FROM SILICA

TO SILICON WAFER
The Silicon Single Crystal
and
Wafers Manufacturing
Version 2.1 En

Silicon V2.1 En

VPS

This presentation was prepared for the needs of the company ON Semiconductor with the aim to
approximate the production principles of single crystal silicon ingots and silicon wafers.
The manufacturing process details, pictures and video clips come from the company TEROSIL, a.s.
based in Roznov pod Radhostem, Czech Republic, we appreciate their friendly help in compiling the
presentation.

In our effort to continuously improve our products we thank you in advance for your comments,
which will help us in the preparing of further versions.

Piestany, August 2001

VPS s.r.o., P.O. Box B-11, Partizanska 31, 921 01 Piestany 1, Slovak Republic
tel., fax.: +421 33 7730151, email: vps@vps.sk
Silicon V2.1 En

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Silicon V2.1 En

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Contents
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Clicking on this box will navigate you

to the Controlling the Presentation
slide

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

Introduction

The company TEROSIL, a.s., located in

Roznov pod Radhostem, Czech Republic, is
producer of silicon single crystals, wafers and
epitaxial layers for microelectronic device
fabrication.
TEROSIL, a.s. is a non wholly owned
subsidiary of ON Semiconductor, global
supplier of high-performance broadband and
power management integrated circuits and
standard semiconductors.
Silicon V2.1 En

What is Inside an Electronic Device?

The
If
This
webasic
small
remove
material
piece
the of
black
of
matter
a material
chip
is is
called
a from
semiconductor
chip.
the After
package,
anwe can see the
enlargement
silicon.
weleads
can see
leading
its structure.
up to a small piece of
matter inside which the whole function of an
electronic device proceeds.

Silicon V2.1 En

Silicon
Silicon does
is available
not occur
in great
naturally
abundance
in its elemental
on the Earth.
state.The
It occurs
Earth in
is
made up offorms,
compound
approximately
the principal
40%ones
iron (Fe),
being28%
silicates
oxygen
and(O
quartz.
2) and
Quartz
(SiO2) isInthe
of silicon
in thethe
semiconductor
14,5% silicon.
theprimary
Earths source
crust, silicon
is even
second most
abundant element - the crust contains 28% of silicon.
industry.

Melting point

1 413C

Boiling point

2 355C

Density

2 332 kg/m3

Hardness

7 on Mohss scale

Energy bandgap

Eg = 1,12 eV

Atomic density

5 . 1022 atom/cm3

Silicon V2.1 En

Elements of the Earth

Si

Fe

Other
O2

Silicon - the Structure ItEach

Silicon
If
wenecessary
is
move
silicon
is a chemical
crystallographic
aatom
copy
to add
has
of element
this
that
four
structure
structure
silicon
neighbors,
from
is
has
the
by
diamond
1/4
which
group
of the
itIV

3 nm
a = 0,54

appropriate
in
type
main
forms
thelattice.
diagonal,
Periodic
a bond
It
properties
with.
istable.
both
based
thefor
on
original
semiconductor
a faceand
centered
the shifted
chips
cubic
structure
atoms
only
when
form
- the
aacube
diamond
atoms
withinatoms
type
the whole
lattice.
in itsvolume
verticesofand
the
in theare
chip
wall
arranged
centers.exactly according to this
structure. Such and arrangement is called
single crystal. A view of a fictitious observer
inside the silicon single crystal looks like the
following picture.

28,0885

Si

14

2,33 g/cm3

Silicon
Silicon V2.1 En

Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal

Silicon V2.1 En

Crystalline Defects
In screw
Any
An
A
fact,
atom
additional
edge
imperfection
variety
dislocation
dislocation
missing
atom
of defects
from
in occupying
the
can
appears
the
crystalline
be
does
regular
described
as
aexist.
site
if an
crystal
structure
inbetween
Defect
extra
as atomic
site
plane
is
visualization
gives
considered
regular
layers
has
rise
been
partly
sites
tocan
aainserted
defect.
vacancy.
iscut
be
called
with
A
defect
an
into
scissors
achieved
intersticial.
thecan
crystal.
and
byinfluence
selective
shifted each
the
etching
electrical
other.
of silicon
and mechanical
surface. The
properties
crystalline
of a
crystal. To
defects
could
demonstrate
then appear
various
like demonstrated
kinds of crystalline
on thedefects a
simplified crystalline structure is used (not silicon).
microphotograph.

