DataStructuresUsingC++2E

Chapter10
SortingAlgorithms

Heapsort:ArrayBasedLists
Overcomesquicksortworstcase
Heap:listinwhicheachelementcontainsakey
Keyintheelementatpositionkinthelist
Atleastaslargeasthekeyintheelementatposition
2k+1(ifitexists)and2k+2(ifitexists)

C++arrayindexstartsatzero
Elementatpositionk
k+1thelementofthelist

FIGURE1041Aheap
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Heapsort:ArrayBasedLists(contd.)
DatagiveninFigure1041
Canbeviewedinacompletebinarytree

Heapsort
Firststep:convertlistintoaheap
CalledbuildHeap

Afterconvertingthearrayintoaheap
Sortingphasebegins

FIGURE1042Completebinarytree
correspondingtothelistinFigure1041
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BuildHeap

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BuildHeap(contd.)
Functionheapify
Restorestheheapinasubtree
ImplementsthebuildHeapfunction
Convertslistintoaheap

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DataStructuresUsingC++2E

BuildHeap(contd.)

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BuildHeap(contd.)
Theheapsortalgorithm

FIGURE1048Heapsort

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Analysis:Heapsort
GivenLalistofnelementswheren>0
Worstcase
NumberofkeycomparisonstosortL
2nlog2n+O(n)

NumberofitemassignmentstosortL
nlog2n+O(n)

AveragenumberofcomparisonstosortL
O(nlog2n)

Heapsorttakestwiceaslongasquicksort
Avoidstheslightpossibilityofpoorperformance
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PriorityQueues(Revisited)
Customersorjobswithhigherpriorities
Pushedtofrontofthequeue

Assumepriorityofthequeueelementsisassigned
usingtherelationaloperators
Inaheap,largestlistelementisalwaysthefirst
elementofthelist
Afterremovinglargestlistelement
Functionheapifyrestorestheheapinthelist

Implementpriorityqueuesasheaps
Toensurelargestelementofthepriorityqueueis
alwaysthefirstelementofthequeue
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PriorityQueues(Revisited)(contd.)
Insertanelementinthepriorityqueue
Insertnewelementinfirstavailablelistposition
Ensuresarrayholdingthelistisacompletebinarytree

Afterinsertingnewelementintheheap,thelistmight
nolongerbeaheap
Restoretheheap(mightresultinmovingthenewentry
totherootnode)

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PriorityQueues(Revisited)(contd.)
Removeanelementfromthepriorityqueue
Assumepriorityqueueimplementedasaheap
Copylastelementofthelistintofirstarrayposition
Reducelistlengthbyone
Restoreheapinthelist

Otheroperationsforpriorityqueues
Canbeimplementedinthesamewayasimplemented
forqueues

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Summary
Searchalgorithmsmayrequiresorteddata
Severalsortingalgorithmsavailable
Selectionsort,insertionsort,Shellsort,quicksort,
mergesort,andheapsort
Canbeappliedtoeitherarraybasedlistsorlinkedlists

Comparealgorithmperformancethroughanalysis
Numberofkeycomparisons
Numberofdatamovements

Functionsimplementingsortingalgorithms
Includedaspublicmembersoftherelatedclass
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DataStructuresUsingC++2E

Chapter11
BinaryTreesandBTrees

Objectives

Learnaboutbinarytrees
Explorevariousbinarytreetraversalalgorithms
Learnhowtoorganizedatainabinarysearchtree
Discoverhowtoinsertanddeleteitemsinabinary
searchtree

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Objectives(contd.)
Explorenonrecursivebinarytreetraversal
algorithms
LearnaboutAVL(heightbalanced)trees
LearnaboutBtrees

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BinaryTrees
Definition:abinarytree,T,iseitheremptyorsuch
that
Thasaspecialnodecalledtherootnode
Thastwosetsofnodes,LTandRT,calledtheleft
subtreeandrightsubtreeofT,respectively
LTandRTarebinarytrees

Canbeshownpictorially
Parent,leftchild,rightchild

Noderepresentedasacircle
Circlelabeledbythenode
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BinaryTrees(contd.)
Rootnodedrawnatthetop
Leftchildoftherootnode(ifany)
Drawnbelowandtotheleftoftherootnode

Rightchildoftherootnode(ifany)
Drawnbelowandtotherightoftherootnode

Directededge(directedbranch):arrow

FIGURE111Binarytree
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BinaryTrees(contd.)

