Advanced Electrical Services

Chapter 5 : Power Line Disurbances

VTC 2013

Learning outcome

suggest solutions to improve power line disturbances
in the electrical systems
Learning contents

Common power electronics related power line disturbances,
Voltage spikes, Chopped voltage waveform, Harmonics,
Electromagnetic Interference.

Harmonics Filter

Conclusion
Common Power Disturbances
Voltage Sags
One of the most common power frequency disturbances is voltage sag. By
definition, voltage sag is an event that can last from half of a cycle to several
seconds.
Voltage Sags due to motor starting or Arc furnace.
Voltage sags typically are due to starting on large loads, such as an electric
motor or an arc furnace. Induction motors draw starting currents ranging
between 600 and 800% of their nominal full load currents.
The current starts at the high value and tapers off to the normal running
current in about 2 to 8 sec.
Figure below contains the waveform of the starting current of a 50-hp
induction motor with a rated full-load current of 60 A at 460 VAC.

Conclusion
Common Power Disturbances
Waveform of Starting current

Voltage sag due to starting of induction motor

The voltage experienced by a load fed

Zs

from the same bus as the motor is starting:

Vsag = Zm/(Zs+Zm)

Zs=V2/Ssc,, Zm=V2/KSmotor

Where K= ratio between the starting
current and the nominal current

Smotor = a motor of rated power

M
Other loads

Ssc = Short-circuit power

Example : Suppose that a 5MVA motor is started from a 100MVA,11kV

supply. The starting current is six times the nominal current. Please
calculate the voltage at the busbar during motor starting.

Vsag = Ssc/ (Ssc+KSmotor)

Vsag = 100MVA/ (100MVA+6X5MVA) X100%

Vsag = 77%.

Hence, the voltage at the bus during motor starting = 77% x
11kV =8.47kV.

Operational measures to minimize voltage disturbance

The starting of large motor causes disturbances to locally connected

loads and to the motor itself. One profound effect of motor starting is
voltage dip.

A number of schemes of reducing voltage dip during motor starting,

that is

Reduction of terminal voltage by using an auto-transformer.

Reduce of terminal voltage by using a star-delta switch.

By using the Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to control the motor.

Mitigation Measures On Customer side:

Specify equipment with ride through capacity

Properly adjust the settings of the protection for an

equipment.

Install equipment protection device

Constant voltage transformer

Voltage Dip Proof Inverter

contactor hold-in circuit

Use a UPS for sensitive/essential load

Case Study: Chiller

Problem
Voltage Dip

U/V

Chiller

Relay

Improper time delay setting of U/V Relay cannot over

ride the effect of Voltage Dip and causes tripping.

Precaution
Voltage Dip

U/V

Chiller

Relay

Choose a suitable time delay to over ride the effect of

Voltage Dip.

Voltage dip mitigation solutions

Ferroresonant transformer (Constant-voltage transformers)

Voltage regulator

UPS

Voltage dip proofing inverter

Coil lock

Voltage Dip
Proofing Inverter
(DPI)
$6000/kVA

Constant Voltage
Transformer
(CVT)
$5000/kVA

Coil Lock ($600/unit)

(UPS)
$7000/kVA

VOLTAGE DIP PROOF INVERTER (DPI)

Provides a voltage ride through solution

for process controls that suffer from

voltage interruptions (including sags) less
than 3 seconds in duration

No batteries; therefore, no replacement
and maintenance costs or hazardous
waste.

More reliable; fast (<700S) transfer, offline system develops little heat & fails to
safety.

Able to withstand high inrush currents;
no need to oversize as with UPSs &
CVTs.

VOLTAGE DIP PROOF INVERTER (DPI)

To determine the size of a

DPI for an application it is

necessary to have data as
below:
Load voltage
Load current
Load power factor
Uptime required

(Constant-voltage transformers)

CVTs are especially attractive for constant, low power device.

CVTs are excited high on their saturation curves, thereby providing an output

voltage which is not significantly affected by input voltage variations.

