CHAPTER III

NON PHYSICAL DETERMINANTS

OF AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER III

NON PHYSICAL DETERMINANTS OF

AGRICULTURE
3.1

Introduction

3.2

Irrigation

3.3

Demographic Factors

3.4

Livestock

3.5

Farm Implements

3.6

Improved Seeds

3.7

Fertilizers

3.8

Pesticides

3.9

Credit and Finance

3.10

The Weekly Market Centers

3.11

Transportation and Road Accessibility

3.12

Summary

71
CHAPTER III

NON PHYSICAL DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE

3.1

INTRODUCTION
In India non physical or technological variables have made a

significant impact on both agricultural patterns and agricultural

productivity. This happened during the period of new agricultural strategy
which laid stress on the application on a greater scale of agricultural
science and technology to irrigation in dry areas. Experience of recent
years has shown that the key factors influencing Indian agriculture are
irrigation and modern inputs such as intensity, efficiency and certainty of
irrigation, farm implements, farm power (Human and Mechanical) and
the use of High Yielding Varieties (HYV) and chemical fertilizers.
In the country like India, Where the rainfall is both inadequate and
unpredictable, it affects badly on agricultural productivity. The study of
development process has found a limited place in geographic literature in
the past (Gilbert A.1971). Moreover, the study of economic development
was viewed differently by geographers and economists while geographers
have tended to emphasize the role of physical environment (Munton
R.J.C.1969). Economist on the other hand, had laid overwhelming
emphasis on economic factors in conditioning the distribution of
geographic phenomena, where by the natural relationships between the
phenomena, the phenomena have been under-emphasized (Chisholm, M.,
1966). There is increasing appreciation by geographers of the fact that
physical (abiotic or non living) and non physical (biotic or living) factors
influence overall economic development and that factors contributing to
agricultural growth must also be sought in the same perspective.

72
However, one cannot ignore the impact of the vast multiplicity of
interrelated physical or non physical factors on agriculture, not
withstanding the fact that all of them are not equally significant in
influencing the regional variations and temporal development of
agricultural phenomena in an area. To avoid dissipating ones efforts, it is
desirable to choose the primary factors that may be decisive in the
creation of different agricultural elements from place and time to time. In
this sense only must analyze the distributional patterns of decisive factors
in order to understand the distinctive regional characteristics of the
dependents so that the regional division of an area may be tailored to the
purpose of a particular study (Jasbir Singh, 1976). Each part of the world
virtually lacks homogeneity in the primary bases of farming because the
degree of their effectiveness in the spatial perspective markedly varies.

3.2

IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the basic input of agriculture and it is one of the

important components of agricultural technology to boost up agricultural

productivity. It is task of geographer to study the spatio temporal aspects
of irrigation and its relationship with other attributes. It is oblivious fact
that irrigation is indispensable for the success of agriculture. It ensures
the benefits to farms by reducing the risk of crop failure, increasing the
average yields and permitting multiple cropping. The successfully water
requirement of various crops can be met (Gadgil D.R., 1948).
Irrigation is an agricultural strategy designed to reduce moisture
deficiency, i.e. the balance between the moisture supplied by rainfall and
the evapotranspiratiory demand. Moreover, the adverse results of
unreliability of rainfall are well through irrigation. In view of spatial
variation in its distribution and uncertainty of monsoon, agriculture has
become highly dependable an artificial supply of water. The artificial

73
application of water to land for growing crop is known by the term
Irrigation (Andrede,B., 1975). Contore L. M. (1967) defined it irrigation
is artificial application of water to the soil for crop production. It has been
therefore, considered as one of the important technological components
of progressive agriculture providing water under best management on
scientific basis has also received importance in irrigation.
Irrigation helps agricultural production in three ways. First it raises
yield per unit area by inducing the use of other complementary yield
raising inputs viz. High Yielding Varieties of seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides, secondly it leads to an expansion in the gross cropped area by
making dubble and multiple cropping possible. Thirdly for a given
amount of output by enabling farmers to allocate their lands to high
yielding and high valued crops (Gurjar, R., 1990). Hence irrigation is
essential for development of agriculture.
3.2.1 METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation was through wells and inundation structures. Today, land
is irrigated by a variety of ways, tube wells are the pulsing hearts and
irrigation channels the arteries which carry life and nourishment to arable
fields. Source of irrigation in a study region will depend upon various
factors such as surface configuration rock structure, water table, quality
and quantity of ground water, proximity and extent of water potential
catchment area and soil profile of the land. These factors vary
considerably from place to place in given region.
The methods by which irrigation is applied to the land depends on
an ideal conditions, an individual land features such as the slope of land,
the crops to be raised, the nature of water supply and ability to soil to
absorb and hold water (Cantore L.M., 1967). The irrigation methods used

74
in this region differ largely according to the terrain, soil types and
climatic conditions (Powar C. T., 1981).
There are different irrigational sources and modes in Sindhudurg
district. The following modes of irrigation are used for irrigating the
agricultural fields. Irrigation works in India are classified into major,
medium and minor schemes. Minor surface irrigation projects are those
with a cultural command area (CCA) upto 2000 hectares. Medium
projects are those with a CCA above 2000 hectares upto 10,000 hectares.
Major projects have a CCA greater than 10,000 hectares. The government
has established Maharashtra Irrigation Development Corporation in
December 1997. Major, Medium and Minor irrigation projects in the
study region which are under constructions are discussed below.
3.2.1 A. Major Projects
1.