FIGURE112Binarytreewithone,two,orthreenodes

FIGURE113Variousbinarytreeswiththreenodes

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BinaryTrees(contd.)
Everynodeinabinarytree
Hasatmosttwochildren

structdefiningnodeofabinarytree
Foreachnode
Thedatastoredininfo
Apointertotheleftchildstoredinllink
Apointertotherightchildstoredinrlink

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BinaryTrees(contd.)
Pointertorootnodeisstoredoutsidethebinarytree
Inpointervariablecalledtheroot
OftypebinaryTreeNode

FIGURE114Binarytree
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BinaryTrees(contd.)
Levelofanode
Numberofbranchesonthepath

Heightofabinarytree
Numberofnodesonthelongestpathfromtherootto
aleaf
Seecodeonpage604

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CopyTree
Shallowcopyofthedata
Obtainedwhenvalueofthepointeroftherootnode
usedtomakeacopyofabinarytree

Identicalcopyofabinarytree
Needtocreateasmanynodesasthereareinthe
binarytreetobecopied
Nodesmustappearinthesameorderasinthe
originalbinarytree

FunctioncopyTree
Makesacopyofagivenbinarytree
Seecodeonpages604605
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BinaryTreeTraversal
Muststartwiththeroot,andthen
Visitthenodefirstor
Visitthesubtreesfirst

Threedifferenttraversals
Inorder
Preorder
Postorder

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BinaryTreeTraversal(contd.)
Inordertraversal
Traversetheleftsubtree
Visitthenode
Traversetherightsubtree

Preordertraversal
Visitthenode
Traversetheleftsubtree
Traversetherightsubtree

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BinaryTreeTraversal(contd.)
Postordertraversal
Traversetheleftsubtree
Traversetherightsubtree
Visitthenode

Eachtraversalalgorithm:recursive
Listingofnodes
Inordersequence
Preordersequence
Postordersequence
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BinaryTreeTraversal(contd.)

FIGURE115Binarytree
foraninordertraversal

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BinaryTreeTraversal(contd.)
Functionstoimplementthepreorderandpostorder
traversals

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ImplementingBinaryTrees
Operationstypicallyperformedonabinarytree

Determineifbinarytreeisempty
Searchbinarytreeforaparticularitem
Insertaniteminthebinarytree
Deleteanitemfromthebinarytree
Findtheheightofthebinarytree
Findthenumberofnodesinthebinarytree
Findthenumberofleavesinthebinarytree
Traversethebinarytree
Copythebinarytree

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ImplementingBinaryTrees(contd.)
class binaryTreeType
Specifiesbasicoperationstoimplementabinarytree
Seecodeonpage609
Containsstatementtooverloadtheassignment
operator,copyconstructor,destructor
Containsseveralmemberfunctionsthatareprivate
membersoftheclass

BinarytreeemptyifrootisNULL
SeeisEmptyfunctiononpage611

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ImplementingBinaryTrees(contd.)
Defaultconstructor
Initializesbinarytreetoanemptystate
Seecodeonpage612

Otherfunctionsforbinarytrees
Seecodeonpages612613

Functions:copyTree,destroy,destroyTree
Seecodeonpage614

Copyconstructor,destructor,andoverloaded
assignmentoperator
Seecodeonpage615
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BinarySearchTrees
Dataineachnode
Largerthanthedatainitsleftchild
Smallerthanthedatainitsrightchild

FIGURE116Arbitrarybinarytree
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FIGURE117Binarysearchtree
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BinarySearchTrees(contd.)
Abinarysearchtree,T,iseitheremptyorthe
followingistrue:
Thasaspecialnodecalledtherootnode
Thastwosetsofnodes,LTandRT,calledtheleft
subtreeandrightsubtreeofT,respectively
Thekeyintherootnodeislargerthaneverykeyin
theleftsubtreeandsmallerthaneverykeyintheright
subtree
LTandRTarebinarysearchtrees

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BinarySearchTrees(contd.)
Operationsperformedonabinarysearchtree

Searchthebinarysearchtreeforaparticularitem
Insertaniteminthebinarysearchtree
Deleteanitemfromthebinarysearchtree
Findtheheightofthebinarysearchtree
Findthenumberofnodesinthebinarysearchtree
Findthenumberofleavesinthebinarysearchtree
Traversethebinarysearchtree
Copythebinarysearchtree

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BinarySearchTrees(contd.)
Everybinarysearchtreeisabinarytree
Heightofabinarysearchtree
Determinedthesamewayastheheightofabinary
tree

Operationstofindnumberofnodes,numberof
leaves,todoinorder,preorder,postordertraversals
ofabinarysearchtree
Sameasthoseforabinarytree
Caninheritfunctions

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BinarySearchTrees(contd.)
class bSearchTreeType
Illustratesbasicoperationstoimplementabinary
searchtree
Seecodeonpage618