As the loading increased, the corresponding ride-through capability is reduced and
when the CVTs is overloaded, the voltage will collapse to zero.

Typically, you would want a factor of 2.5 times the measured load.

Coil lock

Literally any device that is

controlled by energizing an ac
coil, when powered through a
Coil-Lock unit will continue
to operate as intended
through these power
disturbances.

Not only does the Coil-Lock
protect the coil circuits from
voltage sags, but also has the
ability to protect coils from
lightning and switching
induced transients just like a
surge suppressor.

Coil lock

The figure shows the typical

unprotected relay or contactor's

capability to ride through voltage
sags down by 15% from its
nominally rated voltage (yellow
area in the figure).

The same relay or contactor,
when protected by the Coil-Lock,
will continue to keep operating
with voltages sags down by 75%
from its nominally rated voltage
(green area in the figure).

For voltage sags down by greater
than 75%, the Coil-Lock deenergizers the relay or contactor
coil to maintain the safety
function for emergency stop
circuits (red area in the figure).

Conclusion
Static Uninterruptible Power Source System
Static uninterruptible power sources (UPSs) are devices that maintain power
to the loads during loss of normal power for a duration that is a function of
the individual UPS system.
All UPS units have an input rectifier to convert the AC voltage into DC
voltage, a battery system to provide power to loads during loss of normal
power, and an inverter which converts the DC voltage of the battery to an AC
voltage suitable for the load being supplied.
Static UPS systems may be broadly classified into offline and online
units.

Conclusion
Static Uninterruptible Power Source System
In the offline units, the loads are normally supplied from the primary electrical
source directly.
The primary electrical source may be utility power or an in-house generator. If
the primary power source fails, the power to the loads is switched to the
batteries and the inverter. The switching is accomplished within half of a cycle
in most UPS units, thereby allowing critical loads to continue to receive power.
During power transfer from the normal power to the batteries, the loads might
be subjected to transients. Once the loads are transferred to the batteries,
the length of time for which the loads would continue to receive power
depends on the capacity of the batteries and the amount of load.
UPS units usually can supply power for 15 to 30 min, at which time the
batteries become depleted to a level insufficient to supply the loads, and the
UPS unit shuts down.

Uninterruptible Power Source System (offline UPS)

Conclusion

Static Uninterruptible Power Source System ( Online UPS)

In online UPS units, normal power is rectified into DC power and in turn
inverted to AC power to supply the loads. The loads are continuously
supplied from the DC bus even during times when the normal power is
available. A battery system is also connected to the DC bus of the UPS unit
and kept charged from the normal source.
When normal power fails, the DC bus is supplied from the battery system. No
actual power transfer occurs during this time, as the batteries are already
connected to the DC bus. Online units can be equipped with options such as
manual and static bypass switches to circumvent the UPS and supply power
to the loads directly from the normal source or an alternate source such as a
standby generator.

Static Uninterruptible Power Source System ( Online UPS)

The online UPS is the most advanced and most costly UPS. The inverter is
continuously providing clean power from the battery, and the computer
equipment is never receiving power directly from the AC outlet. However,
online units contain cooling fans, which do make noise and may require some
location planning for the home user or small office.

Harmonics

What is harmonics ?
Multiples of the fundamental frequency of any
periodical waveform are called Harmonics.
50Hz (Fundamental Frequency)
+
150Hz (Third Harmonic)
+
250Hz (Fifth Harmonic)

Harmonic distortion

Some load equipment does not draw a sinusoidal current

from a perfectly sinusoidal voltage source!

Harmonics vs Transients

Harmonics are associated with the continuing operation

of load. Harmonics occur in the steady state and are

integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Transient are associated with changes in the system such

as switching a capacitor bank. The natural frequencies

have no relation to the system fundamental frequency.

Harmonic Distortion

Harmonic distortion is caused by non-linear devices in the power

system.

When both the positive and negative half-cycles of a waveform have

identical shapes, the fourier series contains only odd harmonics.

