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ARCHITECTURE
Architecture and Civil Engineering of Ancient India
RISHIKA GOKHALE
1
CONTENTS
1) Introduction..
2) Why is the architecture of ancient India so unique?............
Prologue
Isnt it very demeaning when something does not get the
limelight and the prominence that it deserves? In this case,
it is a very ancient yet advanced civilization that has been
ignored for centuries the Indian civilization. Thus, at
times it becomes very important for people to be reminded
that the Indian civilization which has spanned a period of
at least 4,500 years, has left its impact on nearly everything in our lives and society.
Out of 380 listed UNESCO world heritage sites, only 26
are in India. This shows that many of the architectural
monuments in India have been neglected. It speaks volumes of how insufficient is the awareness about the creative, genius and industry of this ancient land, people, and
also of the gifts bestowed on it by nature.
Introduction
Architecture is the art and technique of building to fulfil the
practical and expressive requirements of the civilized people (Encyclopedia Britannica). In fact, architecture has always been regarded as a symbol of development of a particular region or place. In simpler words, this is the ability
of a civilization to construct shelter according to its needs
and requirements.
Every civilization has its own history and culture which has
a lot of influence on their architecture. This is why all ancient monuments differ based on which civilization built it
and the era it was built in.
In this regard, Bedekar (1999) writes:
Although human beings need shelter, protection and other
basic functions that are similar across the world, still, we
do not find similar or identical structures, everywhere.
4
All the cities in the valley were surrounded by high walls and
gateways. They valued the walls and the gateways, as it
helped them control trade and also stop the city from being
flooded. Furthermore, each part of the city was made up of
walled sections. Each section included different buildings such as: public buildings, houses, markets,
craft workshops, etc.
Some of the major sections of the cities were:
Granaries: These were among the largest structures in the
town which were used to store grains for all the residents of
the town.
The Great Bath: This was one of the most important structures in the town. The floor of the bath had five layers. It
was so watertight that even today it holds water. There were
changing rooms. People probably used it during festivals and
religious ceremonies. (Kumari, 2012).
Wells: The wells were very common in the Indus Valley civilization. In fact, one of the most recognizable features were
these tall and deep wells. The big houses had their own
wells, other wells would serve groups of smaller houses. The
presence of the wells made sure the people had access to water throughout the year regardless of the season.
An old well in Lothal, a small town
near Harappa
Some of the carvings depicting day to day life of the people and the various forms of God that they worship.
Chola dynasty
Airavateeswara
temple
which were extremely colorful and ornamented with intricate carvings and designs.
high wall enclosures and massive gateways were also
much more prominent in Pandyan temples
Are noted for the intricacy and beauty especially for the
decorated monolithic pillars.
Meenakshi temple in
Tamil Nadu is an example of the Panyan
dynasty architecture
history of architecture. They did not have the time or the resources to indulge in such activities due to their protracted
wars with the Mughals. However, we can get some idea
about their famous architectural style from later buildings
such as forts, palaces and temples. Bricks, mortar, wood and
stones were the most common materials used for construction. Some of the distinct features of the mansions
were "pointed arches, heavy carved stone brackets, narrow
balconies projecting on rows of such brackets, domical shallow ceilings resting on a variety of squinches, the chief being
the interwoven type".
The Maratha architecture lacked the beauty and grace of the
buildings of the Mughals, Rajputs etc. But the Marathas excelled in fort architecture. The wood work they used to decorate their palaces and other civil buildings was intricate and
minute. Maratha art could have developed and attained a distinctive character but it was not possible because of the turbulent times. (Vardhan, 2012)
Shalimars Garden
Jama Masjid
Fatehpur Sikri
Buland Darwaza
One of the most shocking part about this temple is its futuristic depiction. We are all very well aware that the Telescope
was first invented by Hans Lippershey in 1600s. However,
there is clear evidence that the concept of using an object
similar to the telescope to observe the space, was already developed by the Hoysalas (Dynasty which built this temple)
back in 1117 A.D. Another futuristic depiction is the weapons similar to the modern day missiles. As mentioned earlier,
one of the most common depictions on the exteriors of the
temples are war scenes. In one of the war scenes, there is a
clear depiction of a weapon which looks like a missile, being
used on the enemy. Such futuristic depictions clearly indicate that India was very advanced with technology and their
lives in general as far back as the 1117 A.D. or even earlier.
