Dietary Sodium Bicarbonate and Electrolyte

Balance for Broiler and Breeder Chickens

Danny M. Hooge, PhD, PAS
Hooge Consulting Service, Inc.
8775 North Cedar Pass Road
Eagle Mountain, Utah 84043 USA
danhooge@fiber.net
Acid-Base Balance
The monovalent minerals sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-) are known
as "strong ions" because they exert characteristic effects on the chicken's acid-base
homeostasis. The Na and K are alkalogenic, causing increased pH of body fluids
whereas Cl is acidogenic, causing decreased pH of body fluids. The Na is found chiefly
in blood and extracellular fluids whereas K is primarily an intracellular cation which, in
excess, requires Cl and water for elimination through the kidneys similar to the urinary
excretion process for Na. Therefore, either NaCl or KCl in excess of requirement
increase water intake. It is debatable whether Cl alone has a water intake stimulating
effect or simply acts as an anion closely associated with the cations Na and K. Any effect
of Cl on water intake may be specific to that particular supplement. Ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) added to provide total Cl at 0.15 (basal), 0.25, and 0.35% increased water
consumption from 21-28 days from 102 to 105 to 114 mL/day in broiler chicks and fecal
moisture increased from fecal moisture from 72.2 to 74.3 to 76.9%, with 14 to 28 day
weight gains of 735, 741, and 741 g, respectively (Zisman, 1986).
The pH of the blood plasma is determined by the concentration and chemical
properties of the acids and bases dissolved in it. Three classes of acids and bases can be
identified: 1) carbonic acid from CO2 and H20, 2) metabolizable acids such as acetic and
lactic, and 3) nonmetabolizable (fixed) inorganic acids and bases. The latter are absorbed
from the diet or are formed as end-products of metabolism, cannot be disposed of by
intermediary metabolism or by pulmonary ventilation, can only be excreted in the urine,
and their concentration in the plasma is under specific renal control. For example,
formation of sulfuric acid occurs from oxidation of methionine and cysteine, but this is
limited during growth as the sulfur amino acids mainly go into tissue (Shaw, 1989).
Blood Cl and HCO3 concentrations vary inversely, in order to maintain the proper
total anion strength needed to compliment the blood Na, so as Cl goes up HCO3 goes
down and vice versa (Figure 1). Supplementing the diet with extra chloride can increase
blood Cl or, on the other hand, adding HCO3 to the diet can decrease blood Cl, within
certain physiological limits. Addition of HCO3 to the diet may lower the "effective Cl"
level of the diet by eliminating some Cl from the bird through the kidneys. Benton et al.
(1998) stated that an increase in plasma Cl- decreases H+ excretion and decreases HCO3reabsorption by the kidneys whereas an increase in plasma Na+ increases H+ excretion
and HCO3- reabsorption. An increase in plasma K+ decreases HCO3- reabsorption from

the kidneys. These following electrolyte relationships are evident from the previous
statements: 1) K+ content follows H+ in plasma (K+ inversely related to pH), 2) HCO3content follows Na+ content in plasma, and 3) HCO3- content follows inversely Clcontent in plasma. Berne and Levy (1993) maintain that plasma K+ increases 0.2 to 1.7
mEq/L for every 0.1 unit decrease in pH (H+ increase).
The HCO3 system is the most important buffer system for maintaining normal
blood pH. It functions under the dual regulatory control of the lungs and kidneys. Blood
pH, as determined by the HCO3 buffering system, is represented by the HendersonHasselbalch equation: pH = 6.1 + log [HCO3-] / 0.03 pCO2, where pCO2 is partial
pressure of carbon dioxide. Normally, the ratio of HCO3-: 0.03 pCO2 is 20:1 in man,
resulting in a blood pH of approximately 7.4 (Benton et al., 1998). The pCO2 can be
determined by direct potentiometry (concentration related to potential through the Nernst
equation). Bicarbonate is calculated from pCO2 as follows: log HCO3 = pH + log pCO2
(Borges et al. (2003). According to Zisman (1986), the following equation was
developed specifically for calculating blood HCO3 in poultry: HCO3- = antilog (pH =
6.09 + log (0.0282 x pCO2). Having both pH and pCO2 allows calculation of base excess
in extracellular fluids as follows: BEecf = HCO3 - 24.8 + 16.2 (pH - 7.4) (Borges et al.,
2003). It is desirable to keep base excess at or near zero during thermoneutral or heat
stress conditions for best results.
The blood HCO3 buffering system utilizes relatively strong carbonic acid (H2CO3) and
HCO3 as conjugate acid-base pairs, and the H2CO3 is in reversible equilibrium with
dissolved CO2 and water (H2O). The blood CO2, in turn, equilibrates between the
gaseous and aqueous phases in the lungs. If the chicken is in a thermoneutral
environment, when the blood must absorb excess OH-, the H2CO3 which is used up and
converted to HCO3 is quickly replaced from the large pool of gaseous CO2 in the lungs.
Of course, CO2 is a product of aerobic combustion in the tissues as well. The steady-state
ratio of [H2CO3]/ [HCO3-] in the blood is a reflection of state of CO2 production during
tissue oxidation and of the rate of loss of CO2 by expiration (Lehninger, 1970).
Because electrochemical neutrality must be maintained in body extracellular fluids,
such as blood plasma, Na is balanced by Cl and to a lesser extent by bicarbonate (HCO3-).
This makes dietary supplementation of salt (NaCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3-),
to fortify these components of blood, particularly important to many body processes.
Mongin (1968) stated that "sodium bicarbonate seems to be a privileged element [or
compound]" because it provides sodium, favorably affects blood pH ("can influence the
balance of H+ ions"), and supplies beneficial bicarbonate. Damron et al. (1986)
concluded that the sodium in sodium bicarbonate was equally bioavailable to that in NaCl
for broiler chicks. Having two supplemental sources of sodium can reduce the variability
in sodium assays and keep dietary sodium levels closer to those desired. In broiler
breeders, use of a non-chloride sodium supplement such as sodium bicarbonate or
sesquicarbonate along with salt has been shown from field experience by a large U.S.
integrator to smooth out production curves especially in the peaking phase. Gardiner and
Dewar (1976) concluded that ammonium chloride and sodium chloride were equally
good sources of chloride in broiler chick starter feeds to 21 days of age.