Silicon V2.1 En

Vacancy

Edge dislocation

Interstitial

Screw dislocation

The range
Presence
Physically,
Only
a very
of
of
boron
small
some
dopant
presence
amount
chemical
concentration
ofcauses
elements
a dopant
used
a different
is
- dopants
sufficient
in themechanism
semiconductor
infor
silicon,
doping
of
can
silicon.
electric
14
20
3
substantially
current
The
industry
unittransfer
is
of 10
a influence
dopant
to
in 10
silicon
concentration
of
thedopant
than
silicon
phosphorus
atoms/cm
electric
is the number
conductivity.
or
. Silicon
arsenic.
of lattice
dopant
Silicon
Boron,
itself
atoms
doped
22
3
3
phosphorus,
with
per
contains
unit
boron
volume
5.10
is arsenic
called
atoms/cm
of silicon,
the
and
P-type
antimony
.usually
silicon
given
arewhile
especially
in #atoms/cm
siliconused
doped
. forwith
this
purpose.
phosphorus,
arsenic or antimony is called the N-type one.

Boron

IV.A

30.97376

V.A

15

28.0855

Phosphorus

74,9216

Si

14

Silicon

As

33

Arsenic
121.75

Sb

51

Antimony
Silicon V2.1 En

(Negative)

III.A

Conductivity type N

10,81

(Positive)

Conductivity type P

Doping

Silicon Wafer
Secondary Flat

P <100>
Primary Flat

<111>

Silicon V2.1 En

A chip
For
The
that
silicon
crystallographic
conductivity
wafers
next
isreason,
very
slides
wafer
aresmall,
fabricated
will
many
(P
is provide
or
round-shaped.
just
orientation,
N)
chips
atype
by
few
deeper
are
cutting
and
square
processed
in aThe
respect
details
from
silicon
millimeters.
diameters
aof
to
wafer
athe It
would
together
of
crystallographic
monocrystalline
silicon
100,be
wafer
125,
indifficult,
one
150
surface,
manufacturing
slice
orientation
silicon
mm
if not
of
or
iscylinder
semiconductor
even
important
more
are
process.
impossible,
are
encoded
pulled
commonly
for the
from
- silicon
in
to
wafer
amolten
used.
produce
wafer.
A
properties.
relative
silicon
100 mm
At
inposition
each
the
special
wafer
Inend
practice,
chip
of
is
equipment.
ofprimary
individually.
about
thethe
process
half
orientations
andofsecondary
the
millimeter
wafer
according
is
flat
thick.
cut
onupto
into pictures
Already
the
each
individual
wafer.
the wafer
The
are
chips.
used
top
material
side
andofthey
issilicon
doped
are wafer
classified
and itisishighly
Pasor Ntype then.
<111>
polished.
or <100>.

<100>

Silicon Obtaining

Quartz

Although
At
Metallurgical
the very
highly
first
grade
step
pure,
silicon
the
thisquartz
silicon
is notsand
pure
doesisenough
not
transformed
formfor
the
into thecrystal
semiconductor
single
silicon.
lattice.
technology.
This silicon,
It is known
Thus
known
as
it is
as
a converted
polycrystalline
metallurgical
to
grade silicon,
trichlorsilane
silicon
or polysilicon.
(SiHCl
is obtained
by chemical
can be cleaned
reaction
byof
3), which
quartz
The
polycrystalline
with and
carbon
electronic
grade silicon,
the
distillation,
then(C).
this trichlorsilane
is reacted
next
slide will show
how
it looks
like, is
the raw
with hydrogen
(H2) to
produce
highly
purified
material
single
crystal production.
electronicforgrade
silicon.