In fact, the presence of even harmonics is often a clue that there is

something wrong either with the load equipment or with the

transducer used to make the measurement. There are notable
exceptions to this such as half-wave rectifiers and arc furnaces when
the arc is random.

What is harmonic ?

For power networks, 50 Hz (60 Hz) is the

fundamental frequency and 150 Hz (180 Hz), 250 Hz (300 Hz)

etc. are higher order harmonics viz. 3rd & 5th

Odd Harmonics (5th, 7th ..)

Even Harmonics (2nd , 4th .)

Triplen (3rd, 9th , 15th ..)

Inter harmonics (2.5th => 125 Hz)

Triplen Harmonics

Triplen harmonics are the odd multiples of the third harmonic

(h=3,9,15,21)
Two typical problems are overloading the neutral and telephone interfence.
Third-harmonics components are three times the third-harmonic-phase
currents because they naturally coincide in phase and time.
In the wye-delta transformer, the triplen harmonics current remain trapped in
the delta side when the system is operated in balanced load condition.
Measuring the current on the delta side of a transformer will not show the
triplens and not give a true idea of the heating the transformer is being subject
to.
Although fed by a delta-delta connection, the third harmonics show up in the
large magnitudes in the line current when the furnace is operating in an
imbalanced state.

Harmonics classification
Order

Group

Effects

n=1

Fundamental

active power

n= 6K+1, k=1,2 + sequence

heating

n= 6K-1, K=1,2 - sequence

heating &
motor
problems
heating &
neutral
problems

n = 3n

0 sequence

Harmonic frequency and Sequences

Harmonic
Freq(Hz))
Sequence
order
Fundamental 50
+
3rd
150
0
5th
250
7th
350
+
9th
450
0
11th
550
13th
650
+

Sequences Phasor
R

Positive Seq.

B
Negative Seq.

Zero Seq.

*note: Zero sequence may add (not cancel) in a common

wire and result in very high neutral currents

Source of Harmonics
Harmonic Currents flowing
through the system impedance
results in Harmonic Voltage
Distortion at load
Normal load

VL(t)

VS(t)

Cable

Harmonic
current

Supply
Side

Load Side

Dirty Load

Voltage vs Current Distortion

Nonlinear loads appear to be sources of harmonics
current and injecting the harmonic currents into the
power system.
For nearly all analyses, it is sufficient to treat these
harmonic-producing loads simply as current sources.
Voltage distortion is the result of distorted current
passing through the linear, series impedance of the
power delivery system. This results in voltage harmonics
appearing at the load bus.
The amount of voltage distortion depends on the
impedance and the current.

Where do the harmonics come from?

All magnetisation non-linearities

Transformer operating near saturation

Higher voltage

No load current

Inrush current

Arc Furnaces, ...

Power electronics, converters, drives...

Rectifiers

Inverters

Cycloconverters

Where do the harmonics come from?

Arc welders

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)

Fluorescent lighting systems

All non linear loads

(current response is not the same as the voltage
source).

Examples of Harmonic load - Commercial

Load

Mode

Funda. Current

THD-F (%)

Dominating Harmonics

On

0.54A

110%

3rd

58%

UPS #1
UPS #2
Magnetic ballast w/cap

Print
Idle
Send
Print
Idle
Copy
Idle
Server
PC
On

0.34A
0.11
0.16A
3.74A
0.11A
5.56A
0.35A
40A
4.3A
0.21A

113%
160%
120%
6%
98%
26%
106%
35%
130%
30%

3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
5th
3rd
3rd
3rd

55%
52%
87%
5%
54%
20%
42%
25%
89%
18%

Electronic ballast #1

On

0.19A

34%

3rd

26%

Electronic ballast #2

On

0.23A

10%

3rd

9%

Sodium Lamp

On

0.24A

64%

7th

44%

On

0.1A

136%

3rd

49%

On
Run

8.5A
39A

5%
36%

5th
5th

4.8%
28%

Computer with monitor

Laser printer
Fax machine

Photocopier

Compact florescent lamp

Fan coil
Lift

Typical Harmonic Sources in Office

Switching-mode power supply:
THD 77%, 3rd 65%

Typical Harmonic Sources in Office

Magnetic ballast
THD 22% , 3rd 20%

Typical Harmonic Sources from Industries

DC drive :
THD 36%, 5th harmonics 33%

Typical Harmonic Sources from Industries

Adjustable Speed Drive -ASDs (HVAC system):