Divalent cations Ca2+ and Mg2+ or anions sulfate (SO42-) and phosphate (average
valence 1.8- as H2PO4- ~20% and HPO42- ~80%, the major intracellular buffer conjugate
acid-base pair) have weaker effects than the monovalent elements. Occasionally, there is
a diet formulation mistake in which too much sulfate (for example, over 20% canola meal
in the diet) or too much phosphate (for example, excess monobasic calcium phosphate
supplement) are added which cause metabolic acidosis resulting in bone or egg shell
quality problems. Excess sulfate creates sulfuric acid and has been reported by Canadian
canola meal researchers to bind some of the blood calcium and remove it from the body,
resulting in bone problems such as bowed (cowboy) legs. Excess Na can cause
phosphorus excretion resulting in deficiency. Several years ago a synthetic zeolite A
(Ethacal) containing about 12.6% sodium was found to remove some of the phosphorus
from laying hens allowing shell quality improvement with high phosphorus diets.
Adequate phosphorus is needed for hens in heat stress as 10% mortality has been reported
to occur during heat stress with available phosphorus levels below 0.25%. The acidic
nature of phosphorus may help counteract the respiratory alkalosis (higher blood pH).
Although many aspects of cell structure and function are influenced by pH, it is the
catalytic activity of the enzymes that is especially sensitive. Each of the multitude of
enzymes in a chicken's body has a maximal activity at a characteristic pH, called the
optimum pH, and their activity declines sharply on either side of the optimum. Therefore,
biological control of the pH of cells and body fluids is of central importance in all aspects
of intermediary metabolism and cellular function (Lehninger, 1970).
Dietary Electrolyte Balance
"Electrolytes" are defined as all solubilized compounds containing cations and anions
which give the solution the capacity to conduct an electric current. Feed additives which
provide these monovalent mineral compounds may probably be correctly termed
electrolyte "salts" or "supplements" (although these are dry and electrolytes are liquid
by definition, such as automobile battery electrolytes). Dietary electrolyte balance
(DEB) in poultry diets is calculated based on total levels of Na, K, and Cl which can be
obtained by lab analysis. The ability of Na or K to neutralize hydroxyl groups (OH-) and
of Cl to neutralize hydrogen ions (H+) is expressed in the term "milliequivalents" (mEq)
which takes into account the atomic weight of each element or molecular weight of each
molecule along with their respective valence or charge. By definition, the equivalent
weight of a substance participating in a neutralization reaction is that weight which either
contributes or reacts with one gram formula weight of hydrogen ion in that reaction
(Skoog and West, 1974). In poultry nutrition, DEB is expressed as Na + K - Cl in
mEq/kg or diet or in mEq/100 g of diet. Broiler and breeder diets usually have DEB
indexes ranging from about 100 to 250 mEq/kg or 10.0 to 25.0 mEq/100 g.
The DEB value of diets differing in Na, K, and Cl may be the same because the index
has two cationic and one anionic mineral components. The formula for determining
mEq/100 g is [(mg in diet) x (valence)] / [atomic or formula weight, g]. Table 1 gives
convenient factors for calculating DEB based on dietary monovalent mineral content.