Talamba Project
Construction of this project (Dam) was started in Talamba village

in Kudal tahsil. It will be completed in 2013. Table 3.1 shows that about
Rs. 38819 lakh amount will be spent on this project and the total height of
the dam sanctioned is 58.35 metres. Total length of the proposed canals is
87.20 km. But actually not a single km. has been constructed. Total water
storage capacity of the project is 297.15 million cubic metre. However
not a single million cubic meter water is stored as on 31st March, 2007.
After completion of this project about 17000 hectares will be irrigated.
2.

Tillari Project

This dam was constructed in Tillari village in Dodamarg tahsil.

The figures in the table 3.1 show that the estimated coast is about Rs.
129255 lakh on this project. The height of the dam was sanctioned as
72.55 metres but actually the height of completed dam is 54.85 metres.
Proposed length of canal is 180.22 from the dam. About 76.75 million

75

Table No.3.1
Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in Sindhudurg District
Sr.
No.

Item

Tahsil
Name of the
Project
Location of the
Project
a) Year of
Completion
b) If incomplete,
probale year of
Complection
c)Estimated cost of
Expenditure (Rs.in
Lakhs)

1
2
3

6
7

9
10

Dam
a)Height
Sanctioned (in
Metres)
b)Height
Completed (in
metres)
Canal
a) Total Length (in
Km.)
b) Completed
Length (in Km.)
Maximum Storage
Capacity (in
Million m3)
Storage Capacity
as on 31-03-2007
Gross Area
Comanded (in
Hect.)
Irrigable Area by
Completed Project
(in Hect.)
Area Irrigated at
2007 (in Hect.)
a) Perannial
b) Seasonal

Major Project

Medium Projects

Kudal

4
Doda
marg

5
Kan
kavali

7
Kan
kavali
Mahma
dwadi

8
Vaibhav
wadi

Tarandale

6
Sawant
wadi
Shri
shinge

Talamba

Tilari

2013

2009

2009-10

2010-11

2010-11

38819

129255

1475

5841

58.35

72.55

47

54.85

180.22

87.2

9
Kan
kavali
Dev
ghar

10
Sawant
wadi
Saram
bala

2011-12

200910

201112

18990

17841

24987

18473

57.25

69.53

80.41

50.58

69.24

40

35

45

10

33

25

4.82

38.2

80

14

37.47

Aruna

5.72
297.15

462.15

10.08

46.92

93.37

93.37

76.75

100.42

96.25

7.62

26285

23654

798

4764

12409

6379

5937

7464

17000

23654

550

3049

6107

5310

4512

6190

67

40

806

Source : Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District in 2006-07.

76
cubic metre water was available as on 31st March, 2007, while the storage
capacity of this project is 462.15 million cubic meter. After the
completion of this total project nearly 23,654 hectares area will be
brought under irrigation but only 67 hectares area was under irrigated as
on 31st March, 2007.
3.2.1 B. Medium Project
The role of Maharashtra Irrigation Commission is most important
to increase the land under irrigation. Medium irrigation projects were in
an advanced stage of construction in the study region.
1.

Devdhar Project
Probable year of completion of the project is 2009-10 and it is

contructed near Ghonsari village in Kankavali tahsil. The figures in table

3.1 indicate that the estimated cost of expenditure is about Rs. 24,987
lakh on this project. The height of the dam is sanctioned as 50.58 metres
but the height completed is 33 metres. Total length of the proposed canals
is 14 km. The length of the canal is completed 5.72 km. Total storage
capacity of this project is 100.42 million cubic metres but actual capacity
is about 7.62 million cubic metres, water was to be made available to
commanded area of this project is 4750 hectares but actually 806 hectares
land was brought under irrigation (31st March, 2007).
2.

Tarandale Project
This dam was constructded in Tarandale village in Kankavali

tahsil. About Rs. 1475 lakh is the estimated cost of expenditure and it will
complete in 2009-10. The height of this dam sanctioned as 47 metres out
of which dam with 40 metres height is completed. Table 3.1 show that the
storage capacity of this project is 10.08 million cubic metre. The project
not yet completed hence not a single hectare of land was not irrigated by
this project in 2007.

77
3.

Shirshinge Project
This dam was constructed in Shirshinge village in Sawantwadi

tahsil and the probable year of completion of this project is 2010-11. The
total height of this dam is sanctioned as 57.25 metres but actual height
completed is 35 metres. The storage capacity of this project is 46.92
million cubic meters. The project is yet to be completed.
4.

Mahmmadwadi Project
This dam was constructed near Nardave village in Kankavali tahsil

and probable year of completion of this project is 2010-11 and estimates

cost of expenditure is Rs. 18990.60 lack. The table 3.1 indicates that total
height of this dam is sanctioned as 69.53 meters but actual height
completed is 45 meters. Total water storage capacity of the project is
93.374 million cubic meters and command area is 8686 hectares but only
40 hectares land is brought under irrigation by this project as on 31st
March, 2007.
5.