SiO2 + 2C

Si + 2CO

Metallurgical grade silicon

Si + 3HCl

SiHCl3 + H2

Trichlorosilane

Trichlorosilane cleaning

SiHCl3 + H2
Silicon V2.1 En

Si + 3HCl

Electronic grade silicon

Polycristalline Silicon

Silicon V2.1 En

14

Chapter 1 Overview
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

15

Czochralski Crystal Growth

Onthe
Reachnig
The
Both
In
1918,
this
the
goal
crystallographic
polysilicon
pull
crystal
the
final
initial
enclosed
rate
Czochralski
growing
isthe
phase,
is
tophase,
isprogressively
desired
transform
then
charge
video,
crystal
the
the
decreased
orientation
described
diameter
pull
ispull
there
raw
and
melted
speed
rate
grown
materials
the
are
aand
of
is
in
crucible
is
"shoulder"
the
process
the
high
and
the
increased
the
particular
seed
into
quartz
pulled
to
diameter
rotate
in
maintain
awill
is
which
silicon
out
tobe
asofa
single
adapted
crucible.
a
formed
the
indicated
reduce
phases
small
crystal
melt.
crystal
crystal.
the
on
diameter
ofby
The
The
by
athe
is
crystal
growing
single
arrows.
increased
crystal
is
critical
The
growing
pulled
for
diameter.
quartz
crystal
crystal.
the
The
seed
process
from
crystal
to
growing
melt
crucible
ingot
the
isaItWhen
then
parameters
melt.
desired
has
is
shape.
growth
consumed,
crystal.
dipped
is
to
the
Since
loaded
be
size.
crystal
process.
chosen
This
into
that
then
This
with
the
body
must
this
inthe
method
polysilicon
accordance
silicon
procedure
second
be
therefore
is
removed
controlled
melt.
part
has
the
is
(see
from
to
of
been
The
called
crucible
are
the
photo)
the
seed
the
significally
final
initial
necking
melt
temperatures,
lifts
isand
silicon
growth
rotated
atoquick
the
and
keep
refined
wafer
dopant.
isand
its
temperature
melt
called
purpose
the
orientation
and
simultaneously
level
A
pull
crowning.
remain
seed
rate,
is
at to
the
the
the
most popular
crystal
required.
pulled-up
eliminate
rotation
same
change
height.
isis
rates
also
dislocations
from
induced.
method
and
loaded
thelow
melt.
A thin
in
to
from
pressure
the
A
produce
"tail"
crystal
the
puller.
on
crystal.
argon
high
grows
the crystal
ambient.
quality
at theend
single
crystals. the
interface
reduces
following
impactthe
of thermal
crystallographic
shock onstructure
the rest of
the crystal.
seed.
Quartz crucible

Seed chuck rotation

Seed
Shoulder
chuck
Seed
Neck
Crown

Graphite crucible
(susceptor)

Body
Tail
Melt

Graphite heater

Crucible shaft
Crucible rotation

Silicon V2.1 En

Czochralski Puller

Argon inlet

A graphite
Finally,
The
An
isolation
quartz
lift
whole
Czochralski
(seed
theheating
system
last
crucible
valve
chuck
part
puller
allows
is
element
is
of
and
placed
the
supported
the
schematical
cable)
access
component
heat
isinplaced
vacuum
zone
holds
by
to upper
drawing
ais
around
the
graphite
containing
achamber
thermal
seed
chamber
can
the
crucible
and
be
the
with
shield
siliconkeeping
which
graphite
eliminating
growing
water-cooled
while
compared
serves
melt.
crystal
crucible
with
the
The
jacket.
simultaneously
the
heat
real
during
crucible
- controled
susceptor.
equipment
losses.
Monitoring
thematerial
process
ambient
aspicture
system
the
must
enabling
heat
innext.
lower
be
(pyrometer
susceptor.
chosen
the
vacuum
such
and
that itcrucibles
Both
controlled
camera)
chamber.
reacts
and
pullvery
computer
rate
areslowly
placed
and control
rotation.
with
on a
the
the
graphite
melt.
growth
The
shaft
process.
only
enabling
material
the
rotation
thatand
canlifting.
be used is quartz.

Quartz crucible

Isolation valve

Seed chuck
rotation
Cable
Seed chuck
Camera
(diameter control)

Graphite crucible
Graphite heater
Thermal shield

Visor

Optical
pyrometer

Crucible shaft

Water
cooled jacket

To vacuum
pump

Electric current lead-in

Silicon V2.1 En

Crucible rotation

Crystal-Melt Interface
Melt
A
The
During
good
fundamental
area
crystallization
flows
crystal
control
between
are growth,
also
of the
process
takes
the
generated
temperature
the
melt
place
behind
melt
and
by
at
flow
crystal
the
the
atpattern
the
rotation
crystal-melt
growth
has
interface
to
inof
ofthe
beathe
between
maintained
interface.
crucible
crystal
involves
and
plays
the
The
the
atcrystal
the
an
shape
crucible
the
important
silicon
transformation
and
of the
and
the
freezing
interface
role
by
melt
pulling
ofis
point.
crystal-melt
of
crucial.
directly
aofliquid
This
theAis
good
into
thea
solid. Toof
control
coldest
influences
interface
crystal.
During
region
grow
shape
the
theheat
acrystalline
in
crystal
and
crystal,
the
flow
dopant
melt,
growth,
throughout
the
perfection
otherwise
atoms
variation.
a combination
of
the
and
solidification
the
The
interface
the
liquid
of is
must
the
will
impurity
spontaneous
crystal
occur
critical
organize
and
distribution
incondition
crucible
other
melt
themselves
parts
flow
rotation
throughout
fororiginates
as
that.
well.
as
is they
used
the
Heat
from
become
section.
toinputs
generate
temperature
part
The
and the
of
the solid.melt
outputs
concave
differences
desired
must
shape
This
inflow
be
the
underlines
helps
monitored
-melt
right
to- bottom
left
remove
the
and
bottom
importance
picture.
be
dislocations
regulated
picture.
of good
to
and is
controlproper
insure
maintained
of the
during
process
crystal
thegrowth.
at
crystal
the interface
body growth.
between the
melt and the crystal.

