely defined: the solutions F differ by a constant, since
d
C
dx
=0
f (x)dx
92
6.2.1. List of elementary integrals and general methods for reduction
Ten elementary integrals
f (x)
F (x)
1
xa+1
a+1
ln |x|
xa (a 6= 1)
x1
x ln(x) x
ln(x)
ex
ex
cos(x)
sin(x)
sin(x)
1
1 x2
1
1 + x2
1
2
x 1
1
x2 + 1
cos(x)
arcsin(x)
arctan(x)
arccosh(x)
arcsinh(x)
(i) Linearity :
Z
cf (x) dx = cF (x)
Z
Z
f (x)G(x) dx = F (x)G(x)
f (x)dx =
Z
f (x(t))
proofs:
d
dx
d
dx
d
F (x)G(x) = F (x)G(x)
dx
d
F (x(t)) = x (t)F (x(t))
dt
cF (x) = cF (x)
+ G (x)F (x)
dx
dt
dt
Z
g(x)F (x) dx
93
Note:
(iii) and (iv) are usually given as identities for definite integrals,
Integration by parts :
Integration by substitution :
f (x)dx =
f (x)G(x) dx = F (x)G(x)
t(b)
t(a)
f (x(t))
ib
b
dx
dt
dt
= f (b) t (b)
f (x(t))x (t) dt
dt(b) t(a)
Since
t=t(b)
dt dx
= f (b) f (b) t (b) x (t(b)) = f (b) f (b)
dx dt
g(x)F (x) dx
=0
x=b
94
6.2.2. Examples: integration by substitution
R
ex x dx:
(1 x2 )1/2 dx:
(1 + x2 )1/2 dx:
(1 + x2 )1 dx:
(1 x2 )1 dx:
=
= d = = arcsin(x)
=
cos()
1x2
1sin2 ()
try to use the relation cosh2 () sinh2 () = 1
substitute x = sinh(), so dx/d = cosh() i.e. dx = cosh()d
Z
Z
Z
cosh()d
dx
cosh()d Z
q
=
= d = = arcsinh(x)
=
cosh()
1+x2
1+sinh2 ()
try to use the relation cos2 () + sin2 () = 1
substitute x = tan() with [/2, /2], so dx/d = cos2 () i.e. dx = cos2 ()d
Z
Z
Z
Z
cos2 ()d
d
dx
=
=
= d = = arctan(x)
1+x2
1+tan2 ()
cos2 ()+sin2 ()
dx
=
1x2
cosh2 ()d
=
1tanh2 ()
d
=
2
cosh ()sinh2 ()
d = = arctanh(x)
95
R3
2
2 (x
+ 2x)1/2 dx:
=
2
2
2
x + 2x
(x + 1)2 1
=
=
sinh()
arccosh(3)
2
arccosh(3)
x2 + 2x
cosh2 () 1
=
R 1/2
3/2
arccosh(4)
arccosh(3)
h iarccosh(4)
d =
arccosh(3)
= arccosh(4) arccosh(3)
=
2
3/2
3/2
x 2x
1(x+1)2
=
=
3/2
arcsin(1/2) cos()
arcsin(1/2)
x2 2x
1sin2 ()
=
arcsin(1/2)
arcsin(1/2)
h iarcsin(1/2)
d =
= + =
6
6
3
arcsin(1/2)
1
1
= arcsin( ) arcsin( )
2
2
dx
1
=
2
6 + 4x 2x
2 2
dx
1 ( 21 x 12 )2
1
=
2
1 sin2 ()
1
1
1
= arcsin( x )
2
2
2
dx
1
=
6 + 4x 2x2
2 2
2 cos()d
cos()d
=
cos()
2
96
tan(x)dx:
write tan(x) = sin(x)/ cos(x) and substitute cos(x) = t, so dt/dx = sin(x) i.e.
dt = sin(x)dx
Z
tan(x)dx =
sin(x)dx
=
cos(x)
dt
= ln |t| = ln | cos(x)|
t
sin1 (x)dx:
first convert into a form similar to earlier examples, using sin(x) = 2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2).
Then substitute cos(x/2) = t, so dt/dx = 21 sin(x/2) i.e. dt = 21 sin(x/2)dx:
Z
dx
=
sin(x)
dx
dt
=
2
2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2)
sin (x/2)t
Z
Z
dt
dt
=
=
2
t(1cos (x/2))
t(1t2 )
Z
dt
1
1
1
t3 du
du
dx
=
=
=
=
2
1
1
sin(x)
t(1t )
2 t(1u )
2 u(1u )
2
1
1
1
1
1
= ln |u1| = ln 2 1 2 = ln 2
1 2
2
t
cos (x/2)
1 cos2 (x/2) 1
2
= ln | tan(x/2)|
= ln
2
cos (x/2)
Z
du
u1
arcsin(x)dx:
first substitute x = sin(), so dx/d = cos() i.e. dx = cos()d, then integrate by parts
Z
arcsin(x)dx =
arcsin(sin()) cos()d =
cos()d
d
= sin() sin()
d = sin() sin()d
d
97
x2 cos(2x)dx:
xex dx:
xe dx = e x
= (x + 1)ex
Z
d
x = ex x + ex dx
dx
Sometimes it is helpful to create a form of two factors where initially there was just one,
d
by inserting 1 = ( dx
x), e.g.
ln(x)dx:
Z
ln(x)dx =
ln(x)
= x ln(x)
Z
d
d
x dx = x ln(x) x
ln(x) dx
dx
Z
Z dx
xx1 dx = x ln(x)
dx = x ln(x) x
arctan(x)dx:
d
x), then integrate by parts, then substitute x2 = y, so dy/dx = 2x
first insert 1 = ( dx
d
d
x dx = x arctan(x) x
arctan(x) dx
dx
dx
Z
xdx
1 Z dy
= x arctan(x)
= x arctan(x)
1 + x2
2 1+y
1
1
= x arctan(x) ln |1 + y| = x arctan(x) ln(1 + x2 )
2
2
arctan(x)dx =
arctan(x)
98
6.2.4. Further tricks: recursion formulae
Certain families of integrals can be calculated by a series of integrations by parts, leading in a
natural way to so-called recursion formulae. This is best explained directly via examples, one
with a family of definite integrals and one with a family of indefinite ones:
Example 1:
In =
xn ex dx
n ZZ+
d n
x dx = n
ex xn1 dx = nIn1
0
dx
0
0
Recursion formula: the expression for In in terms of In1 .