The Na, K, and Cl total levels must first be within acceptable ranges, not deficient and
not excessive or toxic, in order to support and not limit growth or reproduction. It
becomes an econometric concern to nutritionists to determine the optimal levels of Na, K,
and Cl in broiler chicken and broiler breeder diets to accomplish performance objectives.
The factors for figuring DEB are based on total contents of the nutrients in the chicken
feeds, but in reality, bioavailabilities of nutrients affect the actual amounts of nutrients
absorbed by the intestine into the bloodstream. Monovalent ions (Na, K, Cl) have higher
coefficients of absorption than divalent ions (Ca, Mg, P, S).
An example of DEB calculation based on total levels of monovalent minerals in a
theoretical broiler prestarter feed using salt (to give 0.25% total Cl) and sodium
bicarbonate (0.3%) is given here:
Sodium (Na)
0.28% x 434.98 factor = 121.79 mEq/kg
Potassium (K) 0.75% x 255.74 factor = 191.80 mEq/kg
Chloride (Cl)
0.25% x -282.06 factor = -70.51 mEq/kg
______________
DEB = 243.08 mEq/kg (24.3 mEq/100g)
Brazilian soybean meals have analyzed lower in K than typical table values used in
the United States (Borges et al., 2003) although the reasons for this have not been stated.
Analysis of K in soybean meal is important to establish correct values to be used in
calculating DEB.
Electrolyte Supplements
Commercial electrolyte salts that are available, effective, and reasonably affordable
for use in broiler and breeder feeds are NaCl, NaHCO3, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl),
calcium chloride (CaCl2 with number of waters of hydration depending on specific
product), KCl, and K2CO3. Although NaCl increases blood pressure (hypertensinogenic),
KCl decreases it (antihypertensinogenic), based on research with a salt-sensitive strain of
rats. Rats fed the same absolute level of NaCl were protected against hypertension by
increasing the K:Na ratio. However, those fed a constant ratio but increasing absolute
levels of NaCl experienced progressively increasing hypertension, progressive kidney
damage, and decreased plasma flow to the renal papilla (Dahl et al., 1972). There is also
evidence that potassium supplementation lowers blood pressure in salt hypertensive
human patients (Imura et al., 1981). Blood Ca is involved in each heart muscle
contraction whereas K affects heart muscle relaxation, so both are important in normal
heart beat rhythm.
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is used successfully as a source of supplemental K in
broiler chicken usually providing up to about +0.10% K . The K2CO3 has been evaluted
at higher levels for heat stress, but it sometimes has actually depressed performance,
possibly due to a palatability problem if oversupplemented. It may prove very useful in
the future for low protein, amino acid formulated diets with synthetic amino acids (Lys,
Met, Thr) replacing some of the soybean meal.

Heat Stress
The U.S. broiler industry has evolved to the point where about one-fourth of the
broiler companies use either NaHCO3 or NaHCO3NaCO32H2O (sodium
sesquicarbonate) in the summer months (Donohue, 2001). Benefits of sodium
bicarbonate for heat stress are well documented in the literature. However, levels used
commercially in hot weather appear to provide only about 0.22 or 0.23% total weighted
average dietary sodium which indicates lower inclusion rates of sodium bicarbonate than
optimum during heat stress. Based on research, dietary levels of 0.28% or more Na, and
0.25% Cl or more, with a minimum of 0.40% sodium bicarbonate are required for
optimum results by broiler chickens in hot weather during growing and finishing periods.
During heat stress severe enough to induce a high respiratory rate (severe panting;
rapid, shallow breathing) and rectal temperature, abnormally high amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2) are lost from the blood (partial pressure of CO2 or pCO2 decreases), blood
HCO3 declines, and pH increases over about a two hour period (El Hadi and Sykes,
1982). Based on much better broiler performance during heat stress with NaHCO3, a
CO2 generating buffer, than with sodium carbonate (NaCO3) at the same dietary sodium
and DEB levels, it has been concluded by Gorman and Balnave (1994) that heat stress
may induce a metabolic requirement for the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). Because
nutritionists can intervene during a heat wave to provide NaHCO3 and/or KCl through the
feed or water, the detrimental effects of heat stress can be minimized in many cases.
Preventive measures can be taken by formulating feed with high enough DEB using
sodium bicarbonate to prevent excessive mortality of heavy broilers and to stimulate
growth during the hot season. Sodium is slightly more potent through the water than an
equivalent intake through the feed (Ross, 1979), but nutritionists prefer the certainty of
inclusion in feed rather than depending on sometimes inaccurate dosing by flock owners
through the water. Sodium bicarbonate has a solubility of about 11% in water at 37.8o C
(100o F).
The Australian researcher, Dr. Derick Balnave, now retired, and associates have done
considerable work on the use of sodium bicarbonate at relatively high levels in feed (up
to 2.53% successfully) or water (up to 5.6 g/L) for broilers in moderate heat stress,
usually about 30-31o C or 86-87.8o C. Benton et al. (1998) stated that "within Australia,
NaHCO3 is incorporated into broiler diets at up to 0.5% and is recognized as saving 2 d
growth to market weight during summer". They indicated that heat-stressed broilers
respond better to supplements of NaHCO3 than KHCO3, Na2CO3, or K2CO3 (Table 2).
Teeter et al. (1985) observed that heat-stressed (32o C) panting 4-week-old Vantress x
Arbor Acres broilers has significantly higher blood pH (7.411) than either non-panting
(7.304) birds or broilers raised in a thermoneutral environment (7.28) (Table 3). Chronic
(long-term) heat-stressed broiler chicks had intermittent respiratory alkalosis during
panting; with acute (short-term severe) heat stress, broilers pant continuously and suffer
from alkalosis. Panting broilers given sodium bicarbonate (0.5%) in feed had the same
blood pH (7.410) as control birds getting basal feed, indicating that sodium bicarbonate

