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ANCIENT INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE
Architecture and Civil Engineering of Ancient India

RISHIKA GOKHALE
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CONTENTS
1) Introduction..
2) Why is the architecture of ancient India so unique?............

3) The different dynasties and civilizations...


4) The meaning and symbolism of the depictions of ancient Indian
temple architecture...

5) The complex Mathematical concepts ...


6) The concept of Vastushastra and its evolution...

7) An insight into Vastushastra


a. Characteristics of the engineer
b. Land selection
c. Building materials .
8) Prospective Learning:
a. Technical Aspects
b. Social Aspects
c. Environmental Aspects
9) Conclusion

10) Bibliography and Acknowledgements

Prologue
Isnt it very demeaning when something does not get the
limelight and the prominence that it deserves? In this case,
it is a very ancient yet advanced civilization that has been
ignored for centuries the Indian civilization. Thus, at
times it becomes very important for people to be reminded
that the Indian civilization which has spanned a period of
at least 4,500 years, has left its impact on nearly everything in our lives and society.
Out of 380 listed UNESCO world heritage sites, only 26
are in India. This shows that many of the architectural
monuments in India have been neglected. It speaks volumes of how insufficient is the awareness about the creative, genius and industry of this ancient land, people, and
also of the gifts bestowed on it by nature.

The architecture of India was unbelievably advanced since

centuries, however, many Indians themselves are not aware


of the fact that their motherland has a proud achievement in
the field of architecture and civil engineering.
This book aims to raise awareness about the intricate and
nearly perfect architecture of ancient India.

Introduction
Architecture is the art and technique of building to fulfil the
practical and expressive requirements of the civilized people (Encyclopedia Britannica). In fact, architecture has always been regarded as a symbol of development of a particular region or place. In simpler words, this is the ability
of a civilization to construct shelter according to its needs
and requirements.
Every civilization has its own history and culture which has
a lot of influence on their architecture. This is why all ancient monuments differ based on which civilization built it
and the era it was built in.
In this regard, Bedekar (1999) writes:
Although human beings need shelter, protection and other
basic functions that are similar across the world, still, we
do not find similar or identical structures, everywhere.
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Not only do these structures differ in design, but also in


the kind of expression that is seen in their art.
These structures and monuments become synonymous
with the places where they stand. Hence, we identify
Egypt with Pyramids, Rome with the Colosseum, China
with the Great Wall or India with the Taj Mahal.
The Indian civilization has had remarkable achievements
throughout history. However, one of the most enduring
accomplishments is undoubtedly its rich history in architecture and civil engineering. With a past stretching back
up to around 2500 BC, there are innumerable ancient architectural monuments, all across India.
Different types of Indian architectural styles include a
mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by
the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result
of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens
have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity
across history. (Cultural India, n.d., para. 1)

The architecture of ancient India, laid a lot of emphasis on


the concept of Vastushastra. Construction of houses, temples etc. were all based on these concept. Vastushastra is
an ancient science of architecture and construction. Found
in the ancient scriptures of India, it describes the principles
of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space
arrangement and spatial geometry. It is the science of direction that combines all the five elements of nature and
balances them with man and materials. The details and the
various concepts of Vastushastra will be further discussed
in chapter 6.
Another obvious factor that determined the architectural
style was the different eras of civilizations and dynasties.
Their culture, requirements, beliefs and values definitely
had an influence on the architectural styles, as monuments
from different eras differed. For instance monuments built
during the Mughal era had a lot of Islamic influence and

thus resembled their place of worship (mosques).


Concerning the civilizations of ancient India, the Indus Valley civilization was the most significant. Around five thousand years ago, an important civilization developed on the
Indus River floodplain. From about 2600 B.C. to 1700 B.C.
a vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the
Indus River and surrounding areas.
Similarly, major dynasties all across ancient India, significantly contributed to the development of architectural
styles. The major dynasties that existed in India during that
period,
Hoysala
Chola
Pandyan
Marathas
Mughals

Harrapa (Indus Valley civilization) architecture


Photograph credits: Eduardo Liera

Mohenjo Daro (Indus Valley civilization) architecture


Photograph Credits: BBC

The well Harappa


architecture

Humanyuns Tomb Ancient Mughal architecture

Belur Temple Hoysala Empire architecture

Chola dynasty architecture Parasuram Temple

Pandya Dynasty Thanjavur


Temple

Pravareshvara Shiva Temple Maratha dynasty architecture

Why is the architecture of


ancient India so unique?
Ancient Indian architectural monuments have lasted over
centuries, some even for 2,000 years. In fact, the earliest
signs of advanced architecture in India dates back to the
Bronze Age (3000 BC).
Each architectural style has its own special features which
makes it stand out from the others. Similarly, ancient Indian
architecture has very many distinctive features such as the
beautiful and intricate carvings and designs on the exteriors
of temples, its scientific and mathematical precisions and
calculations, its portrayal of cultural variations within India
and many others. Furthermore, the fact that it has stood with
grace and pride for over centuries, shows the strength of the
structures and their ability to endure earthquakes and other
such variations in the environment.