Further iteration of the recursion formula: In = n(n1)In1 = . . . = n!I0
Thus we need only calculate I0 to know all In :
In = xn ex
I0 =
ex dx = ex
Example 2:
In,m (x) =
i
0
ex
= 0 (1) = 1
hence : In = n!
n, m ZZ
d
sinn1 (x)
cosm+1 (x) dx
In,m (x) =
m+1
dx
!
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
1 Z
d
=
+
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)dx
m+1
m+1
dx
Z
n1
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
+
sinn2 (x) cosm+2 (x)dx
=
m+1
m+1
n1
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
+
In2,m+2 (x)
=
m+1
m+1
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
n1
=
+
{In2,m (x) In,m (x)}
m+1
m+1
Solving for In,m (x) then gives
!
In,m (x) 1 +
99
In,m (x)
m+n
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
n1
=
+
In2,m (x)
m+1
m+1
m+1
Final result:
sinn1 (x) cosm+1 (x)
n1
In,m (x) =
+
In2,m (x)
m+n
m+n
We need only calculate I1,m (x) and I0,m (x) to know all In,m (x).
The integrals I0,m (x) will be done as a tutorial exercise, the integrals I1,m (x) are:
I1,m (x) =
y mdy =
1 m+1
1
y
=
cosm+1 (x)
m+1
m+1
sinn (x)dx
n ZZ
z! =
xz ex dx
R
0
xz1 ex dx,
Note 2:
As an alternative in the case of integrals with trigonometric functions
one could write the latter in complex form, e.g.
Z
Z
eix eix
n
X
m=0
n
n
(1)nm
m
if n even :
1
(2i)n
if n odd :
1
(2i)n
Pn
dx
Z
eix(2mn) dx
m=0, m6=n/2
Pn
m=0
n
n (1)m ix(2mn)
n/2
e
+
(1)
x
n/2
m i(2mn)
n (1)m+1 ix(2mn)
e
m i(2mn)
100
For instance:
Z
2
2 (1)m
2
1 X
ix(2m2)
sin2 (x)dx =
e
x
1
(2i)2 m=0, m6=1 m i(2m n)
1 2 1 2ix 2 1 2ix 2
=
e
+
e
x
4
0 2i
2 2i
1
1 2ix
1 2ix
1
1
1
e
+ e 2x = sin(2x) + x
=
4 2i
2i
4
2
f (x, a)dx
xn eax dx
Z
d n
d n Z
d n ax
eax dx =
a1 eax
e dx =
da
da
da
101
We get all the integrals we need by differentiating a simple expression.
For instance:
Z
d 1 ax
x
1
xeax dx =
= ( 2 ) eax
a e
da
a a
d
d 2 1 ax
=
x e dx =
a e
da
da
Differentiation confirms that these primitives are
Z
x
x2 2x
1
2
( 2 )eax = ( 2 + 3 ) eax
a a
a
a
a
correct.
2 ax
Example 2:
Here we exploit the relations
d 2 1
d 1
1
1.2
=
,
= 2
,
2
2
2
2
da x a
(x a)
da x a
(x a)3
More generally:
1.2.3
d 3 1
= 2
, etc
2
da x a
(x a)4
(n1)!
d n1 1
= 2
2
da
x a
(x a)n
Hence, for a 6= 0:
I(x, a) =
=
dx
(x2 a)n
Z (
1 d n1 1
1 d n1
dx
=
(n1)! da
x2 a
(n1)! da
dx
x2 a
1Z
dx
dx
a
=
put
x
=
y
a>0:
x2 a
a (x/ a)2 1
1
arctanh(x/ a)
1 Z dy
= arctanh(y) =
=
a 1 y2
a
a
!
n
o
1
1
1 + x/ a
= ln
= ln( + x) ln( x)
2 a
1 x/
2 a
a<0:
1
dx
=
x2 a
|a|
dx
=
(x2 + 1)2
put x = y |a|
(x/ |a|)2 + 1
arctan(x/ |a|)
1
dy
q
= q arctan(y) =
2
1+y
|a|
|a|
d
da
dx
x2 a
=q
|a|
For instance:
dx
q
=
a=1
)
d arctan(x/ a)
da
a
a=1
102
put z = (a)1/2 and use the chain rule:
Z
dx
=
2
(x + 1)2
dz d
z arctan(zx)
.
da dz
a=1
1
zx
=
(a)3/2 arctan(zx) +
2
1+z 2 x2 a=1
1
x
= arctan(x) +
2
2(1+x2)
p(x)
dx
q(x)
Z
Z
r(x)
p(x)
dx = s(x)dx +
q(x)
q(x)
n
Y
(x + i )
i=1
ai
m
Y
(x2 + j x + j )bj
with
j=1
ai , bi ZZ+
Qn
(remember: i=1 ki = k1 k2 . . . kn1 kn ) and the order of r(x) is less than that of q(x), then
there always exists constants Aik , Bj , Cj IR such that
b
ai
j
n X
m X
X
Aik
Bj x + Cj
r(x) X
=
+
k
2
p(x)
dx =
q(x)
s(x)dx +
ai
n X
X
i=1 k=1
Aik
bj Z
m X
X
(Bj x + Cj )dx
dx
+
(x + i )k
(x2 + j x + j )
j=1 =1
103
Note 1:
The simplest case of the above is the following
If q(x) is of the following form, with i IR (all different),
q(x) =
n
Y
(x + i )
i=1
with i IR
and the order of r(x) is less than that of q(x), then there are constants Ai IR such that
n
r(x) X
Ai
=
q(x) i=1 x + i
Qn
now put x = j :
Qn
i=1,
n
X
x + j
r(x)
= Aj +
Ai
x + i
i6=j (x + i )
i=1, i6=j
r(j )
i=1, i6=j (i j )
Aj = Qn
Note 2:
Let is inspect the not easy but do-able integrals above in more detail
First: write numerator as derivative of quadratic form in denominator
Z
Z
Bx + C
BZ
2x
dx
dx =
dx + C
2
2
(x + x + )
2
(x + x + )
(x + x + )
Z
1 Z
2x +
dx
B
dx + C B
=
2
2
2
(x + x + )
2
(x + x + )
104
B
=
2
1
1
d
dx
(x2 + x + )1 + C B
2
dx 1
2
(x + x + )
Z
B
1
dx
=
(x2 + x + )1 + C B
2
2(1)
2
(x + x + )
Second: complete squares in the remaining integral and make an appropriate substitution
1
1
1
1
x2 + x + = (x + )2 + ( 2 ) put y = x + , 2 = | 2 |
2
4
2
4
Z
dy
dx
=
2
2
(x + x + )
(y 2 )
The latter integrals are of the form done earlier
(when explaining differentiation with respect to a parameter).