In conclusion, the architecture of Hindu temples is symbolic.
The whole structure fuses the daily life and it surroundings
with the divine concepts, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred world.
mathematical motifs of contemporary scientific interest. The nature of the divinity is emphasized through links
and knots, which have their usual meanings as well as precise mathematical ones.
Let us take an example of the Borromean Triangles seen on
the pillars of the temple.
Its is a set of three identical overlapping equilateral triangles at whose center is a four petal flower. Unlike the twodimensional yantras which typically have several overlapping triangles, this one is sculpted with the third dimension
in mind.
We can make out that the three triangles overlap in a very
specific and remarkable way: The three are inextricably
and collectively linked; if any one of the triangles is removed the other two fall apart as well.
*yantra: the Sanskrit word for a mystical diagram, especially diagrams or amulets supposed to possess occult powers
in astrological tradition or magical benefits in
the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions.
The concept of fractals* has been used to explain why existing buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying, as they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances. For example, in Hindu temples
such as the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, the parts and the
whole have the same character.
*Fractals can be defined as a curve or
geometric figure, each part of which
has the same statistical character as the
whole.
This image shows the fractal concept
applied to this magnificent temple of
Virupaksha.
ed by the smaller part is also equal to the whole length divided by the longer part.
Almost all ancient Indian temples also followed a set of design guidelines that were closely related to the concept of
golden ratio.
The image above shows that the height of the temple should
be double its width, and the height of the foundation above
the ground with the steps equal to a third of this height. The
sanctum sanctorum should be half the width of the temple
and so on.
These helped pave the way for enhanced health, wealth, prosperity and happiness in an enlightened environment. In fact,
many believe that the proper implementation of Vastushastra
techniques has brought peace and prosperity to many households for centuries. Though Vastu started out with the construction rules for Hindu temples, it soon branched out to residential houses, office buildings etc.
The exact history of Vastushastra is unknown, however, it is
believed that it was developed between 6000 BCE and 3000
BCE, adding that the archaeological sites
of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro stand on the principles of
Vastushastra.
In the Vedic period, people built homes, temples and hermitages with a view to have a peaceful and harmonious living.
But, in the modern world people build concrete clusters, mainly for the financial gains. This race to make buildings not in
line with the ancient laws of nature has led the world into a
quagmire of pollution, environmental and ecological problems.
The detailed concepts of Vastushastra were developed with regard to the 5 elements or the Panchabutas. However, some were
also based on mythology and beliefs. Below are some of the
basic concepts of Vastushatra:
The plot should not be too porous. Earth should not absorb
water too quickly.
The plot should not be of irregular shape. The ideal plot is
either square or rectangular with length 1.5 times than the
breadth.
It is not recommended to buy a plot facing the west direction. This is crucial because the presence of sunlight plays
an important role and homes that do not get sufficient sunlight are prone to sickness.
A lot of importance is also given to directions:
West: In Vastushastra, the west direction is considered pitiable. This direction is where the sun sets and this means that
when the sun is setting there are negative energies which is
why the entrance to the west is not advisable.
East: The sun rises on the East and thus people believe that
this indicates positivity and a new beginning. This direction is
considered beneficial for everyone. The entrance of the house
should be facing this direction. Additionally, while building a
house, the east side should be left open so that the owner of
the house has a long and prosperous life.
South: This is a debatable direction since many have mixed
feelings about whether a house should be facing the South.
According to Vastushastra, this direction should be avoided
since, it is believed that this direction causes a decrease in human life. However, many disagree and consider the direction,
lucky.
North: This direction is believed to be favorable for the constructions of offices. The north side is supposed to be auspicious and also brings prosperity to everyone in the house.
North side should be kept open so that it brings peace and
comfort as well.
One of the most important and valued concepts of Vastushastra is the design of the House. The design should either be
square or rectangular. Other designs like U shape, V-shape, or
triangular shapes are to be avoided. Angles obstruct positive
energy flows.