Crystal
cross
section
(black)

Crystal - melt interface

Heat flow

Crystal rotation

Melt flow

Convex crystal-melt interface

Heat input
Heat output
no rotation
Silicon V2.1 En

Melt flow

Concave crystal-melt interface

Crucible rotation

Melt

Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal

Traces of
Oxygen
Carbon
impurities
isother
the most
impurities
originate
common
are
from
impurity
also
the
present
polysilicon
in silicon
in the
crystal.
charge
crystal.
Its
and
main the
from
Their
source
concentration
reaction
is thebetween
crucible
is lowerthe
material
than
graphite
that- quartz
ofheating
carbon
(SiO
element
and
they
2). This
and
accumulate
silicon
in
the melt
evaporated
residue
leftfrom
inmelt.
the
thecrucible.
melt.
Carbon
surface
is inmonoxide
contact
with
the silicon
The
reaction
has
muchthe
lower
concentration
than
oxygen
in the crystal.
between
silicon
melt and the
crucible
produces
silicon
monoxide (SiO). Most of the silicon monoxide evaporates
from the melt surface but a small quantity stays in the melt.

SiO + 2C
CO, CO2
SiO

SiC + CO

CO, CO2

SiO

SiO

SiO

SiO
Quartz crucible

Graphite heater
Graphite crucible
Silicon V2.1 En

Segregation Coefficient

Element

Dopant Concentration/Resistivity
vs. Ingot Length (example)

10

dopants

metals

The
One
In
For
Most
the
example,
dopant
of
ofcrystal
the
elements
key
concentration
growth
phosphorus
operations
have
process,
segregation
in
has
the
crystal
there
a crystal
segregation
are
coefficient
pulling
will
twois
be
phases
coefficient
less
the
introduction
lowest
thanatunity.
the
of
at 0,35.
the
interface
Due
oftop
aThat
to
specific
end
this,
-is,
the
and
near
only
solid
amount
thethe
ahighest
crystal
part
interface,
ofof
dopant
and
at the
into liquid
the
dopant
bottom
the is
concentration
end
crystal.
melt.
integrated
of the
Between
The
ingot.
dopant
into
in the
the
An is
crystal
example
two
crystal.
added
phases,
will
The
to
ofbe
the
arest
0,35
is
polysilicon
redistribution
times
rejected
dopant
the
concentration
back
concentration
charge
of
into
thethe
ordopant
melt
profile
melt.
of in
phosphorus
takes
Italong
the
results
crucible.
place.
crystal
in in
dopant
This
the
is is
measured
melt.
accumulation
illustrated
Therefore,
on
in term
the
in the
in
graph
oforder
melt
a segregation
below.
as
to achieve
crystal
Heavy
coefficient
growth
ametals
given
as a ratio
dopant
proceeds.
have
very
level
of
low
Inconcentrations
in
turn,
segregation
thebecause
crystal, the
coefficients
the
of the
dopant
concentration
dopant
which
in the
two phases.
concentration
increases
results
in further
in the
in melt,
the
material
melt
the has
purification.
dopant
to be
concentration
appropriately
increases
in the
higher.
crystal as well.

Segregation
Coefficient
0,000008
0,000025
0,00003
0,0004
0,0007
0,023
0,07
0,3
0,35
0,8
1,25

Fe
Au
Ni
Cu
N
Sb
C
As
P
B
O

Segregation Coefficient: k =

CLIQUID

6
800

200

C(p) = C0(1-p)k-1
p - normalized length (p = 1 for Lmax)
k - segregation coefficient
Silicon V2.1 En

400
L [mm]

600

Resistivity [mcm]