One of the most important aspects about the architecture of


ancient India is the fact that everything was based on very
scientific and mathematical precisions and calculations.
Indian architecture includes a lot of science and logic.
Sometimes, they are much beyond our thinking and
knowledge. In fact, the detailed study of Ancient Indian architecture has the potential to reveal a lot of unknown facts
about both India and the world in general. (Ramya, 2015)

As early as 3000 BC, Indian architecture had incorporated


advanced architectural engineering concepts, which were
prevalent in very few places such as Egypt.
It is also amazing how the features and aspects of the architecture seem to be so intimately connected and related
to the aspects of todays way of life, be it cultural, or religious. Actually revisiting such architectural monuments,
makes one feel as though one is communicating with lost
times. For instance, just like in todays world, water was

highly valued during those times. Almost all the architectural


evidences show signs of wells which were used to store water for usage throughout the year. The water used to come in
handy especially during the summer and winter seasons.
We also assume that most of what we know now originated
over the last 3 centuries, especially after the so-called Industrial revolution and what was there before could only be
lesser or primitive. (Lakshminarayan, 2015).
Ancient Indian architecture is one of the oldest styles of architecture and also serves as a role model for other modern
styles too. It also tries to portray a wide range of culture variation through its intricate and beautiful designs on the exterior of the monuments around India. It is full of intricacy
and workmanship which has evolved over a period of time,
still standing tall with grace. It has enriched modern architecture on the whole and shows how creative, artistic, skilled

and professional the ancient civilization was. It is one of the


finest styles of architecture and should be known to everyone
around the world, to realize how efficient, strong and long
lasting it has been and will be.

Major Civilizations and Dynasties


As mentioned earlier, several civilizations and dynasties
significantly contributed to the development and the evolution of the architecture in ancient India. Following are some
of the major civilization (s) and the dynasties:
Major civilization (s):
Indus Valley civilization
In the Indus Valley were two major twin cities, called Harappa and Mohenjo Daro (located in India and in modern
day Pakistan)
Major dynasties :
Hoysala
Chola
Pandyan
Marathas
Mughals

Indus Valley civilization:


The phrase early civilization evokes images of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, the Pyramids etc., in our minds. However,
many are ignorant about the fact that a 4,600 year old civilization existed in the Indus Valley of India. A thriving, urban
civilization had existed at the same time as Egyptian and
Mesopotamian states in an area twice each of their sizes.
These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.25
million square kilometers of land which is today part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western India.
Their cities were astonishingly well-planned, neatly organized and were made of brick and stone. This also implies
that the method of making bricks using kiln was already
know to them around 4000 years ago. The very advanced
drainage and water storage systems, along with well
planned roads and houses show that a sophisticated and

highly evolved culture existed in India. According to some


studies, some of the systems of this civilizations were the
most advanced in the ancient world.
But what makes the Indus valley civilization so unique? Remarkably, the absence of massive tombs, treasures buried into the ground, empires, kings, war and bloodshed is what
makes this civilization stand out from the others. The excavations prove that the inhabitants of this civilization took a
practical approach in supporting the common, secular, living.
The two main cities of the Indus Valley civilization were
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The remnants of these twin cities provided many clues and architectural evidences about
this mysterious civilization.
Architecture of the Indus Valley:
Systematic town planning, fortification of citadel, elaborate
drainage system, the idea of establishing of granaries and
surplus economy, standardization of brick sizes, weights and
measures, and geometric instruments are the principal gifts

of this ancient civilization to the succeeding cultures through


the ages. (Joshi, 2008).
Their towns were precisely planned and well executed, for
they utilized the grid planning system. The main streets intersected at right angles, dividing the city into squares or rectangular blocks each of which was divided length wise and
cross wise by lanes. The grid plan, grid street plan or grid
iron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right
angles to each other, forming a grid. The streets were oriented east to west in order to accommodate the light provided
by the rising and setting sun.
An image showing the
grid plan of towns at Indus Valley

All the cities in the valley were surrounded by high walls and
gateways. They valued the walls and the gateways, as it
helped them control trade and also stop the city from being
flooded. Furthermore, each part of the city was made up of
walled sections. Each section included different buildings such as: public buildings, houses, markets,
craft workshops, etc.
Some of the major sections of the cities were:
Granaries: These were among the largest structures in the
town which were used to store grains for all the residents of
the town.

The Great Bath: This was one of the most important structures in the town. The floor of the bath had five layers. It
was so watertight that even today it holds water. There were
changing rooms. People probably used it during festivals and
religious ceremonies. (Kumari, 2012).

Town hall: It is assumed that important meetings were held


here. In other words the hall was used as assembly point for
the city government or for people to meet.
Lower towns: As mentioned previously, the town was divided into 2 parts. The lower town was considered the residential area where common people lived. The ruling class lived
in the upper town.

Houses: Houses were made up of kiln fired mud bricks and


these bricks were so strong that thousands of years of wear
and tear has not damaged them significantly.
An illustration showing
the possible layout of
the houses in the Indus
Valley

Drainage and sanitary systems: The Harappan town had very


good drainage and sanitary system. The main drain was associated with each and every house ensuring the proper dumping of waste. For maintenance purposes, inspection holes
were provided. The drains were covered and connected to the
bigger sewerage outlets, which ensured the channel of dirt
out of the city.

The drainage system at Mohenjo Daro.

Wells: The wells were very common in the Indus Valley civilization. In fact, one of the most recognizable features were
these tall and deep wells. The big houses had their own
wells, other wells would serve groups of smaller houses. The
presence of the wells made sure the people had access to water throughout the year regardless of the season.
An old well in Lothal, a small town
near Harappa

The architecture of ancient Indian dynasties


Hoysala dynasty
Hoysala architecture flourished in southern India between
the 11th and 14th centuries in the region known today
as Karnataka. This was a very popular building style whose
influence was at its peak in the 13th century. Some of the exemplary temples of Hoysala dynasty include Chennakesava
temple at Belur, Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu and other
temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura and Mosale. Some of the
distinctive features include:
* The temples have a star shaped base with the main structure standing on a raised platform.
* There are three shrines structured around a central pillared
hall, each with a tower.
* Pillars with horizontal moldings, produced by a mechanical
process.
* Intricate grilled windows with an abundance of sculptural
details.