Although some of the concepts are based on beliefs and values, most of them have a very advanced scientific reasoning.
Vastushastra is exercised by many famous architects in India
and in other countries. It is crucial to realize that Vastushastra
has a scientific background with a practical application and is
not just grounded on superstitions.
The building science has its presence all over the world, in
different forms. Be it Vitruvius (Roman) or Feng-shui
(Chinese) or Vastushastra, all have one common message/goal
to lay down some guidelines for the architects to design
buildings in harmony with nature and taking advantage of the
prevailing natural gifts of sunlight ,wind, cosmic energy to
make a habitat which is beneficial to the inmates and make
their life prosperous.
An ideal engineer, according to Vastushastra should be a rational and a practical thinker, benign, a mathematician,
knowledgeable, trustworthy, stoic, a technically sound, good
draftsman, meteorologist, strong and committed, a perfect
leader, accurate and consistent.
The engineer should also have a good conduct, be creative,
knowledgeable and skillful in applying scientific principles
and knowledge in practice.
The engineer and his team are in charge of many areas and
most importantly in making sure the construction has been
made according to the wishes of the landlord/owner. To make
this process easier, the team of workers were divided into categories:
Sutragrahi
Taksaka
Vardhaki
Karmi
Vardhaki: The Vardhaki is responsible for most of the physical activities taking place at the construction site and this
includes:
1) Digging the land for the foundation of the building
2) Construction of the base, using the materials provided
by the Taksaka
3) Checking the alignment of the structure and alterations
4) Responsible for the delicate finishing, artistic look, interiors, wall paintings etc.
3) Basically, carrying out everything according to the instrcutions of the sthapati (The main architect)
From the above, it is very apparent that the roles and responsibilities of every class of the construction crew were very interconnected and interdependent. This meticulous system ensured that every person did his/her job properly.
B) Land Selection
One of the main requirements of the land where the construction is being done is that it should be completely levelled. The
ideas used by the ancient Indians on land selection and testing
were very much advanced and evolved. Land was categorized
into 4 types:
Purna: Less water and hilly land
Supadma: Ample water and plain land
Bhadra: Near seashore and rich land
Salya Vicara:
This was a very important concept that was adopted by the
ancient Indian engineers.
This concept was used to determine the history and current
utility of the particular land. This method suggests drilling the
land to a predetermined level, and, based on the objects found
during digging, proper decisions and inferences should be
drawn (Altekar, 2004)
Fascinatingly there are several similarities between the modern technique of random land sampling and the concept of
Salya Vicara. Both confer about the idea of minimizing the efforts and costs and opting for the random sampling of land area and how inferences can be drawn regarding the whole
land. This also presents the possibility of the background of
random sampling and how it could have been inspired by the
ancient Indian method, called Salya Vicara.
C) Building Materials
Building materials, also known as Vatsu was given a lot of
importance by the architects and engineers. An approach with
a very high degree of such scientific considerations proves the
existence of extraordinary intelligence of the ancient Indian
society. There were various aspects of building materials that
were considered:
Types of materials
Classification of properties of the materials
Theory of material processing
Prospective Learning
The study of the ancient Indian architecture reveals how
Over the past few years rapid and inconceivable developments in technology have occurred. For instance,
computers and information technology, where auto design of structures, simulations etc. can be carried out in a
click of a few buttons. Machineries have also been invented, which can help construct buildings or carve any
designs on the structure.
The change in the culture and lifestyle of the people of
today and what they expect out of architectural structures. The population size is also another factor.
Innovations of high quality, tough and light weight materials, the discovery of other composite materialss resulting in low weight constructions but of high strength .
A)Technical Aspects
The fundamental strength of Vastushasta lies in its approach
to maximize the utilization of natural resources and accordingly plan the various rooms and the space in the house in
general. Proper town planning ensured that the natures gifts
were visible naturally, unlike today, where we see
crucial as the space that people require to do their jobs depends on space required for them to easily accommodate
themselves. The physical need for space is all dependent on
the person itself.