did not cause further alkalosis in heat stress. Under acute heat stress when all birds were
panting, blood pH was similar for control diet (7.521) and sodium bicarbonate fed (7.528)
broilers so the alkalosis was not worsened and performance benefited. During the
chronic heat stress phase, broilers gained 9.1% more body weight (444 vs 407 g; P >
0.05) with sodium bicarbonate supplementation.
In another experiment beginning at 28 days, sodium bicarbonate (0.5%) plus
ammonium chloride (1.0%) in feed significantly increased body weight by 34.4% (594 vs
442 g) and lowered blood pH from 7.294 to 7.276 in nonpanting heat-stressed birds and
from 7.381 to 7.293 in panting heat-stressed birds (nearly identical to 7.290 pH in
thermoneutral control broilers). Sodium bicarbonate as a single supplement was not
evaluated in this study, but ammonium chloride (1.0%) alone significantly improved
body weight by 25.1% (553 vs 442 g), which was less than the combination. Selection of
non-panting pedigreed broiler breeder parent stock during heat stress may be a way that
has not been explored for improving performance of progeny in hot climates.
British researchers (Webster, ca. 1990) reported that during a broiler pen trial with
different levels of sodium bicarbonate, the U.K. happened to have one of the worst heat
waves in their history at the time the birds were 29-35 days of age (Figure 2). Mortality
was normal before and after the heat stress, but during it sodium bicarbonate at 0.39 or
0.50% of the diet reduced mortality to about half (~7.6-7.8%) compared to levels of 0.06,
0.17, or 0.28% of the supplement (mortality ~14, 14, and 13.5%, respectively). The Na
levels in the diets were 0.13, 0.16, 0.19, 0.22, and 0.25%, and no information on K or Cl
was given. It was concluded that a minimum of about 0.40% sodium bicarbonate was
needed (between 0.28 and 0.39% exactly) to cut mortality in half during heat stress.
Borges et al. (2003a) published the heat stress experiment described in Figure 3 in
which optimal DEB for weight gain was 236 mEq/kg and for FCR was 207 mEq/kg,
averaging 221.5 mEq/kg. Sodium bicarbonate and salt were the sodium sources. In other
research (Borges et al., 2003b) shown in Figure 4, base excess in heat stress was kept the
closest to zero by the 240 mEq/kg DEB treatment.
Coccidiosis
In the absence of a coccidiostat, sodium bicarbonate substantially increased the
number of sporozoites in cross-sectional intestine (Eimeria acervulina, 48% increase;
Eimeria maxima, 68% increase) following inoculation compared to inoculated control
birds (Dr. Patricia C. Augustine, 1997. USDA-ARS-LPSI, Bldg 1100 BARC-East,
Beltsville, Maryland 20705). With sodium bicarbonate plus monensin at 121 mg/kg diet,
intestinal Eimeria acervulina sporozoite counts were increased by 6.4% and Eimeria
maxima developmental stage counts were increased by 104%, compared to results with
monensin alone. Because monensin plus sodium bicarbonate also gives significantly
improved live and processed broiler chicken performance when birds are grown on builtup litter and exposed to a coccidial challenge via water at 14 days, compared to dietary
monensin alone, it is assumed that sodium bicarbonate interacted with either the