Conspicuous absence of the main goprua (a monumental


tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple)

The Hoysala temples were constructed using a very fine


grained soap stone (chloritic schist). It was much easier to
work on this stone unlike granite or sand stone and hence
carving intricate designs was very much possible on this soft
stone. However, what did the intricate designs on the temple
walls depict? The depictions varied from showing the day to

day life, activities of the people, mythological scenes and


depictions of the various forms of Gods of the Hindu religion.

The intricate carvings at Chennakesava temple at Belur

Some of the carvings depicting day to day life of the people and the various forms of God that they worship.

The architecture of the temples at Belavadi


Chola dynasty architecture:
The Imperial Chola rulers of Tanjore developed the Dravidian style of temple architecture almost to perfection.. This
was an ancient dynasty of southern India which thrived during the 11th century A.D.
Some of the key features of the Chola architecture are:
- The dwarapalas or guardian figures at the entrance to the
mandapa or hall which became a unique feature of the Chola
Temples.
- Early Chola temples at the Bank of river Kaveri were

smaller and made out bricks, in comparison to the colossal


buildings of the Imperial Cholas.
- The temples of the Imperial Cholas are covered with exquisite well composed sculptures and frescoes.
- Largest and tallest of all Indian temples i.e. Siva Temple of
Thanjore was built during Chola Period.
Ganas, among the sculptures at the temple, are the most
common figures found in Chola architecture.

Chola dynasty Brahadeeswara temple

Chola dynasty
Airavateeswara
temple

The Pandyan Dynasty:


The Pandyan dynasty was an ancient Tamil Dynasty and is
also known as the only dynasty in the world to have ruled for
the longest period of time. The dynasty ruled parts of South
India from around 600 BCE to first half of 17th century AD.
Some of the key characteristics of the Pandyan architecture
include:
Most temples are built in honor of Shiva, Vishnu and their
consorts (the main deities of Hinduism)
Pandyan temples had huge towers known as gopuras

which were extremely colorful and ornamented with intricate carvings and designs.
high wall enclosures and massive gateways were also
much more prominent in Pandyan temples
Are noted for the intricacy and beauty especially for the
decorated monolithic pillars.
Meenakshi temple in
Tamil Nadu is an example of the Panyan
dynasty architecture

The Maratha Dynasty:


The early Maratha rulers were not too fond of constructing
massive structures which would leave a mark on the Indian

history of architecture. They did not have the time or the resources to indulge in such activities due to their protracted
wars with the Mughals. However, we can get some idea
about their famous architectural style from later buildings
such as forts, palaces and temples. Bricks, mortar, wood and
stones were the most common materials used for construction. Some of the distinct features of the mansions
were "pointed arches, heavy carved stone brackets, narrow
balconies projecting on rows of such brackets, domical shallow ceilings resting on a variety of squinches, the chief being
the interwoven type".
The Maratha architecture lacked the beauty and grace of the
buildings of the Mughals, Rajputs etc. But the Marathas excelled in fort architecture. The wood work they used to decorate their palaces and other civil buildings was intricate and
minute. Maratha art could have developed and attained a distinctive character but it was not possible because of the turbulent times. (Vardhan, 2012)

An example of Maratha architecture

Mughal dynasty architecture:


The architecture of the Mughals is also considered one of the
most beautiful architectural styles in India. This style was developed during the 16th, 17th and the 18th centuries. Their
architectural style is very distinctive and differentiable from
others since their monuments always involve uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous
domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large
vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation. This was the
period when the architecture of India changed due to the invasion by the Mughals and got influenced by the Islamic architecture of dome shaped monuments.

Some of the most well-known monuments were built by the


Mughals. Apart from the famous Taj Mahal and Red Fort,
there are several other structures that are less known to most
people from India and around the world
However, the list does not end there. Other magnificent examples of the architectural achievements of the Mughals include:
Humayuns Tomb

Shalimars Garden

Jama Masjid

Fatehpur Sikri

Buland Darwaza

The meaning and symbolism of


the depictions of ancient Indian
temple architecture
A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction and is also considered the microcosm of the universe and universal principles that make everything in it function. The temples reflect
Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on cosmos and
truths.
From names to forms, images to stories carved into the walls
symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles
such as the pursuit of joy, sex, connection and emotional
pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical and erotic architectural forms in Hindu temples.
The depictions of the designs on the temple were classified
into 3 groups, based on their dimensions:

Chitra: the images were completely 3 dimensional and


complete
Chitrardha: The images engraved are on half-relief
Chitrabhasa: Images that were two dimensional and were
mostly paintings
Another way in which they were classified was depending
on the message that the sculptures conveyed:
Rudra/Ugra:
Images that were mostly meant to
terrify, or induce fear. They
would have wide eyes and carry
weapons. These were mostly worshiped by soldiers before setting
out for war, or after any calamity
or widespread disease. These
were mostly built outside the villages.