Z
We recognize that
(x2
dx
1)(x + 3)
(iii) in fact the simplest case: r(x) = 1 and q(x) = (x + 1)(x 1)(x + 3)
We know that we can always find constants A1 , A2 , A3 such that
A1
A2
A3
1
=
+
+
for all x IR
2
(x 1)(x + 3)
x1 x+1 x+3
Find these constants:
x1
A2 (x 1) A3 (x 1)
A1 = 2
(x 1)(x + 3)
x+1
x+3
A2 (x 1) A3 (x 1)
1
put x = 1
=
(x + 1)(x + 3)
x+1
x+3
1
1
=
=
(1 + 1)(1 + 3)
8
A1 (x + 1) A3 (x + 1)
x+1
(x2 1)(x + 3)
x1
x+3
1
A1 (x + 1) A3 (x + 1)
=
(x 1)(x + 3)
x1
x+3
1
=
4
A2 =
put x = 1
105
x+3
A1 (x + 3) A2 (x + 3)
1)(x + 3)
x1
x+1
A1 (x + 3) A2 (x + 3)
1
put x = 3
= 2
x 1
x1
x+1
1
=
8
A3 =
(x2
Hence
Z (
Example 2:
1
1
1
dx
+
I=
8(x 1) 4(x + 1) 8(x + 3)
1
1
1
1 x2 +2x3
= ln |x 1| ln |x + 1| + ln |x + 3| = ln 2
8
4
8
8 x +2x+1
I=
We recognize that
xdx
(x2 + 1)(x + 2)
(ii) order of numerator is less than that of denominator (no s(x) needed)
(iii) this one is not of the simplest form q(x) = (x + 1 )(x + 2 )(x + 3 )
= 2
2
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x +1
x +1
x2 + 1
2
put x = 2 : A =
5
so we must find constants B, C such that
x
Bx + C
2
= 2
for all x IR
2
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x +1
5(x + 2)
Insert two convenient values for x and solve the two resulting eqns for B and C:
3
1
x=1: B+C =
x = 1 : B C =
5
5
The solution is: B = 2/5 and C = 1/5. Hence
Z
2
2x + 1
1
dx
I=
5
x2 + 1 x + 2
Z
Z
Z
1
2xdx
1
dx
2
dx
=
+
2
2
5 x +1 5 x +1 5 x+2
1
1
2
= ln |x2 + 1| + arctan(x) ln |x + 2|
5
5
5
106
6.3. Some simple applications
6.3.1. Calculation of surface areas
The area A of the surface between the x-axis and a curve f (x),
R
taken from x = a to x = b (with the accepted sign conventions) is: A = ab f (x)dx
Area inside a circle:
Equation for circle with radius R,
centred in the origin: x2 + y 2 = R2
= R
=R
=R
R2 R2 cos2 () sin()d
R2 R2 cos2 () sin()d
2
sin ()d = R
1
1
= R2 sin(2) =
2
4
0
Since this is exactly half of the
1 1
cos(2) d
2 2
1 2
R
2
surface area inside the circle:
Acircle = R2
Area inside an ellipse:
y
(x a)2 + y 2 +
(x + a)2 + y 2 = 2R
(xa)2 +y 2 = 2R (x+a)2 +y 2
q
107
q
(x+a)2 +y 2 = R+xa/R
(x+a)2 +y 2 = (R+xa/R)2
Giving: y 2 = R2 a2 x2q
(1 a2 /R2 )
Upper half of ellipse: y = R2 a2 x2 (1a2 /R2 ), with x [R, R]
Hence, area A between upper half of ellipse and x-axis:
A=
=
R2 a2 x2 (1a2 /R2 ) dx
R2 a2
x2
dx
R2
Z 0q
= R R2 a2
1cos2 () sin()d
1
= R R2 a2
sin2 ()d = R R2 a2
2
0
( integral already calculated for the circle)
Since this is exactly half of the surface area inside the ellipse:
Aellipse = R R2 a2
f (x)
108
A(xi )
A
Total volume:
sum all contributions from the L slices:
V
L
X
A
A
hf 2 (xi )
i=1
L
X
A
A
hf 2 (xi ) =
i=1
f 2 (x)dx
Example:
Our solid becomes a sphere
if what we revolve around the x-axis is a circle:
x2 + y 2 = R2 y = R2 x2
Hence
Vsphere =
f (x)dx =
1
= R x x3
3
R
f (x) =
R2 x2
x [R, R]
(R2 x2 )dx
4
1
= 2(R3 R3 ) = R3
3
3
Example:
Our solid becomes a cigar
if what we revolve around the x-axis is an ellipse:
y 2 = R2 a2 x2 (1a2 /R2 )
Hence
Vcigar =
f (x)dx =
R2 a2 x2 (1a2 /R2 )
x [R, R]
1
= (R a )x (1a2 /R2 )x3
3
4
= R(R2 a2 )
3
f (x) =
R
1
= 2 (R2 a2 )R (R2 a2 )R
3
109
6.3.3. Calculation of the length of curves
Consider an arbitrary curve in the plane,
described by a function y = f (x)
f (x)
(xi+1 , yi+1 )
i
(xi , yi ) (xi+1 , yi )
(xi+1 xi )2 + (yi+1 yi )2
i h 1 +
Combine:
L = lim
h0
b
a
K
X
y
h0
i=1
1+
df 2
dx
f (x + h) f (x ) 2
i+1 yi 2
i
i
=h 1+
h
h
i = lim h
K
X
i=1
1+
f (x
+ h) f (xi ) 2
h
dx
Example:
Circumference of a circle with radius R?