ionophore, the coccidia, the intestinal mucosa, or more than one of these, to enhance
rapid, early immunity and improved later resistance to any coccidial challenges.
Dietary sodium bicarbonate showed a positive benefit on turkey performance separate
from the Na x monesin interaction in a Nicholas male turkey pen trial on built-up litter
and with or without coccidial inoculation of the birds at 14 days of age. A level of 0.25%
dietary sodium bicarbonate without monensin significantly improved 42-day body weight
and feed conversion ratio, and decreased 126-day mortality, compared to 0% sodium
bicarbonate without monensin (Hooge et al., 2000). Turkey diets with monensin (99
mg/kg) significantly improved 42- and 126-day body weight, feed conversion ratio, and
mortality, compared to the zero monensin diets. The combined monensin and sodium
bicarbonate diets had the best 42-day body weight, feed conversion ratio, and mortality,
and 126-day feed conversion ratio and mortality compared to monensin alone or sodium
bicarbonate alone treatments.
In Table 4, sodium bicarbonate is shown to be effective at improving broiler
performance with each of several coccidiostats, especially the ionophores. In Table 5,
sodium bicarbonate is demonstrated to be as effective as salt yet does not increase the
litter moisture so much. Sodium sulfate was less effective at potentiating the ionophore
and had no affect on litter moisture (water intake). In Table 6, coccidial lesion scores
from 14 trials with sodium bicarbonate and ionophores are summarized, primarily with
the original recommended level of 0.20% sodium bicarbonate. Highly significant
reductions in lesion scores of 42.0% averaged "by treatment" and 44.7% "by trial were
found due to sodium bicarbonate addition. In recent trials (1998-2001) with modern Ross
and Cobb broiler strains, the sodium bicarbonate level required for optimal performance
and cost was 0.3% compared to 0.2% concluded from original studies mainly with
Peterson x Arbor Acres broilers (1992-1994). Also, carcass yield improvements have
been verified in the later studies, along with the discovery that chiller water uptake is
significantly increased when sodium bicarbonate (0.3%) has been fed.
Hooge et al. (2000) reported that dietary NaHCO3 (0.20%) or KHCO3 (0.14%; more
expensive) were equally effective in a used litter, coccidial-inoculation broiler pen trial at
improving 45-day body weight, feed conversion ratio, or mortality with lasalocid or
monensin. In a second trial to 46 days on used litter and with coccidial challenge, dietary
KHCO3 was only 0% to 40%, depending on parameter, as effective as NaHCO3 at
improving performance with salinomycin. Coccidiosis causes wet litter problems which
can be prevented by using higher levels of the ionophore within the legal range or by
addition of NaHCO3 to the diets along with the ionophore (see Table 5, litter moisture).
Merrill (1993) found from results of an unpublished survey of use in broiler feeds in
Western Europe that 0.2% was the most common level, in conjunction with 0.1% added
salt, and the main purpose was to lower dietary Cl and reduce wet litter problems.
Broiler feeds typically contained not more than 25% soybean meal and included fish
meals, the latter having about 0.60% each of Na and Cl. In diets without fish meal,
NaHCO3 was typically used up to a level of 0.4%.

Immune Response
It has been well established that the blood heterophil:lymphocyte ratio usually
increases abnormally in broiler chickens exposed to heat stress, and this can be corrected
with DEB of about 220 to 250 mEq/kg (Borges et al., 2003). Santin et al. (2003)
reported a significant linear increase in Newcastle disease virus antibody titers with
increasing DEB (40, 140, 240, 340 mEq/kg), using NaCl, NaHCO3, and NH4Cl as
supplements, following vaccinations at 7 and 21 days with LaSota strain of the vaccine.
Broiler Breeders
Limited research has been done, but dietary sodium bicarbonate (or in some cases
sesquicarbonate in the U.S.) has been widely used in Cobb breeders and in Hy-Line
White Leghorn breeders to improve litter quality, egg shell quality (especially in hot
weather), and consistency of egg production curve (especially at peak egg production),
and to keep Na assays more consistent and closer to target levels by using two Na sources
(NaCl and NaHCO3). Sodium bicarbonate is used in broiler breeder male and female
feeds, usually at 0.05 to 0.30% levels. Typically, for hens the DEB is set at 180 to 200
mEq/kg (highest in heat stress), Cl is about 0.20-0.28%, and Na is about 0.19-0.20%.
Higher DEB with sodium bicarbonate may help male reproductive traits. For breeder
pullets the typical use level is about 0.125% (maximum 0.3%), and this appears to help
during heat stress especially with older pullets ~18-20 weeks of age. Some nutritionists
add K2CO3 or K2SO4 to provide up to about +0.10% K in breeder diets to assure a certain
minimum level of K such as 0.60-0.65% to eliminate sudden death syndrome. Adding a
level of 0.25% K2CO3 has been reported to stop sudden death syndrome in broiler
breeders, and breeder diets with 0.65% K or more may have lower incidences of sudden
death syndrome. Low blood K levels have sometimes been found in broiler breeders
experiencing sudden death syndrome around the time of peak egg production.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Benefits of dietary sodium bicarbonate and DEB for broiler chickens exposed to
coccidiosis, especially when using an ionophore, or heat stress include improved weight
gain, feed conversion ratio, antibody titer to vaccination, litter quality, carcass yield,
breast meat yield, and chiller water uptake, and reduced coccidial lesion scores and
mortality. Sodium bicarbonate recommended minimum levels are 0.3% for coccidiosis
prevention (mainly to "potentiate" an ionophore, which can be used a lower or mid
range) and 0.4% for heat stress. For broilers, dietary K varies and is usually adequate,
but Na and Cl should have minimums of 0.28% and 0.25%, respectively, in prestarter and
starter anytime (with 0.3% sodium bicarbonate and salt or ammonium chloride as
needed). In heat stress, after 28 days of age keep 0.28% Na and 0.25% Cl minimums
(~0.40% Na and ~0.40% Cl maximums) throughout growout using 0.4% level of sodium
bicarbonate plus salt or ammonium chloride if needed. In cool weather, use 0.3% sodium
bicarbonate level as needed with ionophore, and values dropping as low as Na 0.225%
Na and 0.20% Cl (estimates as optimums are not well established) in finisher feeds, for
coccidiosis prevention and litter quality. It is better, in my opinion, to "prevent" heat