Shant/Saumya: These images were serene, and expressed


peace and love. These images would carry flowers, and eyes
would be narrow, and have various icons of love, peace,
knowledge, music.
This supports the fact that these ancient temples were considered a representation of the universe since the temple architecture involved the depiction of both the good and the
evil, which is prevalent in the real world.
The designs on the temple exterior are similar in almost all
the temples (especially South Indian) . For instance, Chennakesava temple in Belur is considered to have one of the best
temple exterior designs.
Virtually, every inch of the shrine in intricately carved and
every piece of carving signifies something. The outer walls
are adorned with horizontal rows of friezes with cravings of
elephants, lions heads or simhalatas and scrolls of small female figures in ornamental niches and intersected here and

there by larger vertical images. And no two friezes in the


complete range, are alike.
Singularly beautiful are the 38 freestanding bracket figures.
The brackets are adorned with voluptuous beauties known
as mandakinis, which have the fluidity and the vibrancy of
living flesh. These celestial nymphs are depicted in various
dancing and ritual postures under stylized sacred trees. The
features of the young maidens on the bracket figures are often exaggerated and are lavishly adorned with jewelry and
complex hairdos. The tree and the women symbolize fertility.
Another important aspect of the temple are its exquisitely
carved wall images decorating each projection and recess.
The railing facing south is adorned with scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata, the great Indian epics. These scenes
convey various messages like adhering to Dharma or the
path of righteousness in any situation and of love and sacrifice. The battle scenes are also very well portrayed with fine
details.

One of the most shocking part about this temple is its futuristic depiction. We are all very well aware that the Telescope
was first invented by Hans Lippershey in 1600s. However,
there is clear evidence that the concept of using an object
similar to the telescope to observe the space, was already developed by the Hoysalas (Dynasty which built this temple)
back in 1117 A.D. Another futuristic depiction is the weapons similar to the modern day missiles. As mentioned earlier,
one of the most common depictions on the exteriors of the
temples are war scenes. In one of the war scenes, there is a
clear depiction of a weapon which looks like a missile, being
used on the enemy. Such futuristic depictions clearly indicate that India was very advanced with technology and their
lives in general as far back as the 1117 A.D. or even earlier.
In conclusion, the architecture of Hindu temples is symbolic.
The whole structure fuses the daily life and it surroundings
with the divine concepts, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred world.

The complex mathematical


concepts
Advanced math concepts such as trigonometry, trigonometric triples, geometry, square roots and many other topics
were well known to the Harappas around 4,500 years ago.
Ancient Indian architecture made use of many mathematical
and astrological calculations. Complex concepts were used
to arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components.
It is almost unimaginable that concepts as advanced as the
Borromean triangle, trigonometry, Stevedores Knots, Pythagorean triples, square roots etc. were widely used for architectural and other purposes. This knowledge and information was retrieved from the sacred Hindu text known as
the Shulba Sutras. It is believed that the Shulba Sutras
were possibly compiled around 800 BCE to 600 BCE.
while the youngest content may date to about 200 CE.

The Indus Valley Civilization with its prominent centers


in Harrapa and Mohenjadaro provides archeological evidence of well planned towns and cities with proper drainage
system, public bath, buildings made of bricks and wide
roads. This could have been possible only through the use
of mathematical concepts and complex calculations. Construction of buildings followed a standardized measurement
which was decimal in nature. This civilization had an advanced brick-making technology and the mathematical ideas were developed for the purpose of construction. From all
these architectural evidences, one can easily know that the
people belonging to this civilization possessed a high level
of knowledge in the field of astronomy and mathematics.
Another example of the application of one of the most
amazing mathematical concepts can be seen in the a 11th
century temple located in Chennai, India.
The ancient Marundheeswarar temple in Thiruvanmayur,
South Chennai, has a series of pillars with beautiful geometric designs that are quite surprisingly sophisticated

mathematical motifs of contemporary scientific interest. The nature of the divinity is emphasized through links
and knots, which have their usual meanings as well as precise mathematical ones.
Let us take an example of the Borromean Triangles seen on
the pillars of the temple.
Its is a set of three identical overlapping equilateral triangles at whose center is a four petal flower. Unlike the twodimensional yantras which typically have several overlapping triangles, this one is sculpted with the third dimension
in mind.
We can make out that the three triangles overlap in a very
specific and remarkable way: The three are inextricably
and collectively linked; if any one of the triangles is removed the other two fall apart as well.
*yantra: the Sanskrit word for a mystical diagram, especially diagrams or amulets supposed to possess occult powers
in astrological tradition or magical benefits in
the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions.

The Borromean triangles in the Marundeeshwara temple

The concept of fractals* has been used to explain why existing buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying, as they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances. For example, in Hindu temples
such as the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, the parts and the
whole have the same character.
*Fractals can be defined as a curve or
geometric figure, each part of which
has the same statistical character as the
whole.
This image shows the fractal concept
applied to this magnificent temple of
Virupaksha.

The ratio (trairasika) or Rule of Three (proportion) also


played an important role in traditional architecture of India.
The different parts of a building were perfectly proportionate
to each other and hence a conclusion could be drawn that if
the measure of any one of the elements is known, the
measures of other elements can easily be arrived at by proportion.
Taj Mahal, one of the most well known monuments of India,
had used the concept of Golden ratio in order to achieve its
perfect structures. The Taj Mahal displays golden proportions in the width of its grand central arch to its total width,
and also in the height of the windows inside the arch to the
height of the main section below the domes.