=2
R
R
= 2R
= 2R
d
1 2
(R2 x2 ) 2 dx = 2
1+
dx
1+
2
x
dx
R2 x2
R
x2
R2
dx
=
2
dx put x = Ry
R2 x2
R2 x2
R
h
i1
dy
=
2R
arcsin(y)
=
2R
(
)
1
2
2
1 y2
1+
110
(x(t), y(t))
(xi , yi ) (xi+1 , yi )
(xi+1 xi )2 + (yi+1 yi )2
s
x(t
=h
Combine:
K
X
L = lim
h0
xi 2 yi+1 yi 2
+
h
h
i+1
i h
i = lim h
h0
i=1
K
X
i=1
bq
s
x(t
(dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 dt
Example:
Circumference of a circle with radius R?
parametrize x() = R cos(), y() = R sin(),
with [0, 2]:
Lcircle =
= 2R
(dx/d)2
(dy/d)2
d =
R2 sin2 () + R2 cos2 () d
111
y
Example:
(x(t), y(t))
Length of a spiral with radial velocity v
and angular velocity ?
parametrize
x(t) = vt cos(t), y(t) = vt sin(t),
with t [0, ]:
t=
t=0
dx
= v cos(t) vt sin(t)
dt
dy
= v sin(t) + vt cos(t)
dt
Hence:
Lspiral =
=v
(dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 dt
Z0
rn
cos(t) t sin(t)
o2
+ sin(t) + t cos(t) dt
1 + 2 t2 dt
put t = u so dt = du/
Z
v
1 + u2 du
put u = sinh(z) so du = cosh(z)dz
=
0
Z
Z
v arcsinh( ) 2z
v arcsinh( )
2
e + 2 + e2z dz
cosh (z)dz =
=
0
4 0
v Z arcsinh( )
1 2z 1 2z
=
2z + e e
4 0
2
2
0
o
v n
=
2 arcsinh( ) + sinh(2arcsinh( ))
4 n
o
v
=
arcsinh( ) + cosh(arcsinh( ))
2
v
v q
2
2
ln + +1 +
=
1 + sinh2 (arcsinh( ))
2
2
v
v
2
2
1 + 2 2
=
ln + +1 +
2
2
=v
112
7. Taylors theorem and series
7.1. Introduction to series and questions of convergence
7.1.1. Series notation and elementary properties
definition:
A series is an expression of the form
(usually n0 = 0, 1)
n=n0
an
definition:
A partial sum of the series is an expression of the form SN =
definition
PN
n=n0
an
A series
n=n0 an is called convergent if the limit S = limN SN exists. Only then will the
series yield a well-defined finite number. If the series does not converge it is called divergent.
P
Notes:
If a series
n=n0 an converges, then limn an = 0
Proof: limn an = limn (Sn Sn1 ) = S S = 0
P
n=1
2n :
SN =
1:
SN =
N
X
n=1
N
X
2n = 12N
1=N
n=1
n=1
lim SN = 1,
series convergent
series divergent
However, having limn an = 0 is not enough to guarantee that a series converges, the an will
also have to go to zero sufficiently fast as n gets larger. See e.g. the two examples below:
Examples:
The series
n=1
n1 is divergent
Proof:
P
1
Consider the partial sums SN = N
n=1 n , they obey
1
1
1
1
1
1
S2N SN =
+
+ ...+
+
N
=
N +1 N +2
2N 1 2N
2N
2
If we assume that the series converges, then limN SN = S exist. However, taking
the limit limN in the previous inequality would then lead us to the contradiction
0 = S S 12 . We conclude that the series must be divergent.
113
The series
n=1
Proof:
1
Since n(n+1)
=
1
n
1/n(n+1) is convergent
1
,
n+1
N
X
1
1
1
=
SN =
n+1
n=1 n
n=1 n(n+1)
1
1 1
1 1
1
=
+
+ ...+
1 2
2 3
N N +1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
=1+ +
+ +
+ ...+ +
= 1
2 2
3 3
N N
N +1
N +1
P
It follows that limN SN = 1, so the series converges: n=1 1/n(n+1) = 1.
N
X
bn is convergent and
(C2)
(C3)
(C4)
(C5)
an is convergent
an is convergent
an is divergent
an is convergent
an is divergent
Examples:
The series
1/n2 is convergent
Proof:
P
Let an = 1/n2 , and compare to the convergent series n bn with bn = 1/n(n+1):
1
n2 +n
1/n2
=1
= lim
=
lim
1+
lim |an |/bn = lim
n n2
n
n
n 1/n(n+1)
n
P
It now follows from (C1) above that n 1/n2 is also convergent.
114
The series
n (1)
n+1
/n is convergent
Proof:
Separate in the partial sum SN the terms with even n from those with odd n. Write
n = 2m for even n, and n = 2m 1 for odd n.
N even : SN =
N
X
N/2
N
X
(N +1)/2
n=1,
N odd : SN =
n=1,
N/2
N/2
N
X
X
X 1
X
1
1
1
1
=
n=1, even n
m=1 2m1
m=1 2m
m=1 2m(2m1)
odd n
N
X
1
1
=
n=1, even n
odd n
m=1
(N 1)/2
m=1
n+1
2m1
(N 1)/2
m=1
1
2m
1
1
+
2m(2m1) N
We see that our present series n (1) /n is convergent if and only if the series n an
P
1
is convergent. We may now use the convergence of n bn with bn = 1/n2
with an = 2n(2n1)
together with statement (C1) to finish the proof:
P
1
1/2n(2n1)
1
1
=
=
lim
2
n
n
1/n
4 11/2n
4
We conclude:
n (1)
n+1
/n converges.
n
n=n0 bn x
115
Let R1 = lim |bn |
n
1/n
n
n bn x
n
n bn x
converges
diverges
n
n bn x
n
n bn x
converges
diverges
|x| < R1 :
|x| > R2 :
|x| < R2 :
|x| > R2 :
It can be calculated either from R = limn |bn |1/n or from R = limn |bn /bn+1 |
if these latter limits exist
Notes:
(i) Exactly at the radius of convergence, i.e. for |x| = R,
there is no general rule (just inspect the series at hand in detail)
(ii) If R = 0 there is apparently no x 6= 0 for which the series converges
n
n=0 x /n!
Here bn = 1/n!, so
(n+1)!
|bn |
= lim
= lim (n+1) =
n
n
|bn+1 |
n!
Thus the series for ex converges for all x IR (as claimed earlier).
R = lim
f (x) =
n=0
xn
n
N +1
Compare this to our earlier result N
)/(1 x) for x 6= 1.
n=0 x = (1 x
We now see that this gives the series expansion for the function f (x) = 1/(1 x):
X
1
xn
|x| < 1
=
1 x n=0
116
n
Building (1 x)1 =
n=0 x as a power series,
by taking more and more terms in the summation:
65 4 3
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-2
-1
dashed :
1
1x
solid :
SN (x) =
N
X
xn
n=0
m=0 (1)
m 2m+1
/(2m+1)!