stress problems with sodium bicarbonate and higher DEB (with adequate Cl) than to
"treat" with KCl by feed or water later to replace body K lost by altered tissue cell
permeability and to provide Cl for alkalosis (although KCl is beneficial as well but has
the different mode of action: water intake, corticosterone reduction, and alkalosis relief).
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and during heat stress. International Poult. Sci. Forum, Atlanta, Georgia. Abstract 74.
Shaw, J. C. L. 1989. Nonmetabolizable base balance: effect of diet composition on
plasma pH. J. Nutr. 119(12S):1789-1798.
Skoog, D.A., and D. M. West. 1974. Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction. Second
edition. Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, Inc., New York, New York. p. 175.
Teeter, R. G., and M. O. Smith. 1986. High chronic ambient temperature stress effects
on broiler acid-base balance and their response to supplemental ammonium chloride,
potassium chloride, and potassium carbonate. Poult. Sci. 65:1777-1781.
Teeter, R. G., M. O. Smith, F. N. Owens, S. C. Arp, S. Sangiah, and J. E. Breazile.
1985. Chronic heat stress and respiratory alkalosis: occurrence and treatment in
broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 64:1060-1064.
Webster, C. ca. 1990. Reduce effects of heat stress with Alkakarb. Chick-Chat, ICI
Nutrition, Runcorn, Cheshire, U.K. Technical flyer, 1 page.
Zisman, A. 1986. Acid-base balance and mineral balance in broiler cockerels fed
ionophores. Master's thesis, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware. pp. 25-52.

Table 1. Convenient factors, and their derivation, for calculating dietary electrolyte
balance (DEB) based on the total levels of macrominerals in the diet (Hooge, 1995).
________________________________________________________________________
Chemical
Atomic or
mEq/kg = % in Coefficent
MacroSymbol or Valence Formula mEq/0.01% Diet x Factor
of
1
1
Mineral
Formula (Charge) Weight
in Diet
Below
Absorption2
________________________________________________________________________
Calcium
Ca
2+
40.080
2.4950
249.50
0.40-0.60
Chloride
Cl
1
35.453
-2.8206
-282.06
0.99
Magnesium
Mg
2+
24.312
8.2264
822.64
0.45
Phosphorus H2PO4; HPO4 1.8
(96.181)
(-1.8715)
(-187.15)
0.90
Potassium
K
1+
39.102
2.5574
255.74
0.72-0.80
Sodium
Na
1+
22.990
4.3498
434.98
0.80-0.90
Sulfur
SO4
296.022
-2.0829
-208.29
not given3
________________________________________________________________________
1
The P from phosphoric acid exists in the body at pH 7.4 as H2PO4- ~20% and HPO42~80% (on average, P is 32.2042% of it), and S exists as SO42- (S is 33.3925% of it).
2
Coefficients of absorption in Shaw (1989) published originally in 1987 by a European
Committee (Society) for preterm human infant liquid formulas. Because poultry
coefficients are not well established, these can serve as a basis or "rough estimates" for
determining poultry values.
3
Sulfur coefficient of absorption for poultry could be estimated from methionine and
cysteine in natural ingredients such as corn, soybean meal, and meat and bone meal, as
well as supplemental methionine (assumed 100% absorbed). It is relatively high (~0.90).
Figure 1. Gamble Diagram: Relationship of electrolytes and acid-base balance in
human blood plasma (Rooth, 1969).
________________________________________________________________________
TOTAL
CATION (+)
ANION (-)
153 mEq/L
153 mEq/L
_______________ ________________
101
Na+

Cl-

142

_______________
K+ ______4________
Ca2+ ______5________
Mg2+ ______2________

________________
26
HCO3_________
16
Proteins
________________

}
} Buffer Base*
}
}

10
Other Anions (Phosphate,
________________ Sulfate, Lactate, Pyruvate)

________________________________________________________________________
*Buffer base (HCO3- and proteins including hemoglobin) is considered to be the
connecting link between acid-base balance and dietary electrolyte balance.

