Lecture-1

Direct Measurement of Distance

One of the fundamental operations involved in surveying is to find out distance (on the surface of the
earth). In plane surveying distance means spatial separation of points projected on a horizontal plane.

Introduction
The horizontal distance between points, projected onto a horizontal plane, is required to be
measured in order to prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.

Methods of measurement
In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are
1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electronic method.
In any work, the choice of a method depends on many factors like field condition, accuracy
required, availability of resources (instruments, time, skill, fund etc). Table 8.1 summarizes the
principal methods, instrument required, precision, use, errors of measurement of distance.

Table 8.1 Salient Methods of Measuring Distance

Instrument
Relative
Method
Use
Required
Precision
(A) Direct Measurement of distance
Tape, pegs, plumb 1 / 3000 to 1 / Traverse for land surveys and topographic surveys
Taping
bob
5000
and during combustion.
(B) Optical Measurement of distance
1 / 300 to 1 / Location of detail for topographic mapping, rough
Stadia Tacheometer
2000
traverse, checkingmore amount measurement.
(C) Electromagnetic measurement of Distance
Traverse, Triangulation and trilateration for control
0.2 mm 1 surveys of all relative precision is defend as the ratio
EDM EDM Equipment
ppm
of the type anf for allowed stand and deviations to
the distance type and for contraction surveys.

Direct Measurement
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by using tape, is
known as direct method.
Ranging
When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be
laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process
of laying out a straight line between points is known as ranging.

Direct Ranging
Indirect Ranging

Direct Ranging
When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate
points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points
are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus, points are selected in such
a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in a straight line (Figure 8.1). In this
method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of at least one
surveyor and one assistant.

Indirect Ranging
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect
method of ranging is being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal method or by
random line method.
1. Reciprocal Ranging
2. Random Line Method

Reciprocal Ranging
Figure 8.2 shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B are the two
end points whose distance is required to be found and are not inter visible. To fix the
intermediate points in a straight line between these points, two more points say C and D are
chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from D. Then, direct ranging is
being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB lie in
a straight line.

Ranging by Random Line Method

In this method, (Figure 8.3) a random line such as BQ is being laid such that R is visible from Q.
A perpendicular QR is being erected at Q and measure its distance. Then the desired distance BR
is being calculated using distance formula.

In laying the line BR, intermediate points are established first. These are laid by taking offset
from the random line at distances calculated by using the method of similar triangle such as

After locating the intermediate points on the line BR, the obstructions get cleared to make the
end points intervisible. Then, direct ranging is being carried out to obtain an extended continous
straight line.

Taping
Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes (steel/linen), either by placing it on the
ground or sometimes by getting it suspended between points. Additional equipments employed
during taping are plumb bob, the hand level, pegs/ pins and range pole (or flag or ranging rod)
etc. The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of refinement with
which measurements are taken.

Field Problems
During measurement of distance, various obstacles may be encountered in the field. Depending
upon the type of obstacle, a suitable geometrical figure has to be framed and an equivalent
distance has to be measured or computed. Obstacles encountered in the field can be divided into
three broad categories.
Type I : Ranging along obstacle is possible but not measurement such as pond, river etc

Fig 8.4 a. Measurement of Obstructed Ranging round the obstacle.

To carry measurement along the type of obstacles where measurement round the obstacle is possible,
perpendicular offsets are drawn from the line one at each side of the obstacle, as shown in Figure 8.4(a).
Then, a parallel distance equivalent to distance along the obstacle is measured. In some cases, the distance
is being calculated either adopting basic principle of geometry and/or trigonometric relations Figure
8.4(b)

When measurement round an obstacle is not possible, similar triangles are established as shown in Figure
8.5(a), Figure 8.5(b). The unknown distance is calculated by solving similar triangles.

Ex8-1 During measurement of distance, a pond had been come across the path. Let P and Q are
the stations selected on the opposite side of the pond. A line PC = 900 m, was set out on one side
of PQ, and a line PD =1100m was set out on the other side, such that CQD was in a straight line.
The length of the lines CQ and QD are 500m and 600m respectively. Determine the desired
distance PQ.

Figure Ex8-1
Solution : Refer Figure for Ex8-1

Ex8-2 A survey line AB crosses a river. A line AP is run perpendicular to the survey line having
length 200m. Another line PB is set at right angle to QP such that the point Q lies on the survey
line at the extension of BA and at a distance of 50m from A. Compute the distance AB.

Figure Ex8-2
Solution : Refer Figure for Ex8-2

Type II : Measurement along obstacle is possible but not ranging such as bush etc.
In this case, either of method of reciprocal ranging or ranging by random line method is being
adopted to range a line between stations and subsequently measurement of distance is being
carried out.
Type III : Both ranging and measurement along the obstacle is not possible such as building.
In this case, two perpendicular offsets of equal length are erected from the line before the
obstacle and a parallel line is ranged, as shown in Figure 8.6. The parallel line is extended and
two perpendicular offsets, of same length as before, beyond the obstacle, are dropped from the
line beyond the obstacle. Equivalent distance along a line parallel to ranged line is then measured
to get the distance. However, depending on field condition surveyor can apply suitable
geometrical /trigonometric concepts to find the unknown distance

Mistakes in Taping
During taping, mistakes generally made by individuals (usually inexperienced) are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Adding or dropping a full length of tape

Adding or dropping a part of the length of tape
Other points incorrectly taken as 0 or 30 meter marks on tape
Reading numbers incorrectly
Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

Exercise 8
Ex.8-1 Describe how you would range a survey line between two stations which are not inter
visible?
Ex.8-2 A survey line AB crosses a river obliquely. P and Q are two points selected on the line
one at each end of the river. Another line EPF is run parallel to the centre line of the river and
point E is such that angle QEP is right angle and EP = PF = 100 m. A third point G is set at a
distance of 150 m from P such that angle GFP is also right angle. Compute the distance PQ

Answers
For Exercise 8
M3-Ex.8-2 180.278 m