Aruna Project
Table 3.1 shows that the probable year of completion of this project

in 2011-12 and it was constructed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil. Estimated cost

of expenditure is Rs. 17841 lakh. Total length of this canal is 80.36 Kms
from both sides of the dam. The total water storage capacity is 93.37
million cubic meters. The project is not yet completed; hence not a single
hectare of land was brought under cultivation as on 31st March, 2007.
6.

Sarambala Project
This project is near Sarambala village. The height of the proposed

dam is 69.24 metres however only 25 metres height completed in 2007.

Table 3.1 reveals that irrigation capacity of Sarambala Project is 6755
hectares but not a single hectare of land was brought under irrigation as
on 31st March 2007.

78
The main characteristics of the major and the medium projects in
Sindhudurg District, is that not a single project has been completed.
These irrigation projects when completed will play an important role in
the agricultural development in the study region.
3.2.1 C.

Minor Irrigation Projects

In India organized and planned efforts towards irrigation

development began after the independence. Government of Maharashtra
has give more stress on minor irrigation schemes and there after
agricultural development accelerated. Map no. 3.1 shows that the
distribution of minor irrigation schemes in Sindhudurg District.
Minor irrigation Projects are considered to be one of the most
important basic factors in the process of transformation and development
of agriculture. During the rainy season when water collected forms a
pond it is usually called tank. This water is used for irrigating the
standing crops after the season. Tank irrigation, therefore, needs much
rainfall for water storage and utilization. Level of water in tanks is solely
dependent on the quantum of rainfall of that season (Singh J. and Dhillon
S.S., 1995). The water table on the beds at tanks or in the adjacent areas
offers good sites for shallow wells which are used either to prevent crop
failure during drought or to raise a second crop in wet years after the
paddy harvest.
Table 3.2 reveals that the contribution of minor schemes varies
from tahsil to tahsil in Sindhudurg district. The highest minor irrigation
schemes are about 30.47 per cent in Sawantwadi tahsil whereas the
lowest percentage of minor schemes is observed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil.
The share of other tahsils is given as Devgad (8.31%), Kankavali
(18.30%), Malvan (14.54%), Vengurla (9.54%), and Kudal (14.94%)
during 2006-07. Through the canals of minor schemes some 11322

79
hectares area was brought under irrigation. The lowest irrigation
potentials of minor schemes were found in Devgad tahsil (5.97%),
whereas the highest potentials of irrigation were found in Kankavali tahsil
(27.6%). The share of other tahsils is given as Vaibhavwadi (7.30%),
Vengurla (7.50%), Malvan (12.82%), Kudal (18.34%) and Sawantwadi
(20.27%) during 2006-07.
Table No. 3.2
Minor Irrigation Projects
Tahsilwise Distribution of Minor Irrigation Scheams in
Sindhudurg District (2006-07)
Sr.No. Tahsil

Devgad

Vaibhavwadi

Kankavali

Malvan

Vengurla

Kudal

Sawantwadi
District

Total Minor
Scheams (in
use)
168
(8.31)
78
(3.85)
370
(18.30)
294
(14.54)
193
(9.54)
302
(14.94)
616
(30.47)
2021
(100)

Irrigation
Potential in
Hectares
s677
(5.97)
827
(7.30)
3143
(27.76)
1452
(12.82)
850
(7.50)
2077
(18.34)
2296
(20.27)
11322
(100)

Actual Irrigated
Area (Hectares)
508
(7.10)
416
(5.81)
1475
(20.62)
1164
(16.27)
535
(7.48)
1311
(18.33)
1742
(24.36)
7151
(100)

Source:- Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District 2007.

(Figures in bracket indicate percentage)

Actual area under irrigation varies from tahsil to tahsil in the study
region. Area brought under irrigation was found about 7151 hectares in
Sindhudurg district during 2006-07. The highest actual area brought

80
under irrigation was 24.36 per cent in Sawantwadi tahsil whereas the
lowest actual area under irrigation was 5.81% in Vaibhavwadi tahsil. The
share of other tahsils is Devgad(7.10%), Kankavali (20.62%), Malvan
(16.27%), Vengurla (7.48%), and Kudal (18.33%) during 2006-07.
3.2.1 D. Well Irrigation
Table 3.3
Tahsilwise Irrigational Wells in Sindhudurg District
(1981-82 and 1999-2000)
1980-81
Sr.
No.