1/n
= lim
0
(n!)1/n
if n even
if n odd
117
It can be shown that (n!)1/n as n , hence our series converges for all x IR.
P
P
A quicker way to prove that R = is based on the inequality |
n=0 an |
n=0 |an |:
|
m 2m+1
(1) x
m=0
/(2m+1)!|
m=0
|x|
2m+1
/(2m+1)!
n=0
|x|n /n!
The last series (the exponential function of |x|) converges for all x IR,
P
m 2m+1
hence also
/(2m+1)! converges for all x IR (as claimed earlier).
m=0 (1) x
7.2. Taylors theorem
We have achieved some understanding of when power series converge,
and next turn to the construction of such
for arbitrary functions.
series
n
d
(n)
First some further notation: f (x) = dx f (x)
(the n-th derivative of f at the point x)
7.2.1. Expression for the coefficients of power series
We will inspect different routes towards the formula for the coefficients of a power series.
Let us first consider non-pathological functions, where the derivative of the sum equals the sum
of the derivatives. Here we can use simple ideas:
Claim:
If a given function f (x) can be written as a power series,
with some convergence radius R > 0, i.e.
x IR, |x| < R :
f (x) =
bn xn
n=0
and if differentiation and summation in the power series for f can be interchanged
(as for finite sums), then bn = f (n) (0)/n! (if this n-th derivative exists).
Proof:
n
If the function f (x) is indeed identical to the series S(x) =
n=0 bn x for |x| < R,
then also their derivatives must be identical, i.e. f (m) (x) = S (m) (x) for |x| < R. Thus
(m)
(x) =
=
d
dx
!m
n=0
bn x =
n=0
bn
d
dx
!m
xn
nm
bn n(n1)(n2) . . . (nm+1)x
n=0
n=m
bn
n!
xnm
(nm)!
Now choose x = 0: all powers of x in the right-hand side with m > n will vanish, giving
f (m) (0) = bm m!
118
Hence bm = f (m) (0)/m! as claimed. This also shows that under the assumed conditions there
can only be one power series representation of the function f .
Let us now derive this result in another way, where we dont need to interchange summation
and differentiation. It is based on repeated application of the fundamental theorem of calculus:
Z
f (n+1) (y)dy
= f (0) + x
= f (0) + x
f (1) (y)dy
1
0
1
(1)
(0)x + x
(0)x + x
1
0
1
0
+ x2
= f (0) + f
(1)
We observe:
(0)x + x f
+x
= f (0) + f
z1
z12
(0)
Z
1
0
1
Z
Z
z1
Z
(0) +
1
xz1 z2
put y = xz1 z2
(2)
0
1
1
(2)
Z
z1
Z
2 (2)
(1)
Z
z1
xz1
Z
xz1
f (1) (0) +
(1)
put y = xz1
xz1 z2
(3)
dz2 dz1
put y = xz1 z2 z3
z1 dz1
z2
(3)
Z 1
1
(0)x + f (2) (0)x2 + x3
z12
2
0
Z
z2
(3)
with e.g.
N
X
f (n) (0) n
x + RN +1 (x)
n!
n=0
R1 (x) = x
R2 (x) = x
z1
Z
(2)
119
3
R3 (x) = x
z12
Z
z2
(3)
N
X
f (n) (0) n
x + RN +1 (x)
n!
n=0
RN +1 (x) =
1
N!
f (N +1) (y)(xy)N dy
Proof:
(of the form claimed to be exact for the remainder term)
This is done by induction. We define as always the difference between left- and right-hand side
of the claimed identity,
AN (x) = f (x)
N
X
1
f (n) (0) n
x
n!
N!
n=0
f (N +1) (y)(xy)N dy
We aim to prove that AN (x) = 0 for all integer N 0. First we check the basis, i.e. N = 0:
A0 (x) = f (x)
1
f (0) (0) 0
x
0! Z
0!
= f (x) f (0)
ix
0
=0
So the claim is true for N = 0. Next we prove the induction step. We assume that AN (x) = 0
(i.e. the Taylor expansion is exact for the value N) and prove from this that also AN +1 (x) = 0:
AN +1 (x) = f (x)
N
+1
X
n=0
N
X
1
f (n) (0) n
x
n!
(N +1)!
Z x
f (n) (0) n f (N +1) (0) N +1
1
= f (x)
f (N +2) (y)(xy)N +1dy
x
x
n!
(N +1)!
(N +1)! 0
n=0
1 Z x (N +1)
f (N +1) (0) N +1
f
(y)(xy)N dy
x
N! 0
(N +1)!
Z x
1
f (N +2) (y)(xy)N +1dy
(N +1)! 0
1 Z x (N +1)
f (N +1) (0) N +1
N
integr by parts : =
f
(y)(xy) dy
x
N! 0
(N +1)!
use AN (x) = 0 : =
120
1
N!
=
("
f (N +1) (y)(xy)N +1
N +1
#x
0
(N +1)
(N +1)
(y)(xy) dy
f (N +1) (0) N +1
f
(0) N +1
x
0+
x
=0
(N +1)!
(N +1)!
|RN +1 (x)|
For small |x|, the correction is therefore generally much smaller than any of the previous
terms in the approximating polynomial.
f (n) (a)
(xa)n + RN +1 (x)
f (x) =
n!
n=0
1
RN +1 (x) =
N!
f (N +1) (y)(xy)N dy
Proof:
This can be done by a simple change of variables. Write x = a + u, define g(u) = f (a + u), and
121
apply the previous Taylor expansion to g(u):
g(u) =
N
X
g (n) (0) n
u + RN +1 (u)
n!
n=0
1
N!
RN +1 (u) =
g (N +1) (z)(uz)N dz
d n
d n
) g(u) = ( du
) f (a + u) = f (n) (a + u). Thus g (n) (0) = f (n) (a).
Use the fact that g (n) (u) = ( du
Insertion into the above expansion, together with g(u) = f (a + u) and u = x a, then gives:
f (n) (a)
(xa)n + RN +1
n!
n=0
Z xa
1
=
f (N +1) (a + z)(xaz)N dz
N! 0
Z
1 x (N +1)
=
f
(y)(xy)N dy
N! a
f (a + u) =
RN +1
N
X
put z = y a
Notes:
One can regard the generalized Taylor series as an approximation of f for values of x
close to a, with the remainder term RN +1 (x) indicating the precise difference between the
polynomial approximation up to order N and the true function f
If the n-th derivative of f is bounded on the interval [a R, a + R], i.e. |f (n) (x)| Cn for
all x [a R, a + R], then |RN +1 (x)| Cn (x a)N +1 /(N +1)!