Concentration [1019cm-3]

concentration

resistivity

CSOLID

CSOLID = 3,5 x 1018 cm-3

CLIQUID = 1,0 x 1019 cm-3

Single Crystal Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

21

Chapter 2 Overview
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

22

Ingot Shaping and Testing

During
The
Crystallographic
pulled
crystal
photograph
the cropping
ingot
section
of
is
orientation
cut
finished
isofplaced
into
the crystal,
individual
silicon
ofinthe
thecylinder
a
single
grinding
few
sections.
thin
crystal
axis
machine
slices
This
iscylinder
given
are
operation
and
removed
by
with
the
theflat
isseed
for
is
called
testing.
machine
orientation.
on
the cropping.
next
Usually
grinds
slide.
To identify
resistivity
down
Each the
section
a radial
crystal
profiles,
iscrystallographic
examided
until
oxygen
the target
and
for defects.
carbon
orientation
diameter
Also,
ofofthe
the
the
ends ofathe
concentration
cylinder
crystal
isflat
reached.
ingot
isand
ground
are
crystallographic
removed.
into it. Knowing
defects
the orientation,
are tested. the
Theposition
set of
slices
of
the flat
allows
is accurately
to verify the
determined
variation of
bymeasured
X-ray diffraction.
parameters.

X-ray source

Detector

Silicon V2.1 En

Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

24

Chapter 3 Overview
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

25

Wafer Manufacturing
The damage
When
first
saw
cutting
step
is made
comes
in
wafers
the
of production
afrom
from
thinthe
astainless
crystal,
fact
of silicon
that
itsteel
issawing
desired
wafers
withprocess
afrom
tohole
a crystal
in
make
is
really
the center.
a flat
aingot
form
cut
Aisof
at
nickel
sawing.
grinding.
a specific
matrix
A graphite
The
angle
withdamage
imbedded
with
beam
respect
exists
is diamond
attached
to the
to the crystal
particles
crystal
wherever
orientation
isthe
plated
with
blade
an
around
and
comes
adhesive
to waste
the
in contact
inner
toashold
little
edge
with
the
material
ofwafer
the
thecrystal.
blade.
as
after
the saw
This
possible
Therefore,
diamond-nickel
blade
with
theahas
damaged
minimum
cutmatrix
through
material
of provides
damage
thehas
ingot.
of
atosurface
the
bewafers.
removed
which
is used
For
in
the
that
subsequent
to
the
cut
blade
the silicon
is
steps.
cooled
ingot.
Onand
the rinsed
enclosed
by water
video,with
surfactant.
there
is a shot of sawing process.

VIDEO 352 x 288

Water

Stainless steel core

Silicon

Nickel matrix with

imbedded diamond
Damage
particles
Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Edge Grinding

Aftergrinding
The
wafer
sawing,
is placed
wheel
the wafers
isona vacuum
disc
havewith
anchuck
groove
edgeand
with
of
sharp corners.
slowly
desired
turned
"bulletas
nose"
The
theedge
grinding
shape
is ground
ofwheel,
wafertowhich
edge.
form is
a
There
bullet
rotating
are
embedded
shaped
at highedge.
diamond
speed,
This
isparticles
increases
forced against
in edge
the groove.
the
strength
wafer
edge.
and make the edges less prone to
chipping in later processing.

High speed

Low speed
Silicon V2.1 En

Double-Sided Lapping
Theabrasive
During
An
next
silicon
lapping,
step
wafers
slurry
inwafers
wafer
(aluminium
in carriers
production
are placed
and
oxide
the
is
in called
Al
abottom
O3
and
2carrier
lapping.
are
lapping
driven
plate
Purpose
between
visible
of two
this
step
on
the
iron
is double
tomade
make
sided
lapping
wafer
suspended
inare
water
withcast
surfactant)
is fed
to the
surface
plates.
planetary
The
smooth,
lapper
carrier
video.
isand
thinner
To
parallel.
see
than
thethe
wafers
wafersthe
wafers surface
asflat
they
are
moved
between
allowingplates.
movement
both
thesides
upper
lapping
the wafer
plate
be
is lifted
lapped
for
lapping
This of
removes
thetosilicon
and
simultaneously.
demonstration.
the end
of the
video there
is
leaves
behind aAtmore
uniform
surface.
Wafers
the
machinethe
during
the plates
lappingare
are complete
very flat because
lapping
process.
extremely flat.