Table 2. Evaluation of various mineral supplements in exchange for rice hulls in

broiler diets from 21-42 days of age when birds were exposed to constant 30o C (86o F).
________________________________________________________________________
Diet
Supple% of
Mineral
Weight
Feed Intake,
Feed/
Number ment
Diet
Level, %
gain, g
g/Bird
Gain
________________________________________________________________________
1
Control
----2
NaCl
0.60
Na 0.40
1247bcd
2528
2.03bcd
cde
Cl 0.60
1269
2520
1.99abc
3
KCl
0.76
K 1.05
1277cde
2511
1.97abc
bcde
Cl 0.60
1260
2499
1.99abc
4
NH4Cl
0.54
Cl 0.60
5
NaH2PO4
1.20
Na 0.40
1264bcde
2510
1.99abc
P 0.31
6
Na2SO4
0.71
Na 0.40
1234bcd
2464
2.00abc
S 0.11
7
(NH4)2SO4 0.68
S 0.11
1282de
2514
1.96ab
8
Na2CO3
1.63
Na 0.86
1259bcd
2519
2.01abc
a
9
CaCO3
1.59
Ca 1.52
1129
2371
2.10d
b
10
MgCO3
1.27
Mg 0.56
1210
2472
2.04bcd
11
K2CO3
2.08
K 1.83
1219bc
2480
2.04bcd
e
12
NaHCO3
2.53
Na 0.86
1317
2546
1.93a
_______________________________________________________________________
Source: Gorman and Balnave (1994).

Mortality, %

Mortality During Heat Stress, 29-35 Days

15
10

Day 1-28

Day 29-35

0.06% 0.17% 0.28% 0.39% 0.50%

Day 36-49

Dietary Sodium Bicarbonate, %

Figure 2. British pen trial showing heat stress mortality during the 29-35 day period
reduced by about half using either 0.39% or 0.50% dietary sodium bicarbonate for
broiler chickens (Webster, ca. 1990).

Feed, g / gain, g

1.76
1.75
1.74
1.73
1.72
0

Feed Conversion

Weight gain / bird, g

2440
2420
YWTG = 2249.875 + 1.5948X - 0.0034X2
2400
R2 = 0.88; Pmax = 236
2380
2360
2340
2
YFCR = 1.761075 - 0.0003765X + 0.0000009X
2320
2
R = 0.54; Pmin = 207
2300
2280
2260
2240
120
240
360
Na + K - Cl, mEq/kg

1.77

Weight gain

Blood base excess, mmol/L

Figure 3. Effect of dietary electrolyte balance (Na + K - Cl, mEq/kg) on predicted

weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broiler chickens from O to 42 days of age
(Borges et al., 2003).

5.25

5.00

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

0.75
-0.75

40

-0.50

140

1.00

0.75

-0.30

240
Na+K-Cl, mEq/kg

340

Thermoneutral (SEM 1.06)

Heat Stress (SEM 0.38)

Figure 4. Effect of ambient temperature regimen and DEB (Na + K -Cl, mEq/kg) on
blood base excess concentration in broiler chickens at 44 days of age (Borges et al.,
2003).

Table 3. Results of heat stress (32o C or 89.6o F) on Vantress x Arbor Acres broiler
body weight, feed consumption, and blood pH values as affected by dietary electrolyte
supplements after 28 days of age (Teeter et al., 1985)
_______________________________________________________________________
--------------------- Blood pH -------------------20 Min.
Chronic Heat (32oC)
Dietary
Body Wt
Feed
Thermo- NonAcute Heat
Treatment
Gain, g Intake, g neutral panting Panting
(32-41oC)
_______________________________________________________________________
Experiment 1:
1,131a
7.28a
7.304a
7.411a
7.521a
Basal diet
407a
+ 0.5% NaHCO3
444a
1,200a
7.29a
7.347a
7.410a
7.528a
Experiment 2:
1,949b
7.290
7.294a
7.381a
----Basal diet
442b
ab
ab
a
ab
484
2,011
----7.290
7.357
----+ 0.3% NH4Cl
553a
2,173a
----7.195a
7.305ab
----+ 1.0% NH4Cl
+ 1.0% NH4Cl
594a
2,139a
----7.276a
7.293b
----& 0.5% NaHCO3
_______________________________________________________________________
a-b
Means without a common letter superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Table 4. Performance of Peterson x Arbor acres broiler chickens to 45 days on

recycled litter with live coccidia challenge by water at 14 days and diets with or without
sodium bicarbonate or coccidiostat (March 17-May 1, 1992; Easton, Maryland).
________________________________________________________________________
Dietary
Sodium
Body
Feed/
Mortality, Breast Meat,
Body Wt
%
% Body Wt
Coccidiostat1 Bicarbonate, % Weight, kg
________________________________________________________________________
1.923a
17.19a
11.56def
None
0
1.860d
d
a
a
None
0.2
1.858
1.923
16.76
11.80de
Lasalocid
0
1.937bc
1.832bcd
9.23bcd
11.79de
ab
cd
d
Lasalocid
0.2
1.940
1.801
4.54
11.99cd
Monensin
0
1.917bc
1.848bc
10.23b
11.30ef
ab
cd
d
Monensin
0.2
1.952
1.808
3.83
12.47bc
Salinomycin
0
1.879cd
1.882ab
11.51b
10.99f
b
cd
cd
Salinomycin
0.2
1.935
1.824
5.40
12.89ab
ab
bcd
bc
Halofuginone
0
1.955
1.829
8.38
11.29ef
Halofuginone 0.2
1.984a
1.781d
4.54d
13.21a
________________________________________________________________________
a-f
Means without a common superscript differ significantly by Least Significant
Difference procedure (P < 0.05).
1
Coccidiostats were include at the following levels in mg/kg complete feed: halifuginone,
3; lasalocid, 99; monensin, 121; and salinomycin, 66.