*Golden Ratio: The Golden ratio is a special number found


by dividing a line into two parts so that the longer part divid

ed by the smaller part is also equal to the whole length divided by the longer part.
Almost all ancient Indian temples also followed a set of design guidelines that were closely related to the concept of
golden ratio.

The image above shows that the height of the temple should
be double its width, and the height of the foundation above
the ground with the steps equal to a third of this height. The
sanctum sanctorum should be half the width of the temple
and so on.

Basically, such complex mathematical concepts were used


during the construction of buildings, homes, monuments in
the ancient times in order to give the construction a near
perfect look. In simpler terms, concepts such as ratio, and
trigonometry were used for the sake of aesthetics.
However, the ancient Indians also believed that in order to
have a very strong structure which can endure any sort of
natural disaster and last for an extended period of time, it
had to be of perfect dimensions and made up of the perfect
amount of the required materials. To calculate the height of
the monument, and thus the depth of the foundation etc.
sound mathematical knowledge was required.

The concept of Vastushastra


and its evolution
Vastushastra is an ancient Indian science of architecture and
civil engineering which has been passed down over thousands
of generations. The concept of Vastushastra aims to help in
making a congenial setting or a place to live and work in a
most scientific way taking advantage of the benefits bestowed
by nature. In simpler words, it revolves around the 5 elements
of nature. However, why does Vastushastra focus on the 5 elements? The reason is that out of the eight planets, our planet
has life because of the presence of these. These 5 elements are
known as Panchabhutas. They are:
Earth
Water
Air
Fire
Space

These helped pave the way for enhanced health, wealth, prosperity and happiness in an enlightened environment. In fact,
many believe that the proper implementation of Vastushastra
techniques has brought peace and prosperity to many households for centuries. Though Vastu started out with the construction rules for Hindu temples, it soon branched out to residential houses, office buildings etc.
The exact history of Vastushastra is unknown, however, it is
believed that it was developed between 6000 BCE and 3000
BCE, adding that the archaeological sites
of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro stand on the principles of
Vastushastra.
In the Vedic period, people built homes, temples and hermitages with a view to have a peaceful and harmonious living.
But, in the modern world people build concrete clusters, mainly for the financial gains. This race to make buildings not in
line with the ancient laws of nature has led the world into a
quagmire of pollution, environmental and ecological problems.

The detailed concepts of Vastushastra were developed with regard to the 5 elements or the Panchabutas. However, some were
also based on mythology and beliefs. Below are some of the
basic concepts of Vastushatra:
The plot should not be too porous. Earth should not absorb
water too quickly.
The plot should not be of irregular shape. The ideal plot is
either square or rectangular with length 1.5 times than the
breadth.
It is not recommended to buy a plot facing the west direction. This is crucial because the presence of sunlight plays
an important role and homes that do not get sufficient sunlight are prone to sickness.
A lot of importance is also given to directions:
West: In Vastushastra, the west direction is considered pitiable. This direction is where the sun sets and this means that
when the sun is setting there are negative energies which is
why the entrance to the west is not advisable.

East: The sun rises on the East and thus people believe that
this indicates positivity and a new beginning. This direction is
considered beneficial for everyone. The entrance of the house
should be facing this direction. Additionally, while building a
house, the east side should be left open so that the owner of
the house has a long and prosperous life.
South: This is a debatable direction since many have mixed
feelings about whether a house should be facing the South.
According to Vastushastra, this direction should be avoided
since, it is believed that this direction causes a decrease in human life. However, many disagree and consider the direction,
lucky.
North: This direction is believed to be favorable for the constructions of offices. The north side is supposed to be auspicious and also brings prosperity to everyone in the house.
North side should be kept open so that it brings peace and
comfort as well.

One of the most important and valued concepts of Vastushastra is the design of the House. The design should either be
square or rectangular. Other designs like U shape, V-shape, or
triangular shapes are to be avoided. Angles obstruct positive
energy flows.
Although some of the concepts are based on beliefs and values, most of them have a very advanced scientific reasoning.
Vastushastra is exercised by many famous architects in India
and in other countries. It is crucial to realize that Vastushastra
has a scientific background with a practical application and is
not just grounded on superstitions.
The building science has its presence all over the world, in
different forms. Be it Vitruvius (Roman) or Feng-shui
(Chinese) or Vastushastra, all have one common message/goal
to lay down some guidelines for the architects to design
buildings in harmony with nature and taking advantage of the
prevailing natural gifts of sunlight ,wind, cosmic energy to
make a habitat which is beneficial to the inmates and make
their life prosperous.

An insight into VastuShastra


A) Characteristics of the engineer (Silpi)
The system used for selecting responsible people for the construction, is described as a very meticulous process in the
Vastushastra scripts. The engineer/ architects and his people
had to qualify a certain criteria and requirements, in order to
become the architect of the Yajamana (Owner).
It all starts by the Yajamana (Owner) choosing the engineer
(sthapati) depending on:
The scope of knowledge, experience and skill required for
the specific construction
His past performance and history
Affordability
The personality and traits of the architect also plays a very
major role when the landlords/owner is choosing the architect
and the engineer.