THD 45%, 5th 40%

Typical Harmonic Sources from Industries

PWM drive (no choke):
THD 131%, 5th 83%, 7th 78%

Typical Harmonic Sources from Industries

Single-phase power supplies

A distinctive characteristic of switch-mode power supplies is

a very high third-harmonics content in the current.

Since third-harmonics current components are additive in
the neutral of a three phase system, the increasing application
of switch-mode power supplier causes concern for
overloading of neutral conductors and transformer heating.

Typical Harmonic Sources from Industries

Three-phase power converters D.C Drives

Three phase power converters differ from single phase

converter mainly because they do not generate thirdharmonics current.

The two largest harmonic currents for the six pulse rectifier
are the 5th and the 7th.

A 12-pulse rectifier can eliminate about 90% of the 5th and
the 7th harmonics.

Impact of operating condition

The harmonic current distortion in adjustable-speed drives is

not constant.

For example, Speed increase, percentage of harmonics also
increase.

Problems created by harmonics

Excessive heating of device

Harmonic Distortion -> Increase of RMS

Power loss = R . I12 + In2*R -> heating

Nuisance tripping of circuit breaker

Increase of RMS Thermally

Increase of peak Magnetically

Blown fuses

Problems created by harmonics

Motor problems

Additional losses in windings & iron

(RMS increase & skin effect)

Perturbing torques on shaft
(negative sequences harmonics)

Problems created by harmonics

Damage to electronic sensitive equipments

Electronic communications interferences

Excessive neutral current

(mainly zero-sequence harmonics)

Excessive harmonic current may lead to overheating (or even
burning) of network components

Problems created by harmonics

Erratic operation of control and protection relays

Faulty reading of kWh meters

Capacitor problems

Decrease of impedance with frequency

Resonance problems

Capacitor overload

Capacitor problems
Due to its lower impedance, capacitors are even more
susceptible to higher order
harmonics. If not designed for harmonic duty, a capacitor
may fail pretty soon

Harmonic Impact on transformer

There are three effects that result in increased transformer

heating when load current includes harmonic components.

The increased total rms current results in increased conductor

losses.

Eddy-current losses. This component of transformer losses
increase with the square of the frequency of the current causing
the eddy currents.

Core losses

Harmonic Impacts on motors

Motors can be significantly impacted by the harmonic voltage

distortion. Harmonic voltage distortion at the motor

terminals is translated into harmonic flux within motor.

Decreased effeciency, along with heating, vibration and highpitched noises are symptoms of harmonic voltage
distortation.

Solutions to harmonic problems

Work with the equipment manufacturer and utilities

Specify equipment with low harmonics emission
Properly design of passive filters
Install active filters

Solutions to harmonic problems

Active Filter

Active
Filter

Active harmonic filters

Filtering principle: cancellation of harmonics by equal and opposite

harmonic generation by an active filter device

Active filters
Active filters are relatively new types of devices for
eliminating harmonics. They are based on sophisticated
power electronics and are much more expensive than passive
filters. However, they have the distinct advantage that they
do not resonate with the system.

Active filters
The basic idea is to replace the portion of the since wave that
is missing in the current in a nonlinear load.
An electronic control monitors the line voltage and/or
current, switching the power electronics very precisely to
track the load current or voltage and force it to be sinusoidal.

Principles for Controlling Harmonics

Passive filters

Passive filters are made of inductance, capacitance, and
resistance elements

They are employed either to shunt the harmonic current
off the line or to block their flow between parts of the
system by tuning the elements to create a resonance at a
selected harmonic frequency.