Lapping plate

Slurry

Carrier

VIDEO 352 x 288

Wafer
Gearing

Lapping plate

Silicon V2.1 En

Stress Relief Etching

In both
Since
One
Another
The
figure
method
lapping
forms
form
below
of
of
allows
etching
etching
etching,
shows
only
the
used
aalkaline
to
relative
wafers
remove
on silicon
and
is the
the
acid,
bulk
use
of an
wafers
comparison
there
thealkaline
are
saw
is acid
advantages
damage
ofhydroxide,
etching.
the etch
and
and
Arates
always
common
such
disadvantages
ofas
leaves
a potassium
typical
mixture
a thin
to
uniform
hydroxide
used
acid
choosing
and
forlayer
acid
aa(KOH).
typical
specific
etching
of damage,
In
alkaline
form.
this
is HNO
method,
The
some
etch.
and
other
It the
can
HF.
onwafers
be
the
3 table
method
are
seen
bottom
dipped
that
left
must
the
side
inadditional
KOH
acid
beshows
used
etch
andto
acontinues
water
comparison.
remove
mixture
the
to etch
for
Sometimes,
chemicals
are
added
damage
about
silicon
The
picture
2wafer
minutes.
from
ofatlapping.
aachemical
The
high mixture
rate
This
for
damage
is
asusually
long
equipment
needs
asatthe
to the
mixture
to
make
theetching
reaction
more
to
elevated
two
and
beare
chemical
removed
kept
temperature
inbath
while
contact.
causing
on
ofTherefore
the
about
as
100C.
little
slide.
the acid
Then
controllable.
In
anyiscase,
thenext
acid
etching
additional
the
etch
wafers
must
be
controlled
dipped
as process
possible.
into
very
a DI
closely
water
Typically,
to
bath
end
the
to
process
is damage
aare
vigorous
which
needs
chemical
stop
up
with
anyan
remaining
etching
acceptable
is reaction.
used.
wafer.
tight
control
as it has
no
self limiting
properties.

Alkaline Etching
Si + H2O + 2KOH

K2SiO3 + 2H2

Acid Etching
3Si + 4HNO3 + 18HF

3H2SiF6 + 4NO + 8H2O

Si + 4HNO3 + 6HF

H2SiF6 + 4NO2 + 4H2O

Relative etching rates vs. time

Acid

Gives a surface that

contains etch pits

Gives a smooth
surface

Constant etch rates

over life of bath

Etch rate varies

Self limiting, easy to

control

No self limiting, hard

to control accurately

Does not release

EHS hazard

Releases gases that

must be scrubbed

Acid
Etch rate

Alkaline

fe
see W a

cturing
r Manufa

Alkaline
Time (Stock Removal)

Silicon V2.1 En

Etching Machine

Silicon V2.1 En

Backside Treatment
A batch
For
Silicon
Polysilicon
wafers
dioxide
of silicon
that
on the
can
are
wafers
backside
be
highly
used
indoped
carrier
prevents
as a backseal.
and
prepared
out
are
going
The
diffusing
for
deposition
layer
to go
as
is through
well
deposited
is on
as getters
the
a high
on
bottom
the
temperature
heavy
wafer
picture.
metals
by You
process,
chemical
from
can
see
the abulk
avapor
chemical
layer
of deposition.
the
is deposited
wafer.
vapor deposition
Normally
The
on oxide
the a
back
acts
silane
side 4of
strictly
(SiH
equipment
) source
as
theawafer
on
sealant.
is
the
used
tonext
prevent
for
slide.
polysilicon
the dopant from
out
diffusing.
deposition.

Oxide Deposition
SiH4 + O2

420C

Polysilicon Deposition
SiH4 620C

Silicon V2.1 En

SiO2 + 2H2

Si + 2H2

CVD Equipment

Silicon V2.1 En

Polishing
The
One
A
polishing
purpose
video
of theshows
polishing
pad
of wafer
isthe
mounted
techniques
wafers
polishing
on
unloading
the
isistobottom
the
produce
template
right
plate.
after
a very
The
smooth,
mounting
soft
polishing.
insertflat,
method.
A
ispolishing
necessary
damage
Theequipment
free
wafers
to hold
silicon
are
the
is
surface.
situated
wafers
shown The
in
on
inplace
a
the
round
polishing
template
when
next
slide.
the attached
step
wafers
is, are
unlike
onmounted
a carrier
lapping,
to
and
atheset
polishing
on a soft
chemical/mechanical
polyurethane
equipment
with
insert
the surface
in process.
the template.
facing
Thisdown.
difference
The insert
The bottom
is
has
thea
reason
porous
plate
and
structure.
polishing
carriersproduces
When
are rotating
theawafer
much
around
issmoother
pressed
their own
against
final
axis.
surface
the
water
than
soaked
lapping.
insert, it is held against it.
Slurry for Silicon Polishing
The polishing slurry consists of
silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2)
particles in aqueous suspension
with an organic alkali
and a surfactant.