Table 5. Performance of Peterson x Arbor Acres broiler chickens to 45 days when fed
corn-soy or corn-soy-meat diets with sodium supplements (each contributing +0.054%
sodium), grown on recycled litter, and given a coccidial inoculation by water at 14 days
(May 26-July 10, 1992; Easton, Maryland).
________________________________________________________________________
Dietary
Body
Feed/
Mortality,
Litter
Breast Meat,
Treatments
Weight, kg Body Wt
%
Moisture, %
% Body Wt
________________________________________________________________________
Corn-soy:
1.930a
12.90a
29.31cd
11.67c
Control
2.025ab
ab
c
c
c
+NaCl
2.027
1.879
4.07
34.23
12.59a
+NaHCO3
2.020ab
1.874cd
3.47c
30.83b
12.43ab
b
ab
b
d
+Na2(SO4)
2.009
1.910
8.83
28.26
11.13d
Corn-soy-meat:
1.911ab
13.19a
26.23e
11.52c
Control
2.019ab
+NaCl
2.024ab
1.846d
2.48c
33.56a
12.36ab
a
cd
c
c
2.037
1.868
3.18
29.53
12.60a
+NaHCO3
+Na2(SO4)
2.014ab
1.890bc
7.64b
28.89cd
12.18b
________________________________________________________________________
a-e
Means without a common superscript differ significantly by Least Significant
Difference procedure (P < 0.05).
1
These sodium sources each provided +0.054% additional sodium: 0.139% sodium
chloride, 0.20% sodium bicarbonate, or 0.397% sodium sulfate decahydrate.

Table 6. Coccidial lesion scores (0 least to 4 most severe; composite sum of

intestinal sites scored) of broiler chickens in pen and field trials comparing control and
sodium bicarbonate supplemented diets (1992- 2001).1
________________________________________________________________________
Sodium
Trial Dietary
Litter Coccidial 21 - 22 d Cocci Lesion Score
2
Type Coccidiostat Type Challenge Control Sodium Bicarbonate Bicarbonate, %
________________________________________________________________________
Pen Monensin
Used
Yes
3.69
0.75
0.20
Pen Monensin
Used
Yes
2.88
1.63
0.20
Pen Salinomycin Used
No
1.90
0.73
0.20
Pen Salinomycin Used
Yes
6.33
3.25
0.20
Pen {Salinomycin Used
No
1.35
1.19
0.10
{Salinomycin Used
No
1.35
1.04
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
No
1.35
0.92
0.30
{Salinomycin Used
No
1.35
0.92
0.40
Pen {Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.43
2.03
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.35
1.88
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.13
1.83
0.20
Pen {Salinomycin Used
No
2.28
1.34
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
No
3.66
1.78
0.20
Pen {Salinomycin Used
No
2.28
2.47
0.10
{Salinomycin Used
No
2.28
1.34
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
No
2.28
1.13
0.30
{Salinomycin Used
No
2.28
1.22
0.40
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.66
2.63
0.10
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.66
1.78
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.66
2.00
0.30
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
3.66
1.44
0.40
{Salinomycin Used
No
2.59
1.59
0.20
Pen Salinomycin Used
Yes
2.72
2.19
0.20
Field {Ionophores
No
1.77
1.50
0.20
{Ionophores
No
1.77
1.27
0.20
Pen {Salinomycin Used
Yes
1.84
2.09
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
1.84
1.25
0.30
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
1.84
0.59
0.40
Pen {Salinomycin Used
Yes
1.44
0.78
0.20
{Salinomycin Used
Yes
1.44
0.50
0.30
{Salinomcyin Used
Yes
1.44
0.47
0.40
________________________________________________________________________
1.469 (-42.0%) 0.239
Average by treatment (n = 31; P = 0.0000) 2.532
2.766
1.529 (-44.7%) 0.225
Average by trial (n = 14; P = 0.0001)
________________________________________________________________________
1
Broiler strains were mainly Peterson x Arbor Acres, Ross x Ross, and Cobb x Cobb.
2
Coccidial inoculation was done at 14 days of age using three strains of Eimeria
(acervulina, maxima, and tenella) by drinking water. Lesion scores taken at 21-22 days
except in field trial at 28 days. Field trial used sodium bicarbonate in 4/5 and 3/5 feeds.