1
2

Tahsil

Devgad
Vaibhavwadi

1999-2000

No of No of Total
Wells
Wells
Wells
in use
in use

No of No of Total
Wells
Wells Wells
in use
in use

5234

750

5984

2792

78

2870

(87.46)

(12.53)

(100)

(97.28)

(2.72)

(100)

26

26

(100)

3
4
5
6
7

Kankavali
Malvan
Vengurla
Kudal
Sawantwadi

2915

298

3213

2786

214

3000

(90.72)

(9.27)

(100)

(92.86)

(7.13)

(100)

7378

54

7432

1911

178

2089

(99.27)

(0.72)

(100)

(91.47)

(8.52)

(100)

2601

20

2621

2569

77

2646

(99.23)

(0.76)

(100)

(97.08)

(2.91)

(100)

35.21

19

3540

3687

45

3732

(99.46)

(0.53)

(100)

(98.79)

(1.20)

(100)

3690

3690

2244

25

2269

(100)

(98.89)

(1.10)

(100)

(100)

District

Source :-

(100)

25339

1141

26480

16015

617

16632

(95.69)

(4.30)

(100)

(96.29)

(3.70)

(100)

Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District

1980-81 and 2006-07.
(Figures in bracket indicate percentage)

81
Well irrigation may be said to be the indigenous form of irrigation
in India. It is very well suited to the poor Indian farmer, because it is
cheap to build, no elaborate machinery to work it, and does not need any
specialized engineering skill to build it or to work it. It can be dug at very
poor of the farmer. Therefore it is within the means of the farmers (Dubey
R.N. and Negi B.S., 1968). Well irrigation is practiced in elevated parts
where the canal water can not reach. One of our great achievements since
independence has been in the field of well irrigation.
3.2.2 Percentage of Net Irrigated Area to Net Sown Area
Table 3.4 reveals that the percentage of net irrigated area to net
sown are was noticed below 10 per cent in Kankavali (3.08%), Devgad
(4.10%) and Kudal (4.64%) tahsils during the period of 1981-82. Malvan
and Sawantwadi tahsils recorded 10 per cent to 20 per cent irrigated area.
Above 20 per cent net irrigated area to net sown area was found in
Vengurla (31.23%) during 1981-82.
Table 3.4

Percentage of Net Irrigated Area to Net Sown Area

in Sindhudurg District
(1981-82 and 2000-01)
Sr.No.
.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Tahsil

Devgad
Vaibhavwadi

Kankavali
Malvan
Vengurla
Kudal
Sawantwadi

District

% of Net Irrigated area to

Net Sown Area

1981-82
4.10
3.08
19.22
31.23
4.64
12.28
10.82

2000-01
5.72
5.35
5.80
24.15
15.64
9.92
17.51
11.67

Volume of
Change
1.62
5.35
2.72
4.93
-15.59
5.28
5.23
0.85

Source :- Agricultural Director, Pune. Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District 1981-82

and 2006-07. Computed by the researcher.

82
Map 3.3 indicates that out of the net irrigated area to net sown area
below 10 per cent was found in the tahsils of Devgad (5.75%),
Vaibhavwadi

(5.35%),

Kankavali

(5.80%)

and

Kudal

(9.92%)

respectively during 2000-01. It was between 10 per cent to 20 per cent in

the tahsils of Vengurla (15.64), and Sawantwadi (17.51%) tahsils, where
as it was above 20 per cent in Malvan tahsil (24.15%).
It is clear from table 3.4 and map 3.4 except Vengurla tahsil
(-15.59%), all other tahsils show positive change in net irrigated area to
net sown area. Zero per cent to 3 per cent positive change in net irrigated
area was found in tahsils of Devgad (1.62%) and Kankavali (2.72%)
while 3 per cent to 6 per cent positive change in irrigated area was
observed in tahsils of Vaibhavwadi (5.23%), Malvan (4.93%), Kudal
(5.28%) and Sawantwadi (5.23%) during the period under investigation.
In short it is clear that the both net irrigated area and net sown area have
increased comparatively from 1981-82 up to 2000-01.
3.3

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
Man gets nearly all his food from the soils. less than one per cent

of what he eats being fish (Pearson T.A. and Harper F.A., 1945). Thus,
land use gets modified base on the needs of the population. Population
growth and literacy are instrumental in bringing about agricultural change
in an agrarian society. The physical attributes of an area become
resources only when its people are able to use them. The relationship
between population and land use is close. For instance, change in
population patterns influence land use. Huge concentration of population
in Indian villages confirms a deep rooted relationship between land and
people Man being a powerful geographical factor on the earth surface.
The analysis of the different elements of population in the study region is
therefore necessary.

83
3.3.1 Growth of population
According to the 1981 census the population of Maharashtra was
62.8 million. AS per the 2001 census the population of Maharashtra was
96.75 million making it the second most populous state in the country,
after Uttar Pradesh. In 1981 the study region had a population of 7,80,891
and in 2001, it was 868825. The growth of population in any area is an
index of its economic development, social awaking and many other
characters (Chandana R.C. and Siddhu M.S., 1980). Growth of
population is one of the significant factors associated with human
occupancy. In other words it flows in size from time to time and people
migrate temporarily or permanently both with in the administrative
boundaries and across them (Bajaj Nirmal, 1963).
Table 3.5
Population Growth Rate in Sindhudurg District
(Growth rate in Percentage)

Sr.
No.
1

Census
Year
1981

Growth in Decades
Total
Rural
Urban
3.03
3.49
-2.20

1991

6.56

2001

5.29

24.95

2.28

30.35

Source :- Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District.