Wafer

Carrier

Slurry

Insert
Template
Polishing pad
Bottom plate

Silicon V2.1 En

Polishing Machine

Silicon V2.1 En

Chemical Cleaning
At the
After
The
most
chemical
the
previous
this
time
wafers
cleaning,
common
commonly
of chemical
cleaning
steps
have
the
method
some
used
been
wafer
operation
cleaning,
method
metals
of
polished,
surface
cleaning
is
the
may
tocomplemented
wafers
is
remove
they
still
the
free
have
remain
wafers
of
have
aa
large
after
thin
particles
on
by
contaminants,
megasonic
the
native
polishing
number
wafer
is oxide
the
surface.
of
cleaning.
is
however
SC1
contaminants
layer
a wet
(Standard
The
on
cleaning
small
Megasonic
top
cleaning
and
amount
on
Clean
consisting
the
agent
waves
1)
surface.
contaminants
ofsolution.
particles
for
of
are
the
In
general,
several
are
This
metal
acoustic
may
mostly
be
mixture
contaminants
chemical
still
these
waves
on
present.
istop
contaminants
the
ofsteps.
of
very
hot
is
theaNH
high
The
oxide
mixture
frequency
first
are
or
and
of
embedded
one
particles,
HCl
H2is
O(about
ainhot
organic
water.
H
within
O2 in
4OH
2and
21
residuals
mixture
it.
MHz).
The
The
video
The
role
ofand
sulfuric
on
waves
of
right
the
metallic
subsequent
exert
acid
shows
ions.
and
forces
a hydrogen
cleaning
The
step,
onSC2
chemical
particles
diluted
line
peroxide
and
cleaning
onawafer
shot
Ammonium
water.
This
mixture
hydroxide
is known
under-etches
as
particles
(Standard
is
called
hydrofluoric
surface
into
designed
the2).
Piranha.
megasonic
and
to
acid,
help
remove
It to
decomposes
is cleaning
detach
to oxidizes
etch
them.
out
bath.
virtually
the native
any
oxide
organics
and
attached
Clean
to
The
the
mixture
surface
andthem.
eliminates
and
reacts
attractive
with
on
polishing
the wafer
slurry
residuals.
into
carbon
dioxide
and
water.
forces.
metals
on
Hydrogen
thesurface
silicon
peroxide
surface
is and
oxidizing
removes
agent
them.
to
grow thin clean oxide layer on the wafer surface,
which makes it hydrophilic and prevents particles
re-deposition.

H2SO4 + H2O2 (130C)

H2O + HF

H2O + NH4OH + H2O2 (70C)

H2O + HCl + H2O2 (70C)

Silicon V2.1 En

Particle
Metallic ion

Organic residual
Native SiO2

VIDEO 352 x 288

Inspection
After
A
The
measure
measurement
total
video
the wafers
indicator
shows
of thehave
ofashape
reading
the
non-contact
been
consistency
deformation
(TIR)
polished
automatic
is aofmeasurement
and
of
a wafer
a cleaned,
wafer is
they is
warp.
thickness
that
inspection
are
Warp
only
ready
isline.
concerned
is
total
the
to thickness
be
measure
inspected.
with the
variation
of maximum
front
During
side
(TTV).
the
difference
of a
It is
inspection
between
the
wafer.
difference
The
the
process,
way
highest
between
this measurement
the
and
the
resistivity
lowest
maximum
location
and
is made
and
geometrical
of is
the
by
parameters
centerline
minimum
reference
thickness
to
ofare
aa plane
wafer
measured
ofthat
with
a wafer.
is
respect
by
parallel
non-contact
totoreference
the vacuum
methods.
plane
chuck
defined
that the by
wafer
three
is pedestals
mounted on.
near
The
theTIR
wafer
is the
edge.
difference
between the height of the highest peak
and the deepest valley on the front of the wafer.

VIDEO 352 x 288

Wafer centerline

Tmax

hmax

Wafer
Wafer

Tminh

min

Dmax

Dmin

Warp
TTV
TIR===(D
T
hmax
T
hmin
max
max -- D
min) / 2

Silicon V2.1 En

Reference
plane

Vacuum
chuck

Scrubbing
Wafer
The
During
wafers
scrubbing
the scrubbing
are cleaned
with aqueous
thetoPVA
remove
brush
ammonium
particles
is very and
metal contamination
hydroxide
effective
for
(NH
particle
removal.
but after
across
After
inspection
the
DIwafer
water
may
surface
rinse
have
4OH) flows
anremove
and
increased
drying the
wafers
number
are of
prepared
particlesfor
onfinal
the inspection
surface
to
particles.
Simultaneously
the
again.
and
packaging.
The
has to be
used for
finalfibers
brushing
is scrubbing
made by polyvinil
alcohol
(PVA)
mechanical/chemical
Both
cleaning.
the
subsequent
final into
whichthe
do scrubbing
not scratchand
the
wafer
when brought
inspection
arewith
realized
in clean
rooms of class 10.
direct contact
the wafer
surface.
The video on right shows a scrubbing operation.