Proof:
|RN +1 (x)|
1
N!
= Cn
|f (N +1) (y)|(xy)N dy Cn
1
N!
(xy)N dy
ix
h
1
Cn
(xy)N +1 =
(xa)N +1
a
(N +1)!
(N +1)!
For small values of |xa|, the correction is therefore generally much smaller than any of
the previous terms in the approximating polynomial.
7.3. Examples
7.3.1. Series expansions for standard functions
We can now derive the power series for arbitrary functions
(including the ones we simply stated in the past):
f (x) = ex :
d n x
) e = ex , so f (n) (0) = e0 = 1. Hence
Derivatives: f (n) (x) = ( dx
ex =
N
X
xn
+ RN +1 (x)
n=0 n!
RN +1 (x) =
1
N!
ey (xy)N dy
122
So if limN RN +1 (x) = 0, which is here true for all x IR:
ex =
xn
1
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
2
6
n=0 n!
f (x) = sin(x):
Derivatives: f (2m) (x) = (1)m sin(x) and f (2m+1) (x) = (1)m cos(x), so f (2m) (0) = 0 and
f (2m+1) (0) = (1)m . Hence
(N 1)/2
sin(x)
m=0
RN +1 (x) =
(1)m x2m+1
+ RN +1 (x)
(2m+1)!
R
1
(1) 0x cos(y)(xy)N dy
N!
R
1
(1)+1 0x sin(y)(xy)N dy
N!
if
N = 2
if
N = 2 + 1
So if limN RN +1 (x) = 0, which is here easy to prove for all x IR, since sin(y) [1, 1]
and cos(y) [1, 1]:
sin(x) =
1
1 5
(1)m x2m+1
= x x3 +
x + ...
3
120
m=0 (2m+1)!
xn
+ RN +1 (x)
ln(1x) =
n=1 n
RN +1 (x) =
(xy)N
dy
(1y)N +1
xn
1
1
1
= x x2 x3 x4 + . . .
2
3
4
n=1 n
1
1
= 1 x + x2 x3 + . . .
2
6
123
1
1
1
ln(1 + x) = x x2 + x3 x4 + . . .
2
3
4
1
1+x
1
d
d
1
1
x x2 + x3 x4 + . . .
ln(1+x) =
dx
dx
2
3
4
2
3
= 1 x + x x + ...
1
cos(x)
1
1
=
1 4
1 4
+ 24 x + . . .
1
1 + 21 x2 + 24
x + ...
2
1
1
1
1
= 1 x2 + x4 + . . . + x2 + x4 + . . . + . . .
2
24
2
24
1 4
1 4
1 2
= 1 + x x + ...+ x + ...
2
24
4
1 2
5 4
= 1 + x + x + ...
2
24
1 2
x
2
1 3
1
3
1
1
= (1 + x) 2 = 1 x + x2 + . . .
2
8
1+x
tan(x)
1
x5 + . . .
x 61 x3 + 120
sin(x)
=
1 4
x + ...
cos(x)
1 21 x2 + 24
1 5
1 2
5 4
1 3
x + ... 1 + x + x + ...
= x x +
6
120
2
24
5 5 1 3
1 5
1 5
1 3
x + ...
= x+ x + x x x +
2
24
6
12
120
1
2
= x + x3 + x5 + . . .
3
15
124
7.4. LHopitals rule
We saw earlier how power series can be used to calculate nontrivial limits,
for example:
lim
x0
lim
x0
1
3
2 5
2 4
x + 31 x3 + 15
1 + 13 x2 + 15
x + ...
x + ...
=
lim
=2
1
1
1
1
2
x0 1 + x x + . . . 1
x0
8x + . . .
2
8
2
tan(x)
1+x1
= lim
tan(3x) sin(x)
= lim
x0
2x3
1
3
3x + 31 (3x)3 + . . . x 61 x3 + . . .
3
x + 3x x +
x0
2x3
= lim
1 3
x
6
2x3
+ ...
= lim
19 3
x
6
x0
+ ...
19
=
3
2x
12
Let us finally use power series to inspect more generally what can be said
about limits of fractions:
f (0) + xf (0) + 12 x2 f (0) + . . .
f (x)
= lim
lim
x0 g(0) + xg (0) + 1 x2 g (0) + . . .
x0 g(x)
2
Thus, if f (0) = g(0) = 0 (the nontrivial limits, where Fermats simple rule fails):
xf (0) + 21 x2 f (0) + . . .
f (x)
= lim
lim
x0 xg (0) + 1 x2 g (0) + . . .
x0 g(x)
2
f (0) + 12 xf (0) + . . .
f (0)
=
x0 g (0) + 1 xg (0) + . . .
g (0)
2
= lim
lim
x0
a 1
x
sin(x)
x0
x
lim
7x
lim
x0
= lim
x0
1 sin(x/3)
=
ln(1 + x)
ln(a)ex ln(a)
1
x=0
= ln(a)
sin (0)
= cos(0) = 1
1
h
7e7x
cos(x/3)
[(1 +
x)1 ]x=0
x=0
=7
125
8. Exercises
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES I
1. Use the induction method to prove the following statements:
n
X
k4 =
1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n 1)
30
(n IN) :
k=1
(n IN) :
n + 1 2n (n + 1)!
(n IN, n 4) : n2 2n n!
2. Express the following three complex numbers in the form a + ib, with a, b IR:
(3 + i) (2 + 6i)
(1 + i)(1 + 2i)
(2 i)2
3. Let z and z be a conjugate pair of complex numbers. Prove the following three identities:
1
1
Im(z) = (z z)
(z) = z
Re(z) = (z + z)
2
2i
4. Prove the following two statements:
(z, w C
| ): z+w =z+w
(z, w C
| ) : z.w = z.w
zz 0
|Im(z)| |z|
|z.w| = |z|.|w|
|z| = |z|
7. Let z, w C
| , with w 6= 0. prove the following statements:
z/w = z/w
|z/w| = |z|/|w|
8. Express the following five complex numbers in the form a + ib, with a, b IR:
i3
i4
i5
i63
(i)10
9. Express the following five complex numbers in the form a + ib, with a, b IR:
1
2+i
1i
(1+i 3)3
(1 i 3)3
23i
1+3i
1+i
3
10. Find all solutions of the equation z 1 = 0. Hint: write z 3 1 as the product of (z 1)
and another factor.