Example 2: Refer to the equivalent circuit as below.

System line-to-line voltage=VLL=13.8KV

The offending harmonic current ih of the fifth order, and it has been
measured to be 10A.

The size of the capacitor bank is 800kVar. The determination of filter
components should be based on the maximum system voltage 13.8kV.

L
VLL

Shunt Filter

Harmonic
Source


The capacitive reactance can be determined by using the

formula Xch= V2/(Qh)

Where h=harmonic order

Xch=capacitive reactance at harmonic order h

Capacitive reactance at the fundamental frequency (60HZ) :
Xc1=13.8kV2/800kVar=238.05 ohm

C = 1/(2f Xc) = 1/(260 238.05) =11.14uF

Capacitive reactance at the fifth harmonic (300HZ) :
Xc5=Xc1/5 = 47.61 ohm


For the filter to be tuned at the fifth harmonic, the capacitive reactance

Xc5 should be equal to the inductive reactance (XL5), thus

Xc5=XL5 =47.61 ohm

The reactance of the reactor at the fundamental frequency is given by

XL1=XL5/5 = 9.522 ohm
L = 9.522/ 2f = 0.025H

The thermal load on the reactor. The filter reactor must be capable of
carrying the total rms current, fundamental plus harmonics without
overheating.

The peak voltage across the capacitor.


To determine the amount of current that the filter will have to handle,

Ic1=VLL/(Xc1-XL1) =13800/(238.05 -9.522)=60.386A

The total rms current through the reactor is
IL=(I1)2+(I5)2 = (60.386)2+(10)2 =61.2A

The worst-case condition will be assumed for the peak voltage across the

capacitor: the fundamental and harmonic components are in phase with

each other; therefore, the peak voltage across the capacitor is the
arithmetic sum of the peak fundamental and the peak fifth harmonic
voltage.


The fundamental component of the voltage across the

capacitor is

Vc1=Xc1Ic1=(238.05)(60.386) =14373.9V

Vc5=Xc5Ic5=(47.61)(10)=476.1V

The peak voltage across the capacitor is

Vp=2 (Vc1+Vc5) = 2 (14373.9+476.1)

Based on applicable capacitor standards, capacitors should
be capable of withstanding 120% of rated voltage.

Thus, the capacitor should be capable of withstanding
1.2Vp=1.2x(14850) = 17820V.

Total Harmonic Distortion

The formula for Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is:-

2
(
)
I
h

%THD =

h=2

I1

I 2 + I3 + I 4 + ...
100% =
100%
I1

Total Harmonic Distortion

h max

For Voltage

h=2

THD =

V1

Rms

= V1 x 1+ THD

h max

h=1

THD can provide a good idea of how much extra heat will be realized

when a distorted voltage is applied across a resistive load.

However, it is not a good indicator of the voltage stress within
capacitor because that is related to the peak value of the voltage
waveform.

Existing CLP Supply Rules Current

Type of Distortion Type of Abnormal Load

Operational Limit

Harmonic Current
Distortion

1.At 380V/220V
Total odd harmonic distortion:
I < 30A
20%
30A<=I<300A
15%
300A<=I<600A
12%
600A<=I<1500A
8%
I >= 1500A
5%
total even harmonic distortion:
25% of the odd harmonic
limits

Other Non-linear
Equipment with size I in
Ampere

Existing CLP Supply Rules (Voltage)

Type of Distortion

Type of Abnormal Load

Operational Limit

Harmonic Voltage
Distortion

Electric arc furnace

At 132kV or above
odd harmonic distortion
total harmonic distortion

1%
1.5%

At 66kV or 33kV
odd harmonic distortion
total harmonic distortion

2%
3%

At 11kV
odd harmonic distortion
total harmonic distortion

3%
4%

Maximum allowable THD

In case of motor circuits using VSDs, group compensation at

the sub-main panel or MCC is allowed, provided that the

maximum allowable 5th harmonic current distortion at the
VSD input terminals during operation within the variable
speed range is < 35%.