Silicon V2.1 En

VIDEO 352 x 288

Final Inspection

Wafer Diameter:
TTV:
TIR:
WARP:

100, 125, 150 mm

< 5 m
< 4 m
< 30 m

(typical for 100 mm wafers)

Particles >0,5 m
Metal Contamination:

<5
3x1010 atoms/cm2

for more specification: www.terosil.com

Silicon V2.1 En

38

Chapter 4 Overview
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

39

Epitaxy
For
Epitaxy
The
After
If
there
particular
process
result
theare
issurface
the
ofany
proceeds
the
applications
growth
phosphine
process
etching
ofatthe
is
high
is
there
(PH
finished,
silicon
from
temperature
molecules
aa
layer
few
need
thetoon
silicon
tens
toabout
the
present,
form
silicon
1200
a
3)is
layer
wafer
C.
chloride
micrometers
Hydrogen
of
surface.
high
(SiHCl
resistivity
thick
flows
The
vapors
epitaxial
layer
past
material
are
has
thelayer.
introduced.
incandescent
theon
same
top of
crystallographic
SiHCl
lower
silicon
the phosphorus
dope
the
growing
epitaxial
3)atoms
3 reacts
resistivity
properties
wafers.
On
enclosed
When
material.
ascompounds
the
hydrogen
video,
substrate,
Theatepitaxial
there
chloride
but
areittemperature.
growth
is
the
can
added,
shots
have
used
itof
astarts
different
thefor
withthe
layer.
present
Boron
hydrogen
can
a high
be
used
forisdoping
The
as this
purpose.
dopant
reacting
wafers
concentration
with reaction
silicon
on a susceptor
and
or even
itfree
etches
different
andthe
their
wafer
dopant.
unloading.
surface
result
well.
ofloading
this
are
silicon
atoms
that settle
away.
You
can
Itsilicon
is
also
important
see
thesurface
tocontrol
remove
board
all the
of its
an
contaminants
epitaxial
or
on
the
wafer
following
crystal
lattice
surface
reactor.
defects of the silicon structure.
structure.

Cl
Cl Si H
H
H Cl

H Cl

H Cl
H
P H
H

Silicon V2.1 En

H Cl
H

Cl
Cl Si H
Cl

Si
Si

Si P

Si
Si

VIDEO 320 x 240

H
Cl
H Cl Si H
H Cl
H Cl

Epitaxial Reactor

N2

H2

HCl

SiHCl3

PH3

At this extremely
Epitaxial
During
the
reactor
process,
is
high
an
the
temperature,
equipment
chamber with
forthe
the
the
process
growth
wafersofis
the epitaxial
flushed
proceeds
with
in the
nitrogen
layer.
way
Silicon
described
and hydrogen.
wafers
onare
theIn
loaded
slide
the Epitaxy.
on a
graphite
hydrogen
The
susceptor
block
environment
-with
susceptor.
wafers
the is
susceptor
The
cooled
susceptor
down
with wafers
is
then
placed
and
is
insidenitrogen
warmed
after
a quartz
up byflushing
the
glass
induction
bell-shaped
it is taken
heating
out
chamber.
at
from
thethe
Around
the chamber,ofthere
temperature
chamber.
about
is 1200C.
an induction heating coil.

B2H6

gas exhaust
Silicon V2.1 En

Epitaxial Layer
Characteristics

Wafer Diameter:
Epi Layer Thickness:
Epi Layer Resistivity:

100, 150 mm
3 - 50 m
3 - 50 cm

for more specification: www.terosil.com

Silicon V2.1 En

42

Chapter 5 Overview
Introduction
What is Inside an Electronic Device?
Silicon
Silicon - the Structure
Silicon - Inside the Single Crystal
Crystalline Defects
Doping
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Obtaining
Polycrystalline Silicon
Czochralski Crystal Growth
Czochralski Puller
Crystal-Melt Interface
Oxygen and Carbon in Silicon Crystal
Segregation Coefficient
Single Crystal Ingot
Ingot Shaping and Testing
Cropped Ingot

Silicon V2.1 En

Wafer Manufacturing
Wafer Edge Grinding
Double-Sided Lapping
Stress Relief Etching
Etching Machine
Backside Treatment
CVD Equipment
Polishing
Polishing Machine
Chemical Cleaning
Inspection
Scrubbing
Final Inspection
Epitaxy
Epitaxial Reactor
Epitaxial Layer Characteristics
Appendix
Clean Rooms
Some Special Units

43