**Anthropometry refers to the scientific study of the measurements of the human external body dimensions. This also
involved the measurements of the body parts and the their
ranges of motion. Therefore identifying the users and their
anthropometric measurements is a very crucial in architecture and civil engineering. Furthermore, keeping their anthropometric sizes as a guideline will also ensure that every
individual has a benefit of his/her own space bubble ( a persons minimal spatial requirement for movement).
Considerations for internal and external home environment is
also crucial:
Light:
1)Light is a very important aspect to be taken into consideration because to be able to see, adequate amount of good
B) Environmental Aspects
Vastushastra supports the pattern of thinking wherein a lot
of importance is given to the laws of the nature. On a superficial view the Vastushastra may appear to be heavily relying on mythology only. But studying these principles in
detail has revealed how these principles were purely based
on scientific methodology and not just mythology. Following are some of the concepts that we can borrow from
Vastushastra in order to maintain and sustain good environment on this planet.
1)The use of natural resources for constructions
In ancient India extensive usage of natural resources such
as cow dung, mud, grass, tree leaves etc. were very common. However, today there is a common misconception
that constructions which do not utilize cement are weak and
frail. People are ignorant about the fact that ancient monuments, such as the Belur, Halebidu temple, Qutub Minar
and
C) Social Aspects
Social values and obligations are some of the most ignored
aspects of todays society. Today, construction businesses are
some of the most corrupted trades in most of the developing
countries and sometimes, even in the first world countries.
Nowadays construction companies are the ones who decide
the direction and extents to which a city grows. Additionally,
no authority can be held responsible for the collapsing and
structural problems of a construction. Conflicts, dissatisfactions, misunderstandings, breaches of contract etc. amongst
the builders, architects and clients, are very rampant in todays world. Corrupt practices in terms of demanding bribes,
black money, false execution of designs etc. are also very
ubiquitous.
Vastushastra ensured strict enforcement of social value system, which is evidently lacking in todays society. Some of
the values that we can learn from Vastushastra are:
Conclusion
The awareness about maintenance of ancient structures is another ignored area in our society. It has reached a point where
some of the greatest temples in India are either becoming
commercial sites or picnic spots. Very few people have been
able to completely understand and realize the great wealth of
architecture and its intricacy. Sadly, there is also no formal
education system which can run courses on the education of
the architecture of ancient India and its values for common
Indians. Although the study of ancient architecture is esoteric,
having such systems is crucial part in the conservation of
such mind-blowing and incredible monuments.
Furthermore, detailed study of the architecture of ancient India has the ability to reveal a lot about the rich history of India and the world in general.
Indian architecture is intimately connected to many aspects
of living, from cultural, to religious themes. Knowing more
about it can seem like communicating with lost times and ancestors. After all, the stone and mortar were not made for us
to simply look at, there were some messages left behind, like
the detailed carvings that depict how life was, centuries ago.
An appreciation of ancient architecture may teach us something different. (Lakshminarayan, 2015)
We can conclude by noting that the specialty of architecture
based on Vastushastra, is evident in its uncommon excellence
in terms of proportionality, divinity, stability, rigidity and
beauty. To prove and support the points mentioned, we can
see the live witnesses of architectural wonders which exhibits the properties mentioned above.
One of the prominent examples is the Konark Sun Temple,
situated in Odisha (East India). In 1999, a super cyclone (a
category 5 hurricane) had caused the death of about 10,000
people, and extreme damage in its path of destruction. However, the Sun temple was in perfect condition with no imminent danger to it gigantic structure.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to all those who encouraged me to pursue my
research on the subject of ancient Indian architecture. I sincerely appreciate the help provided by the following people:
My family who provided constant support throughout the
journey of writing the book
Ms. Alex Hollande, who perfectly supervised my project
which aimed in raising awareness about the architecture of
ancient India.
Mr. Arul Lakshminarayan, a professor in the department
of Physics, at the renowned college of Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras. He had a keen interest and wide
knowledge in the subject, which enabled him to answer
my queries.
Dr. Shalvapille Iyengar, a professor in the department of
studies and research in ancient history and archeology at
Karnataka State open University, India.
Ms. Pooja Deshpande, a student of architectural engineering with special interest in ancient Indian architecture.
Ms. Ramya Rangarajan, who studied the subject of architectural engineering with a keen interest in raising awareness about the architecture of ancient India.
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