Functionsearch
Functioninsert
Functiondelete

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BinarySearchTree:Analysis
Worstcase
T:linear
Successfulcase
Algorithmmakes(n+1)/2keycomparisons(average)

Unsuccessfulcase:makesncomparisons

FIGURE1110Linearbinarytrees
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BinarySearchTree:Analysis(contd.)
Averagecasebehavior
Successfulcase
Searchwouldendatanode
nitemsexist,providingn!possibleorderingsofthe
keys

Numberofcomparisonsrequiredtodetermine
whetherxisinT
Onemorethanthenumberofcomparisonsrequiredto
insertxinT

NumberofcomparisonsrequiredtoinsertxinT
Sameasnumberofcomparisonsmadeinthe
unsuccessfulsearchreflectingthatxisnotinT
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BinarySearchTree:Analysis(contd.)

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BinarySearchTree:Analysis(contd.)
Theorem:letTbeabinarysearchtreewithnnodes,
wheren>0
TheaveragenumberofnodesvisitedinasearchofT
isapproximately1.39log2n=O(log2n)
Thenumberofkeycomparisonsisapproximately
2.77log2n=O(log2n)

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NonrecursiveInorderTraversal

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NonrecursiveInorderTraversal
(contd.)

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NonrecursivePreorderTraversal

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NonrecursivePreorderTraversal
(contd.)

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NonrecursivePostorderTraversal

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BinaryTreeTraversalandFunctions
asParameters
Passingafunctionasaparametertothetraversal
algorithms
Enhancesprogramsflexibility

C++functionnamewithoutanyparentheses
Consideredapointertothefunction

Specifyingafunctionasaformalparameterto
anotherfunction
SeeExample113

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AVL(HeightBalanced)Trees
AVLtree(heightbalancedtree)
Resultingbinarysearchisnearlybalanced

Perfectlybalancedbinarytree
Heightsofleftandrightsubtreesoftheroot:equal
Leftandrightsubtreesoftherootareperfectly
balancedbinarytrees

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FIGURE1112Perfectlybalancedbinarytree

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AVL(HeightBalanced)Trees(contd.)
AnAVLtree(orheightbalancedtree)isabinary
searchtreesuchthat
Theheightsoftheleftandrightsubtreesoftheroot
differbyatmostone
TheleftandrightsubtreesoftherootareAVLtrees

FIGURE1113AVLandnonAVLtrees
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AVL(HeightBalanced)Trees(contd.)

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AVL(HeightBalanced)Trees(contd.)
DefinitionofanodeintheAVLtree

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AVL(HeightBalanced)Trees(contd.)
AVLbinarysearchtreesearchalgorithm
Sameasforabinarysearchtree
OtheroperationsonAVLtrees
Implementedexactlythesamewayasbinarytrees

IteminsertionanddeletionoperationsonAVLtrees
Somewhatdifferentfrombinarysearchtreesoperations

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Insertion
Firstsearchthetreeandfindtheplacewherethe
newitemistobeinserted
Cansearchusingalgorithmsimilartosearch
algorithmdesignedforbinarysearchtrees
Iftheitemisalreadyintree
Searchendsatanonemptysubtree
Duplicatesarenotallowed

IfitemisnotinAVLtree
Searchendsatanemptysubtree;inserttheitemthere

Afterinsertingnewiteminthetree
ResultingtreemightnotbeanAVLtree
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Insertion(contd.)

FIGURE1114AVLtreebeforeandafterinserting90

FIGURE1115AVLtreebeforeandafterinserting75
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Insertion(contd.)

FIGURE1116AVLtreebeforeandafterinserting95

FIGURE1117AVLtreebeforeandafterinserting88
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AVLTreeRotations
Rotatingtree:reconstructionprocedure
Leftrotationandrightrotation
Supposethattherotationoccursatnodex
Leftrotation:certainnodesfromtherightsubtreeofx
movetoitsleftsubtree;therootoftherightsubtreeof
xbecomesthenewrootofthereconstructedsubtree
Rightrotationatx:certainnodesfromtheleftsubtree
ofxmovetoitsrightsubtree;therootoftheleft
subtreeofxbecomesthenewrootofthe
reconstructedsubtree
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FIGURE1118Rightrotationatb

FIGURE1119Leftrotationata
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FIGURE1120Doublerotation:Firstrotateleftataandthenrightatc

FIGURE1121Leftrotationatafollowedbyarightrotationatc

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AVLTreeRotations(contd.)