We are discussing about the growth of population since 1981
in the entire study region. The formula used to calculate the growth rate
of population is given as fallow.
Pn - Po
r = ----------- x 100
Po
Where,
r = Growth rate of population
Pn = Current year population
Po = Base year population

84
Table 3.5 indicates the decade wise growth rate of population in
Sindhudurg district. In the decade of 1981 total population increased by
3.03 per cent. Above table shows that the given three decades, the highest
growth found the decade of 1981-91 i.e. 6.56 per cent of the total
population. During the last decade total population has decreased by 4.41
per cent. In the decade of 1971-81 negative change found in urban
population i. e. -2.20 per cent.
3.3.2 Literacy
Literacy has been defined as the ability to read and write with
understanding. The concept of literacy varies from country to country.
Literacy reflects the socio-economic and cultural set-up of a nation,
ethnic group or community. Literacy is essential not only for the
eradication of poverty, but also for mental isolation for cultivating
peaceful and friendly international relations and for permitting the free
play of demographic process as well (Husain M., 2005).
Literacy is a necessity for all those who wish to practice the
agricultural occupation on modern lines. Literacy and population growth
are two factors which brings about a change in agriculture. Therefore the
work of literacy has to be assessed by its effectiveness as an instrument of
agricultural development on progressive lines (Jasbir Singh & Dhillon
S.S., 1995).
Table 3.6 reveals the tahsil wise percentage of literacy in
Sindhudurg district. It is clear from the given table that the literacy of
population was 54.0 per cent in 1981 and it increased upto 80.3 per cent
in 2001 in the study region. Map 3.5 A indicates that in 2001 below 70
per cent literacy was observed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil whereas 70 per cent
to 80 per cent literacy rate was found in the tahsils of Devgad, kankavali

85
and Sawantwadi and above 80 per cent was recorded in the tahsils of
Malvan, Vengurla and Kudal.
The positive change in the percentage of literacy rate increased in
all tahsils in the study region during the period of 1981 and 2001. Map
3.5 B show that below 25 per cent positive change in the literacy of
population was observed in the tahsils of Malvan, Vengurla whereas 25
per cent to 27 per cent was took placed in the tahsils of Kankavali and
Sawantwadi. Above 27 per cent positive change in literacy was noticed in
the tahsils of Devgad, Vaibhavwadi and Kudal during the period of
investigation.
Table 3.6
Tahsilwise percentage of Literacy in Sindhudurg District
(1981 and 2001)

Devgad

Literacy in Percentage
1981
2001
Volume of
Change
52.5
79.8
27.3

Vaibhavwadi

38.4

68.4

30.0

Kankavali

52.4

78.3

25.9

Malvan

61.7

83.1

21.4

Vengurla

60.6

85.1

24.5

Kudal

53.8

81.3

27.5

Sawantwadi

52.1

78.9

26.8

District

54.0

80.3

26.3

Sr.No.

Tahsil

Source : - Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District in 1981 and 2001.

3.3.3 Population Density

The densities so far discussed, may be adequate for some kind of
international, national, regional studies by or politicians, economists,
geologists, or geographers. It is however, not for an agricultural

86
geographer to base his study of the implications of population pressure in
relation to land use on the densities detailed earlier.
It is essential to determine the extent of population pressure on land
and changes therein for drawing a plan for optimum use of land.
Population densities over an area depend largely upon the availability of
productive livelihood. Areas where productivity is limited on account of
physical, climatic or economic reasons support a low density of
population. In Maharashtra state where the rural population almost
entirely depends upon agriculture for livelihood, the rural density of
population is largely a measure of the agricultural productivity of the
region (Arunachalam B., 1967).
It is a simple consent of relating population size to the land area
with a view to assessing crudely the pressure of population upon the
resources of the area. It is a measure of population concentration which is
usually expressed in terms of persons per unit of area. There are various
ways measuring density and hence we have crude, physiological,
agricultural and caloric densities taken into consideration for the study
region. Above densities are computed for studying the pressure of
population on agricultural land. Very high density of population indicates
the abnormal pressure on land and optimum density of population
indicates the normal pressure on land.
1.

Crude Density
It is a simple ratio between total population and total geographical

area and is expressed in terms of persons per unit of area. For example,
Indias density of population as per 2001 census was 324 persons per
square kilometer. The crude density of the Sindhudurg district varies
from 1981 to 2001.

87
Table 3.7 reveals that the crude density of population in
Sindhudurg district was 168 persons per square kilometer in 1981 and
172 persons per square km in 2001. Map 3.6 A indicates that in 1981 it
was below 150 persons per square km in Devgad and Sawantwadi tahsils
whereas it was 150 to 200 in Kankavali, Malvan and Kudal tahsils.
Above 200 crude densities was observed in Vengurla tahsil.
It is clear from the table 3.7 and map 3.6 B that below 150 crude
densities was observed in 2001 in Vaibhavwadi and Sawantwadi tahsils
and 150 to 200 crude densities were observed in the tahsils of Devgad,
Kankavali, Malvan and Kudal. Above 200 crude densities was found in
Vengurla tahsil. It means that the population density of the district has
been increasing very slowly.
2.