126
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES II
11. Simplify the four complex numbers (1 + i)4 , (1 i)4 , (1 + i)4 , and (1 i)4 . Use your
results to find all solutions of the equation z 4 + 1 = 0.
12. Let z = 1 + 2i. Calculate the following seven complex numbers, and plot them in the
complex plane (i.e. on an Argand diagram):
z, 1/z, 1/z, z + z, z z, zz, and z/z.
13. What are the modulus and the principal values of the arguments of the following complex
numbers?
(a) 1 + i
(b) 1 i
(c) 2 2i (d) 1 + 3i
(f) 1 i
(g) e2i/3
(e) 1 3i
(h) 2ei/4
(i)
e3i/4
(j)
e2+i/2
14. Let z = rei , with r, IR and r 0. Find all values of r and such that z 5 = 1. Plot
the corresponding numbers in the complex plane.
15. Let z = rei , with r, IR and r 0. Find all values of r and such that z 6 = 64. Plot
the corresponding numbers in the complex plane.
16. Find all solutions z C
| of the equation (z 1)5 = 1. Plot the corresponding numbers in
the complex plane.
17. Find all solutions z C
| of the equation (z i)6 = 64. Plot the corresponding numbers in
the complex plane.
18. Let a, b and u denote real numbers. Find the real and the imaginary parts of the following
complex numbers:
(i) ea+ib
(ii)
eua eibu
a + ib
(iii) ee
B = {z C
| | (z i)2 = 4}
C = {z C
| | 1 < |z + 1| 3}
iu
127
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES III
n
k
20. Prove by induction that
= 1 2n for all n IN. Use this result to determine
k=1 2
P
P
the value of the series k=1 2k . Give an example of a series of the form nk=1 ak , with
P
finite values of the sum for any finite n, but such that the summation
k=1 ak does not
exist.
n
21. Show that for x IR the series representation ez =
n=0 z /n! of the exponential function
has the following properties (here and in subsequent exercises you will be allowed to
interchange differentiation and summation):
d ax
e = aeax
dx
e0 = 1
k=0
(1)k z 2k+1
(2k+1)!
and cos(z) =
k=0
(1)k z 2k
,
(2k)!
to derive
sin(0) = 0
cos(0) = 1
23. Give the values of cos() and sin() for the following choices of the angle:
, 3
, 5
, , 5
, 3
, 5
= 0, 6 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 2
3
4
6
4
2 3
Give your values as fractions in terms of 2, 3 etc.
(i.e. not as decimals as given by a calculator)
25. Find all solutions IR (if any) of the equation cot() + tan() = , for the following
three cases:
(i) = 1
(ii) = 2
(iii) = 4
26. Let , IR. Rewrite each of the following expressions as a constant times a product of
trigonometric functions:
(i) sin( ) + sin( + )
(ii) cos( ) cos( + )
128
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES IV
27. Express the following combinations of functions in the form c sin( + ), where c and
are real constants which you have to find (assume || < /2):
(b) arcsin(sin(7/6))
(c) arccos(cos(7/6))
(d) arccos(cos(11/6))
29. Show that the series representations of sinh and cosh are:
sinh(z) =
z 2k+1
(2k + 1)!
k=0
cosh(z) =
z 2k
(2k)!
k=0
30. Use the above series representations of the hyperbolic functions (rather than the definition
in terms of exponentials) to re-derive the following for x IR:
d
sinh(x) = cosh(x),
dx
d
cosh(x) = sinh(x),
dx
d
dx
sinh(0) = 0
cosh(0) = 1
32. Simplify the following complex numbers in which , IR to the standard form a + ib,
with a, b IR:
(a) cosh(i)
(b) sinh(i/3)
(c) tanh(i/6)
(d) sin( + i)
(e) cos( i)
(f) cosh()
33. Find formulae that express the hyperbolic functions sinh(x), cosh(x) and tanh(x) as ratios
of polynomials of t = tanh(x/2).
34. Calculate the following three derivatives:
(a)
d
dx
arccosh(x)
(b)
d
dx
arcsinh(x)
(c)
d
dx
arctanh(x)
129
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES V
35. Let z C
| , z 6= 1. Prove the following statement by induction:
n
X
k=0
zk =
1 z n+1
1z
Now choose z = ei with IR, and use the identity that you have just proven to find
P
P
formulas for the two sums nk=0 sin(k) and nk=0 cos(k). What if is a multiple of 2?
Check the correctness of your formulas for the simplest cases n = 0 and n = 1.
36. Use the explicit formula for the function arcsinh : IR IR, namely arcsinh(y) =
sinh(arcsinh(y)) = y
for all y IR
37. Use the explicit formula for the function arccosh : [1, ) [0, ), namely arccosh(y) =
38. Use the explicit formula for the function arctanh : (1, 1) IR, namely arctanh(y) =
1
ln[(1 + y)/(1 y)], to show that
2
arctanh(tanh(x)) = x for all x IR
tanh(arctanh(y)) = y
130
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES VI
n
1 cos(x)
x0
x2
sin(x2 )
lim
x0
x
lim
(b)
(d)
lim
x0
sin(7x)
tan(2x)
lim cosh(x)
x0
41. Calculate the following limits, if they exist, using the power series representations of the
hyperbolic functions:
(a)
(c)
sinh(x)
x
1 cosh(x)
lim
x0
x2
lim
x0
(b)
(d)
1 cosh(x)
x
tanh(x)
lim
x0
x
lim
x0
sin(x)
x
arcsin(3x)
lim
x0
tan(5x)
lim
(b)
(d)
arcsin(x)
x0
x
arctanh(x)
lim
x0
x
lim
43. Calculate the following limits, if they exist, using any suitable method:
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)
sin(x)
x
lim x(e1/x 1)
lim
x
x
lim
ln(x)
x2 + 1
lim e1/x
x0
(i)
(k)
x0
lim
cos(x)
x2
(d)
lim xx
(f)
lim
x0
(h)
xx 1
x0 x ln(x)
lim xsin(x)
(j)
lim
a b
(a > b > 0)
x0
x
lim e1/x
lim
(b)
(l)
x0
(x + 1) ln(x)
x0
sin(x)
lim xe1/x
131
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES VII
44. Let fk (x) : IR IR denote n arbitrary functions, with k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and let
Qn
k=1 fk (x) = f1 (x).f2 (x). . . . .fn1 (x).fn (x). Prove by induction the following generalized
version of the product rule:
+
for all n ZZ :
d
dx
n
Y
n
X
f (x)
fk (x) =
f (x)
k=1
=1
!
n
Y
fk (x)
k=1
45. Now prove the previous generalized product rule directly (i.e. without induction), for the
special case where fk (x) > 0 for all x IR and all k. Hint: write f (x) = eg(x) with
g(x) = ln(f (x)), and use the chain rule.