FIGURE1122Doublerotation:Firstrotaterightatc,
thenrotateleftata
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AVLTreeRotations(contd.)
StepsdescribingthefunctioninsertIntoAVL
Createnodeandcopyitemtobeinsertedintothe
newlycreatednode
Searchthetreeandfindtheplaceforthenewnodein
thetree
Insertnewnodeinthetree
Backtrackthepath,whichwasconstructedtofindthe
placeforthenewnodeinthetree,totherootnode
Ifnecessary,adjustbalancefactorsofthenodes,or
reconstructthetreeatanodeonthepath
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FIGURE1123IteminsertionintoaninitiallyemptyAVLtree

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AVLTreeRotations(contd.)
Functioninsert
Createsanode,storestheinfointhenode,andcalls
thefunctioninsertIntoAVLtoinsertthenewnode
intheAVLtree

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DeletionfromAVLTrees
Fourcases
Case1:Thenodetobedeletedisaleaf
Case2:Thenodetobedeletedhasnorightchild,
thatis,itsrightsubtreeisempty
Case3:Thenodetobedeletedhasnoleftchild,that
is,itsleftsubtreeisempty
Case4:Thenodetobedeletedhasaleftchildanda
rightchild

Cases13
EasiertohandlethanCase4
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Analysis:AVLTrees
ConsiderallpossibleAVLtreesofheighth
LetThbeanAVLtreeofheighthsuchthatThhasthe
fewestnumberofnodes
LetThl denotetheleftsubtreeofThandThr denotethe
rightsubtreeofTh
Then:

where|Th|denotesthenumberofnodesinTh

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Analysis:AVLTrees(contd.)
Suppose:
Thl isofheighth1andThr isofheighth2
Thl isanAVLtreeofheighth1suchthatThl hasthe
fewestnumberofnodesamongallAVLtreesofheight
h1

Thr isanAVLtreeofheighth2thathasthefewest
numberofnodesamongallAVLtreesofheighth2
Thl isoftheformTh1andThr isoftheformTh2

Hence:
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BTrees
Leavesonthesamelevel
Nottoofarfromtheroot

mwaysearchtree
Treeinwhicheachnodehasatmostmchildren
Ifthetreeisnonempty,ithasthefollowingproperties:

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BTrees(contd.)
Btreeoforderm
mwaysearchtree
Eitheremptyorhasthefollowingproperties:

Basicoperations
Searchthetree,insertanitem,deleteanitem,
traversethetree

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BTrees(contd.)

FIGURE1124A5waysearchtree

FIGURE1125ABtreeoforder5
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BTrees(contd.)
Constantexpressions
Maybepassedasparameterstotemplates

DefinitionofaBtreenode
ClassimplementingBtreeproperties
Seecodeonpages664665
ImplementsBtreebasicpropertiesasanADT

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Search
Searchesbinarysearchtreeforagivenitem
Ifitemfoundinthebinarysearchtree:returnstrue
Otherwise:returnsfalse

Searchmuststartatrootnode
Morethanoneiteminanode(usually)
Mustsearcharraycontainingthedata

Twofunctionsrequired
Functionsearch
FunctionsearchNode
Searchesanodesequentially
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TraversingaBTree
Btreetraversalmethods
Inorder,preorder,postorder

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InsertionintoaBTree
Algorithm:searchtreetoseeifkeyalreadyexists
Ifkeyalreadyinthetree:outputanerrormessage
Ifkeynotinthetree:searchterminatesataleaf
Recordinsertedintotheleaf:ifroomexists
Ifleaffull:splitnodeintotwonodes
Mediankeymovedtoparentnode(mediandetermined
byconsideringallkeysinthenodeandnewkey)

Splittingcanpropagateupward(eventotheroot)
Causingtreetoincreaseinheight

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InsertionintoaBTree(contd.)
FunctioninsertBTree
RecursivelyinsertsanitemintoaBtree

FunctioninsertusesfunctioninsertBTree
FunctioninsertNode
Insertsiteminthenode

FunctionsplitNode
Splitsnodeintotwonodes
Insertsnewitemintherelevantnode
Returnsmediankeyandpointertosecondhalfofthe
node
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FIGURE1126IteminsertionintoaBtreeoforder5

FIGURE1127Insertionof73,54,98,and37

FIGURE1128Insertionof25,62,81,150,and79
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FIGURE1129Insertionof200

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DeletionfromaBTree
Casetoconsider

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FIGURE1130ABtreeoforder5

FIGURE1131Deleting18from
aBtreeoforder5

FIGURE1132Btreebeforeandafterdeleting30
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FIGURE1133Deletionof70fromtheBtree
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Summary
Thischapterdiscussed

Binarytrees
Binarysearchtrees
Recursivetraversalalgorithms
Nonrecursivetraversalalgorithms
AVLtrees
Btrees

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