Physiological Density
Physiological density is a ratio between total population and

cultivated land. Man soil density or Physiological density is worked out

by dividing total population by total net sown area (Trewartha G.T.,
1953). Crude density is hardly adequate for making a regional
comparison in population burden on land and its impact on land use. This
type of density is more important than other density of population
pressure on cultivated land.
Table 3.7 gives clear cut idea about tahsil wise Physiological
density of Sindhudurg district. It was 679 persons per square kilometer in
1981 and 601 persons per square kilometers in 2001. Map 3.7 A indicates
that below 600 Physiological density per square kilometer was found in
the tahsils of Kankavali, Kudal and Sawantwadi while 600 to 700 in
Malvan tahsil. On above 700 was observed in the tahsils of Devgad and
Vengurla in 1981.

88
Table 3.7 and map 3.7 B indicate that below 600 sq.km in the year
2001 physiological density was recorded in Devgad, Vaibhavwadi,
Kankavali and Kudal tahsils whereas 600 to 700 Physiological density
per square km. was recorded in Vengurla. Above 700 Physiological
density was found in Malvan and Sawantwadi tahsils.
Eastern and central parts of the study region have high
Physiological density while the western part of the district has low
Physiological density. In the eastern part of the district, the soils are
unfertile; rainfall is heavy, steep slope, hill region and dense forest which
result in the low Physiological density of population.
3.

Agricultural density
Agricultural density of population is the ratio between agricultural

population and agricultural land that is, net sown area. Agricultural
density provides one with means to make a comparison between
agricultural population and cultivated are or net sown area (Frenczi I.,
1938). It is a better approach to the question of land use in agricultural
countries where heavy reliance is placed on farming.
Table 3.7 presents clear picture about tahsil wise Agricultural
density of population of Sindhudurg district. Agricultural density of
population was 157 persons per square kilometer in 1981 and it increased
to 185 persons per square kilometer in 2001.
Table 3.7 and map 3.8 A indicate that in 1981 Agricultural density
per square kilometer was observed below 125 sq.km in Vengurla and
Sawantwadi tahsils whereas it was 125 to 150 sq.km in Malvan, and
Kudal tahsils. It was above 150 square km. in Devgad and Kankavali
tahsils.

89
Table 3.7
Tahsilwise Densities of Population in Sindhudurg District
( 1981 and 2001)
1981

2001

Crude
Density

Physiolo
gical
Density

Agricult
ural
Density

Caloric
Density

Crude
Density

Physiol
ogical
Density

Agricult
ural
Density

Calor
ic
Densi
ty

140.30

1033.79

341.29

952.88

160.36

564.28

165.63

556.16

116.19

408.60

169.72

404.23

3 Kankavali

156.92

499.83

155.57

480.8

178.65

550.09

183.52

546.87

4 Malvan

190.68

651.06

149.59

523.51

188.71

735.46

199.86

706.73

5 Vengurla

295.02

799.59

101.42

659.62

304.43

693.50

185.13

685.80

6 Kudal

158.39

581.73

136.59

579.13

186.74

513.51

173.84

507.79

7 Sawantwadi

124.89

581.55

125.32

516.72

148.39

736.69

214.14

683.96

District

168.52

678.63

157.01

578.19

172.40

601.01

185.31

585.59

Sr.
no.

Tahsil

1 Devgad
2

Vaibhavwadi

Source :-

Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District in 1981 and 2001.

Computed by the researcher.

Table 3.7 reveals that Agricultural density generally increased in

every tahsil due to increase in population in 2001. Map 3.8 B indicate that
it was below 175 square kilometer in Devgad, Vaibhavwadi and Kudal
tahsils whereas in Kanakvali, Malvan and Vengurla tahsil it was between
175 to 200 persons per square km. The same was above 200 in
Sawantwadi tahsil. In Devgad tahsil there was decrease in the density due
to increase in the net sown area. By considering the Agricultural density
of the study region we may say that there is possibility of Agricultural
development in horticultural development in the eastern part of the
district. The above discussion reveals a possibility of scope for the
Agricultural activity.

90
4.

Caloric Density
Caloric density (man- food crop ratio) of population is the ratio

between total rural population and total food cropped area. It is difficult
to produce a simple universally acceptable definition of pressure of
population that may encompass all kinds of population pressure
situations, which very both in time and space. It is essential to determine
the production of food per standard unit of surface (in calories) to
compare this production with the standard physiological food requirement
per capita.
Table 3.7 gives clear cut idea about tahsil wise caloric densities of
population in Sindhudurg district. Caloric density of population was 578
persons per square kilometers in 1981 and which increased up to 585
persons per square kilometer in 2001.
Table 3.7 and map 3.9 A show that below 500 caloric density per
square kilometer was recorded in kankavali tahsil and 500 to 600 caloric
density was found in Malvan, Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils in 1981.
Above 600 caloric densities was seen in Devgad tahsil in 1981.
Table 3.7 and map 3.9 B reveal that below 500 caloric density per
square kilometer was observed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil whereas it was 500
to 600 in Devgad, Kankavali and Kudal tahsils. Above 600 caloric
densities was recorded in Malvan, Vengurla and Sawantwwadi tahsils
during 2001.
In the above discussion, it has been found that crude, physiological,
agricultural and caloric densities are inadequate to determine the
population burden on arable land in so far as they ignore contrast in land
quality and productivity. One may assume that the areas with very low to
Moderate densities have low population pressure. Yet they may be
limited by low yield. It will be observed that above densities are low in