An ideal engineer, according to Vastushastra should be a rational and a practical thinker, benign, a mathematician,
knowledgeable, trustworthy, stoic, a technically sound, good
draftsman, meteorologist, strong and committed, a perfect
leader, accurate and consistent.
The engineer should also have a good conduct, be creative,
knowledgeable and skillful in applying scientific principles
and knowledge in practice.
The engineer and his team are in charge of many areas and
most importantly in making sure the construction has been
made according to the wishes of the landlord/owner. To make
this process easier, the team of workers were divided into categories:
Sutragrahi
Taksaka
Vardhaki
Karmi

The jobs given to each of the groups were as follows:

Sutragrahi He is expected to have the required knowledge


and skills of estimating projects costs, time, materials and
all the required rituals and their effects on the construction.
Taksaka: He is normally described as the person in charge
of acquiring the required physical measurements, sizing and
the preparation of the building materials. He is expected to
demonstrate advanced knowledge in all the engineering
processes carried out during the construction. He is mainly
responsible for:
1) Measurement and testing of the land/site
2) Preparations of the raw materials, in right proportions
3) Economizing on time and costs
4) Direct prime manager of budget

Vardhaki: The Vardhaki is responsible for most of the physical activities taking place at the construction site and this
includes:
1) Digging the land for the foundation of the building
2) Construction of the base, using the materials provided
by the Taksaka
3) Checking the alignment of the structure and alterations
4) Responsible for the delicate finishing, artistic look, interiors, wall paintings etc.

Karmi: The Karmi is described as someone who is smart,


clean, healthy, cordial, open-minded, obedient and disciplined. They activities that they are responsible for carrying
out, include:
1) Keeping the construction site and the tools as clean as possible
2) Loading, transferring and unloading of materials

3) Basically, carrying out everything according to the instrcutions of the sthapati (The main architect)
From the above, it is very apparent that the roles and responsibilities of every class of the construction crew were very interconnected and interdependent. This meticulous system ensured that every person did his/her job properly.

B) Land Selection
One of the main requirements of the land where the construction is being done is that it should be completely levelled. The
ideas used by the ancient Indians on land selection and testing
were very much advanced and evolved. Land was categorized
into 4 types:
Purna: Less water and hilly land
Supadma: Ample water and plain land
Bhadra: Near seashore and rich land

Dhumra: Uneven and hard land

The Vastushastra is against the idea of using Dhumra lands


for constructions, for obvious reasons.
Land Testing was and is still a very important step in the selection of land for constructions. It is carried out for two main
reasons; to determine the possibility to civilize and create a
village in the area and deduce the required quality of land for
building a structure.
The ancient Indian architects emphasized a lot on these decisions and considered them very crucial. They believed that a
wrong decision in the sector of land selection and testing can
have adverse effects on the dwellers.
Similar to the modern land testing rules, the tests for land selections were classified into 3 main categories:
Examinations
Measurements
Experimentations

Salya Vicara:
This was a very important concept that was adopted by the
ancient Indian engineers.
This concept was used to determine the history and current
utility of the particular land. This method suggests drilling the
land to a predetermined level, and, based on the objects found
during digging, proper decisions and inferences should be
drawn (Altekar, 2004)
Fascinatingly there are several similarities between the modern technique of random land sampling and the concept of
Salya Vicara. Both confer about the idea of minimizing the efforts and costs and opting for the random sampling of land area and how inferences can be drawn regarding the whole
land. This also presents the possibility of the background of
random sampling and how it could have been inspired by the
ancient Indian method, called Salya Vicara.

By analyzing the tests of land selection mentioned previously


and its startling resemblance to the modern architecture and
civil engineering methods, we can draw a conclusion that
most of the tests were based on scientific methods and principles. In simpler words, the logic of inferences from the obtained results is well in line with the modern Civil Engineering principles.

C) Building Materials
Building materials, also known as Vatsu was given a lot of
importance by the architects and engineers. An approach with
a very high degree of such scientific considerations proves the
existence of extraordinary intelligence of the ancient Indian
society. There were various aspects of building materials that
were considered:
Types of materials
Classification of properties of the materials
Theory of material processing

Some of the most commonly used materials for construction


by the ancient Indians included:
Sand
Bricks
Lime
Stone
Wood
Metals
Precious stones
Jewels and gems

Materials such as precious stones were used for the exterior


decorations which shows that the ancient civilizations also
paid quite a lot of attention to aesthetics.

Prospective Learning
The study of the ancient Indian architecture reveals how

advanced the science of architecture was, even during


the early centuries. Developing a nuanced understanding
of the architecture can open up doors for learning. In
other words, there are many concepts that we can borrow
from the advanced architecture of ancient India. The past
has many contributions to the present in many other aspects however, some are not very well known. In this

chapter, we will explore the potential of these concepts


to provide knowledge to the modern society in various
areas.

Even though some of these concepts were widely used in


the ancient times, not all can be implemented to the present day architecture and civil engineering because of following reasons:

Over the past few years rapid and inconceivable developments in technology have occurred. For instance,
computers and information technology, where auto design of structures, simulations etc. can be carried out in a
click of a few buttons. Machineries have also been invented, which can help construct buildings or carve any
designs on the structure.
The change in the culture and lifestyle of the people of
today and what they expect out of architectural structures. The population size is also another factor.
Innovations of high quality, tough and light weight materials, the discovery of other composite materialss resulting in low weight constructions but of high strength .

The immense diversity in the economic backgrounds of


people. These days we have families with very poor economic background, we have middle class people and we
have people with a high economic background.

Nevertheless, this does not imply that the notions of


Vastushastra and the architecture of ancient India in general
are completely outdated and inapt to be implemented for the
betterment of the modern architecture. These areas of learning can be categorized under three titles Technical aspects,
Social aspects and environmental aspects.