46. calculate the following derivatives:
(a)
d x2
e
dx
(b)
d
ln(tan(x))
dx
(c)
d
(x ln(x) x)
dx
(d)
d
arcsin(x2 )
dx
d
arctan(ex )
dx
d
xearctan(x)
dx
d sin(x)
e
dx
d
(h)
ln |arcsin(x)|
dx
(e)
(g)
(f)
1x
d
arcsin
dx
1+x
d
ln |x + x2 a2 |
dx
d 1
arccos
1 x2
dx x
d
ln (cosh(x) + sinh(x))
dx
d sin(x)
3
dx
d
1+x
(d)
dx
x
d x sin(x)
x
(f)
dx
(b)
(h)
q
d
2
2
ln
(1 + x )/(1 x )
dx
132
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES VIII
48. Each of the following is an equation that which determines y as an implicit function of x.
Find in all cases an expression for dy/dx.
(a) x2 + y 2 = 1
(b) y 3 + x3 = 1
(c)
sinh(x) + cosh(y) = 1
(d) xy ex+y = 2
(e)
sin(y) + y = x3
49. Each of the following are a pair of equations which determine x and y in terms of a
parameter t IR, which defines a function y(x) implicitly. Find in all cases an expression
for dy/dx.
(a) x = cos(t), y = sin(t)
(c)
x = t + sin(t), y = cos(t)
(d) x = t3 , y = t2
(e)
x = e2t , y = tanh(t)
50. Calculate the integral A = 0b eax dx (with a > 0 and b > 0) using the sandwich method,
with suitably constructed bounding staircase functions, similar to how this was done in
R
the lectures for integrals such as 0b cos(x)dx and others. Hint: use staircases with steps of
equal size h, and evaluate the summations that show up using the formula in exercise 39,
i.e.
n
X
1 z n+1
z 6= 1 :
zk =
1z
k=0
R
51. Find a primitive for each of the following functions, i.e. a function F (x) such that
F (x) = f (x). Prove your claims.
(a) f (x) = 1/(1 + x)
(c)
f (x) = 1/(1 x2 )
(g) f (x) = 1/ 1 + x2
(e)
(f) f (x) = 1/ 1 x2
1 2
(h) f (x) = xe 2 x
133
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES IX
52. Calculate the following indefinite integrals using the method of substitution:
Z
ex dx
(a)
put x = ln(y)
x
1
+
e
Z
(b)
1 x2 dx
put x = sin(y)
xdx
1 x2
Z
dx
(d)
2
a + x2
Z
2x3 dx
(e)
1+x
Z
xdx
(f)
1+ x
(c)
put x2 = 1 y
put x = at
put x = t 1
put x = t2
53. Calculate the following indefinite integrals using the method of substitution:
Z
Z
2xdx
(a)
cos(sin(x)) cos(x)dx (b)
1 + x4
Z
Z
x
e dx
dx
(c)
(d)
2x
e 1
2 x 1x
Z
Z
x2 dx
xdx
(f)
(e)
1 x2
1 x2
Z
Z
dx
xdx
(g)
(h)
2
3/2
(1 x )
(1 x2 )3/2
Z
Z
dx
x2 dx
(j)
(i)
(1 x2 )3/2
cos(x)
54. Calculate the following indefinite integrals using integration by parts:
(a)
(c)
(e)
x sinh(x)dx
(b)
arcsin(x)dx
(d)
2
ln(x) dx
(f)
(1 + x2 )ex dx
x arctan(x)dx
x3 sin(x)dx
134
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES X
55. Define the indefinite integrals In (x) for n ZZ+ as follows:
In (x) =
dx
(1 + x2 )n
56. Define the indefinite integrals In (x) for n ZZ as In (x) = cosn (x)dx. Use integration by
parts to derive the following recursion formula:
1
n1
In (x) = sin(x) cosn1 (x) +
In2 (x)
n
n
R
Use the recursion formula to find the indefinite integral cos4 (x)dx.
R
57. (i) Define the definite integrals In (a) for n ZZ+ and a IR as In (a) =
x2n eax .
Assume that differentiation with respect to a can be moved from outside to inside
the integral. Use repeated differentiation with respect to a to find a formula that
expresses In (a) in terms of I0 (a).
R y2
(ii) Show that I0 (a) = C/ a, where C =
e dy. From now on you may use (without
proof) that C = .
R 2 x2 /2
R 4 x2 /2
(iii) Use the previous results to show that
xe
= 2 and that
xe
=
3 2.
58. Use the method of partial fractions to calculate the following integrals:
Z
Z
xdx
dx
(b)
(a)
2
x +x6
(1 x)2 (1 + x)
(c)
dx
2
2x + x 1
(d)
12x2
xdx
7x 12
59. Calculate the length L of the curve in the plane described by the function y = ln(cos(x)),
between the points x = /4 and x = /4. Hint: use the result of an earlier exercise to
deal with the integral.
135
CALCULUS 1 TUTORIAL EXERCISES XI
60. Find out for the following series whether they are convergent or divergent, using the various
results stated and/or derived in the lectures or otherwise:
(a)
(c)
n3
(b)
(1)n n2
(d)
n en
1/ n
( > 0)
61. Find the radii of convergence for the following powers series:
(a)
xn /n3
(c)
xn / n
(b)
(1)n xn /n2
(d)
xn n en
( > 0)
62. Derive the Taylor expansions for the following functions, up to order N = 3 for the first
three functions and up to order N for the last one, and give in each case an exact expression
for the remainder term:
(a) f (x) = tan(x)
(c)
f (x) = x3
63. Write the following two functions as power series of the form
for each the associated radius of convergence:
(a) f (x) = 1/(1x)2
n
n=0 bn x ,
and determine
Substitute x = 1 into your result under (b) (why is it not obvious that this is allowed?)
and derive an expression for the number as a series (the so-called Leibniz series).
64. Find the first three terms (i.e. up to order x3 ) of the Taylor expansions for the following
two functions, by combining and/or manipulation the Taylor expansions of other functions
that you know:
1+2x
(a) f (x) = tanh(x)
(b) f (x) = ln
12x