91
the rain fed areas. On the other hand economic density on agricultural
land is very high in these which ensure a minimum potentiality to support
more people under the present conditions.
3.4

CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK IN AGRICULTURAL

ECONOMY
Livestock is the oldest form of agricultural activity, with the

evolution of man to more conscious forms of life and the multiplication

of human population. The need arose for him to hunt animals in the forest
and then understand the necessity of rearing animals for his food. The
beginning of agricultural lies in the pastoral form when man started
domesticating animals for meeting his food requirements (Raj Vir Singh,
1979). All the agricultural operations are based on livestock and they are
the chief source of power and manure (Kaystha S.L., 1961). As the land
is of little use to the farmer without the poor creatures that draw the
plough and scratch the soil, they are the keystone in farming. Therefore in
addition to crops, drought and milch stock are raised and maintained by
an individual farmer. They are his constant companions in the field by
day and live beside his house or even under his roof at night. However,
his treatment towards his livestock is rather niggardly (Singh J., 1974). It
is well known fact that India has the largest number of livestock in the
world. India is at the top of having 17 per cent of total livestock
population which is less than one fifth of cattle, half of buffaloes and over
one fifth of goat and sheep (India 2008).
Livestock sector not only provides essential protein and nutritious
human diet through milk, eggs, meat etc. but also plays an important role
in the utilization of non-edible agricultural byproducts. Livestock also
provide raw material by products such as hides and skins, blood, bone, fat
etc. This sector plays a prominent role in the rural economy in

92
supplementing the income of rural households, particularly the landless
and small, marginal farmers. It also provides subsidiary occupation in
semi urban areas and more so far people living in hilly areas where crop
output may not sustain the family.
3.4.2 Tahsilwise Livestock Distribution in Sindhudurg District
1.

Cattle
In Sindhudurg district considerably the cattle population is large in

numbers however they are poor in quality. Cattle are used both for milk
and for drought purpose. Some cow are fairly good yielder of milk while
bulloks are good for drought. The total cattle includes Jercy cow, Jercy
bulloks, young stock of cows and bullocks, country cows, breeds in
normally found in Sindhudurg district. Bullock carts is such a Vehicle
which not only serve as a means of transportation of goods from or to the
village from nearby towns but also is well suited and designed to
transport agricultural raw materials and implement from the fields in the
study region.
In the absence of mechanized farming, the small, marginal and
medium farmers almost entirely depend on livestock for drought power.
It has been estimated that bullocks and male buffaloes make available 40
million h. p. (30,000m.w.) and two-thirds of energy for the farms and for
rural transportation of goods (Singh A. and Sadhu A.N., 1991).
Table 3.8 show that total cattle population has decline considerably
from 1987 to 2003 and has slightly picked-up in only Vaibhavwadi and
Malvan tahsils. Cattle have first rank considerably to the total livestock in
the study region. Cattle population of the study region has decreased from
283861 in 1987 to 20, 0071 in 2003. It is clear from the map 3.10A, out
of the total livestock the percentage share of cattle was below 55 per cent
in Malvan (54.23%), Vengurla (50.71%), Kudal (40.54%) and

93
Tahsil wise Livestock Distribution
in Sindhudurg District (1987 and 2003)

Table 3.8
Sr.
No.

Tahsil

Devgad

Census

1987
%
2003
%
Vol.of Change

Vaibhav
wadi

1987
%
2003
%
Vol.of Change

1987
%
3

Kankavali

2003
%
Vol.of Change

Malvan

1987
%
2003
%
Vol.of Change

Vengurla

1987
%
2003
%
Vol.of Change

Kudal

Sawant
wadi

1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
Vol.of Change

District

1987
%
2003
%

Total
Cattle

Total
Buffaloes

Goat /
Sheep

Other
Livestock

37196
66.42
30313
63.13
-3.29
42068
54.47
21109
73.74
19.27
53493
68.33

12638
22.27
10177
21.19
-1.38
13779
18.49
3062
10.69
-7.8
17788
22.72

5822
10.39
4471
9.31
-1.08
18645
25.02
2263
7.9
-17.12
6588
8.41

212
0.37
3050
6.35
5.98

44410
65.23
-3.1
25546
47.14
28901
54.23
7.09
21343
57.57
13711
50.71
-6.06
61212
55.93
34368
40.54
43003
56.45
27259
39.74
-16.71
283861
100
200071
100

11760
17.27
-5.45
17053
31.46
11824
22.18
-9.28
10447
28.18
6210
22.96
-5.22
28760
26.28
25133
29.64
22082
28.98
21944
31.99
3.01
122547
100
90110
100

4110
6.03
-2.38
11340
20.92
6094
11.43
-9.49
4072
10.98
2281
8.43
-2.55
19028
17.38
9160
10.8
10201
13.39
5758
8.39
-5
75696
100
34137
100

7799
11.45
10.96
251
0.46
6467
12.13
11.67
1209
3.26
4834
17.87
14.61
427
0.39
16108
19
886
1.16
13631
19.87
18.71
3372
100
54001
100

Total
Livestock

2192
5.65
5.65
387
0.49

Source :- Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District in 1987 and 2003.