A)Technical Aspects
The fundamental strength of Vastushasta lies in its approach
to maximize the utilization of natural resources and accordingly plan the various rooms and the space in the house in
general. Proper town planning ensured that the natures gifts
were visible naturally, unlike today, where we see

them occasionally as they are either not available in the


place that some people live in, or they have been replaced,
by artificial things such as the light or the fan (even during
daytime). This is mainly because unplanned concrete structures deprive each other of their natural and climatic advantages.
Vastushastra also paid a lot of consideration to the needs of
the customer (the person the house is being built for). Unlike
todays apartments, homes were built in different styles or
sizes to cater to the needs of people from different social,
economic, professional backgrounds. Custom made houses
were very common during those periods.
On the contrary, today we see the standard architectural design of the homes forced upon the dwellers only to facilitate
the fast and so-called economic construction. (Vastushastra,
2004)
Thus, considering the specific population's or a persons anthropometric** dimensions, both static and dynamic, is

crucial as the space that people require to do their jobs depends on space required for them to easily accommodate
themselves. The physical need for space is all dependent on
the person itself.
**Anthropometry refers to the scientific study of the measurements of the human external body dimensions. This also
involved the measurements of the body parts and the their
ranges of motion. Therefore identifying the users and their
anthropometric measurements is a very crucial in architecture and civil engineering. Furthermore, keeping their anthropometric sizes as a guideline will also ensure that every
individual has a benefit of his/her own space bubble ( a persons minimal spatial requirement for movement).
Considerations for internal and external home environment is
also crucial:
Light:
1)Light is a very important aspect to be taken into consideration because to be able to see, adequate amount of good

quality, which is free from glare, reflection and shadow, is


required. Therefore, it is necessary to study the below criteria
in respect to home design:
1)Presence of glare
2) Eye problems of the customer
3) Problems of reflection and shadow
4) Assigning of rooms depending on how much light is available and the activity being done in that room.
5) Level of illumination and the intensity of the light
6) Uniform spread of light throughout the rooms
Noise
Constant noises at a very high intensity can be extremely irritating and can also have damaging effects on the ear. Some of
the very common effects of prolonged noises are tiredness, irritability, damage to hearing mechanism and disturbed sleep.
Therefore, it is the job of the architect to reduce the noise

from the source or alternatively, design the house in such a


way (double walls, acoustical board etc.) that the noise entering the house is reduced.
Temperature:
For a warm blooded body to function normally an appropriate
temperature is crucial. Therefore, the following parameters
should be considered:
1)Ventilation
2) Humidity
3) Air movements
4) Indoor and outdoor temperatures
It is also interesting to note that according to Vastushastra, the
maximum height of a building should not be more than 142ft.
It is a proven fact that houses on the top floors of tall buildings
are much colder compared to normal. Furthermore,

studies show that tall buildings deflect wind downwards,


which poses a risk to the pedestrians. Additionally, it can also be observed that cities with many tall buildings are sometimes known as windy cities. However, today we see a high
rise culture spreading to even small towns and villages.
As mentioned earlier, the increasing population of todays
world has definitely affected the style of architecture and
civil engineering. Centuries ago every grain of soil was meticulously chosen for the construction. All the resources that
were needed were tested before being used for the construction. However, this definitely cannot be practiced in todays
world because the limited natural resources have to be
shared by the vast and ever increasing population. This leads
to poor quality construction and hence the modern structures, unlike ancient architectural monuments, are not able
to withstand the fury of nature like earthquakes and years of
wear and tear.

B) Environmental Aspects
Vastushastra supports the pattern of thinking wherein a lot
of importance is given to the laws of the nature. On a superficial view the Vastushastra may appear to be heavily relying on mythology only. But studying these principles in
detail has revealed how these principles were purely based
on scientific methodology and not just mythology. Following are some of the concepts that we can borrow from
Vastushastra in order to maintain and sustain good environment on this planet.
1)The use of natural resources for constructions
In ancient India extensive usage of natural resources such
as cow dung, mud, grass, tree leaves etc. were very common. However, today there is a common misconception
that constructions which do not utilize cement are weak and
frail. People are ignorant about the fact that ancient monuments, such as the Belur, Halebidu temple, Qutub Minar
and

many others heavily used such traditional materials. Man


made materials used for construction is known to cause damage to the environment. Materials such as cement get mixed
with the air as particulate matter and is known to cause infections of the respiratory tracts in human beings. Cement manufacturing companies also cause pollution as they are known
for releasing their waste water and by products into the nearby
rivers (Water pollution).
Thus, the proper use of natural materials for constructions, as
prescribed by Vastushastra, reduces the usage of man made
materials, consequently improving the quality of the environment and the health of people.
2) Cultivation of gardens and trees.
These days, most constructions that we see are in the form of
high rise buildings which seldom include large areas with cultivation of plants and trees. Therefore it is vital to cultivate
gardens, not only to create a tranquil place to relax but also
improve the quality of the air that we breath everyday.

3) Minimizing the amount of new constructions:


Vastushastra restricts the frequent selling and buying of
homes. This policy must have helped the ancient society in
reducing new constructions, consumption of materials and
thereby minimizing the environmental pollution. In fact,
Vastushastra promotes the concept of making changes or expanding the existing homes rather than constructing new
ones. (Vastushastra, 2004)
This view can be seen in todays green homes, because
building green homes means:
-) efficient use of energy
-) conservation of water
-) better indoor air quality
-) reduced pollution and increased natural environment
3) Orientation principles:
Why do some houses need a fan and artificial light during the

day? According to Vastushastra, if a home is well oriented, it


will be exposed to ample amount of sunlight and breeze.
These can be fruitfully exploited to run solar equipment such
as the solar cooker, which consequently saves a lot of electrical energy and ameliorates the environment.
4) Conservation of water:
Step wells were extremely common in India, centuries ago.
Step wells, also known as kalyani or pushkarani ,are wells or
ponds in which the water may be reached by descending a set
of steps. These were developed mainly to cope with seasonal
fluctuations in water availability. A basic difference between
step wells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the other,
was to make it easier for people to reach the ground water,
and to maintain and manage the well. Most of the step wells
have ornamentation and intricate carvings, sometimes as elaborate as those on the temples.
This concept also helped them conserve water. This also made

them value water much more than what we do today.


A simple step well
at Chennakesava
Temple, Belur
A ornamented step
well at Chand Baori,
in the village of Abhaneri
near Bandikui, Rajas
than.
These concepts that were used by the ancient Indians are adequate enough to understand their approach towards the environment.

C) Social Aspects
Social values and obligations are some of the most ignored
aspects of todays society. Today, construction businesses are
some of the most corrupted trades in most of the developing
countries and sometimes, even in the first world countries.
Nowadays construction companies are the ones who decide
the direction and extents to which a city grows. Additionally,
no authority can be held responsible for the collapsing and
structural problems of a construction. Conflicts, dissatisfactions, misunderstandings, breaches of contract etc. amongst
the builders, architects and clients, are very rampant in todays world. Corrupt practices in terms of demanding bribes,
black money, false execution of designs etc. are also very
ubiquitous.
Vastushastra ensured strict enforcement of social value system, which is evidently lacking in todays society. Some of
the values that we can learn from Vastushastra are:

First of all, definition and clarity about who is the responsible


entity amongst the builders, architects and the engineers. According to Vastushastra, the architect also known as the staphthi, is the ultimate responsible person.
Secondly, due recognition is not given to the unskilled laborer without whose contribution a project can not be completed.
Vastushastra believes in treating human being as human and,
especially, treating the craftsman as a source person of construction activity. Therefore, appreciating all their hard work
can help in motivating the workers by relating their feelings
and efforts for the particular project. This prevents the problems like unreliability , lack of commitment and lack of trust
we commonly face today.
In conclusion, there are so many aspects that we can learn
from Vastushastra, which can better the architecture and civil
engineering of today and consequently, result in a happier and
a united society.

Conclusion
The awareness about maintenance of ancient structures is another ignored area in our society. It has reached a point where
some of the greatest temples in India are either becoming
commercial sites or picnic spots. Very few people have been
able to completely understand and realize the great wealth of
architecture and its intricacy. Sadly, there is also no formal
education system which can run courses on the education of
the architecture of ancient India and its values for common
Indians. Although the study of ancient architecture is esoteric,
having such systems is crucial part in the conservation of
such mind-blowing and incredible monuments.
Furthermore, detailed study of the architecture of ancient India has the ability to reveal a lot about the rich history of India and the world in general.
Indian architecture is intimately connected to many aspects
of living, from cultural, to religious themes. Knowing more

about it can seem like communicating with lost times and ancestors. After all, the stone and mortar were not made for us
to simply look at, there were some messages left behind, like
the detailed carvings that depict how life was, centuries ago.
An appreciation of ancient architecture may teach us something different. (Lakshminarayan, 2015)
We can conclude by noting that the specialty of architecture
based on Vastushastra, is evident in its uncommon excellence
in terms of proportionality, divinity, stability, rigidity and
beauty. To prove and support the points mentioned, we can
see the live witnesses of architectural wonders which exhibits the properties mentioned above.
One of the prominent examples is the Konark Sun Temple,
situated in Odisha (East India). In 1999, a super cyclone (a
category 5 hurricane) had caused the death of about 10,000
people, and extreme damage in its path of destruction. However, the Sun temple was in perfect condition with no imminent danger to it gigantic structure.

Konark Sun temple, Odisha

In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centered on the North


Indian state of Uttarakhand caused devastating floods and
landslides, one of the worst natural disasters. This disaster left
around 5,700 people dead, caused massive landslides and
obliterated some villages. Surprisingly, the Kedarnath temple
which was constructed in the 8th century AD, suffered absolutely no major damage. Only a part of its perimeter was
destroyed by the boulders from the landslides.

Vastushastra and the architecture of ancient India can provide


a lot of information that could greatly benefit the modern architecture and civil engineering. Some concepts are being
used even today, in most parts of India and are surely benefitting the people in many unknown ways.
We can implement the principles of this great ancient system
of science in our current practice for efficient utilization of
resources and a peaceful living.

Acknowledgments
Many thanks to all those who encouraged me to pursue my
research on the subject of ancient Indian architecture. I sincerely appreciate the help provided by the following people:
My family who provided constant support throughout the
journey of writing the book
Ms. Alex Hollande, who perfectly supervised my project
which aimed in raising awareness about the architecture of
ancient India.
Mr. Arul Lakshminarayan, a professor in the department
of Physics, at the renowned college of Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras. He had a keen interest and wide
knowledge in the subject, which enabled him to answer
my queries.
Dr. Shalvapille Iyengar, a professor in the department of
studies and research in ancient history and archeology at
Karnataka State open University, India.

Ms. Pooja Deshpande, a student of architectural engineering with special interest in ancient Indian architecture.
Ms. Ramya Rangarajan, who studied the subject of architectural engineering with a keen interest in raising awareness about the architecture of ancient India.

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