55994
100
48011
100
74492
100
28626
100
78277
100
68079
100
54190
100
53286
100
37072
100
27036
100
109427
100
84769
100
76122
100
68592
100
485624
100
378399
100

94
Sawantwadi (39.74%) tahsils; where as it was 55 per cent to 65 per cent
in Devgad tahsil (63.13%) in 2003. Above 65 per cent cattle population to
total livestock was found in Vaibhavwadi (73.74%) and Kankavali tahsils
(65.23%).
Table 3.8 and map 3.10 B indicate that that below 5 per cent
negative change in cattle population was observed in Devgad and
Kankavali tahsils and 5 to 10 per cent negative change in cattle
population was found in Vengurla tahsil. Above 10 percent negative
change was observed in Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils and above 5 per
cent positive change was found in the tahsils of vaibahavwadi and
Malvan during the period of investigation
2.

Buffaloes
Buffaloes thrive best in areas of warm and humid climate.

Buffaloes are reared mainly for milk but male buffaloes are used as
drought animals in certain parts of the study region.
The proportion of buffalo population was varied from tahsil to
tahsil in Sindhudurg District. Table 3.8 and map 3.11 A indicate that out
of total livestock below 20 per cent buffalo population was found in
Vaibhavwadi (10.69%) and Kankavali (17.27%) tahsils, where as 20 per
cent to 30 per cent proportion of buffaloes to the total livestock was in
Devgad (21.9%), Malvan (22.18%), Vengurla (22.96%) and Kudal
(29.64%) tahsils. About 30 per cent buffalo population was observed in
Sawantwadi (31.99%) tahsil in 2003.
It is clear from the table 3.8 and map 3.11 B that below 5 per cent
negative change in buffaloe population was registered in Devgad tahsil
where as 5 per cent to 10 per cent negative change was observe in
Vaibhavwadi, Kankavali, Malvan and Vengurla tahsils. Below 5 per cent
positive change was recorded in Kankavali and Sawantwadi tahsils

95
during the years from 1987 to 2003. However shortage of fodder crops
and green grass during summer season is a major problem.
3.

Goat And Sheep

Goat is called the poor mans caw because it can be cheaply reared

on meager grass of poor quality. It is the major suppliers of Mutton along

with milk, hair and skin. According to livestock census 2003, there are
about 61.47 million sheep and 124.36 million goats in the country. About
five million households in the country are engaged in rearing of small
herds of sheep, goat and rabbit. Goat and sheep form an integral part of
the Indian agricultural economy. Their distribution is widely divergent
mainly dependent upon the climatic conditions, the number being smaller
in heavy rainfall areas and greater in low rainfall areas (R.N. Dubey and
B.S. Negi, 1968).
Table 3.8 and map 3.12 A show that the share of goat and sheep in
total livestock was below 8 per cent in Vaibhavwadi (7.90%) and
Kankavali (6.03%)tahsils, while it was between 8 per cent to 10 per cent
in Devgad (9.31%), Vengurla (8.43%) and Sawantwadi (8.39%) tahsils.
Above 10 per cent goat and sheep population in total livestock was
noticed in Malvan (11.43%) and Kudal (10.80%) tahsils in 2003.
During the period of sixteen years (1987-2003) all the tahsils in
Sindhudurg district have negative change in case of goat and sheep
population. Table 3.8 and 3.12 B indicate that below 5 per cent negative
change was observed in Devgad, Kankavali and Vengurla tahsils while 5
per cent to 10 per cent negative change was recorded in Sawantwadi,
Malvan and Kudal tahsils Above 10 per cent negative change was found
in Vaibhavwadi tahsil.

96
4.

Other Livestock
It is clear from the given table 3.8 that there are great variations in

other livestock population in the district. It has increased rapidly from

3372 in 1987 to 54001 in 2003. Proportion of other livestock in the total
livestock was below 10 per cent in Devgad (6.35%) and vaibhavwadi
(5.65%) tahsils where as it was 10 per cent to 15 per cent in knkavali
(11.45%) and Malvan (12.13%) tahsils. It was well above 15 per cent in
Vengurla (17.87%), Kudal (19.00%) and Sawantwadi (19.87%) tahsils
(map 3.13 A).
There has been 16 times increase in the number of total other
livestock in the district during the period from 1987 to 2003. It is
observed from the table 3.8 and map 3.13 B that below 10 per cent
positive change of other livestock to total livestock population was in
Devgad and Vaibhavwadi tahsils while 10 per cent to 15 per cent positive
change in other livestock population was noticed in Kankavali, Malvan
and vengurla tahsils. Above 15 per cent positive change was observed in
Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils.
3.5

FARM IMPLEMENTS
Relief and edapho-climatic conditions largely govern the use of

agricultural implements and machinery in a region. In Sindhudurg district

few implement are required to perform agricultural operations mainly due
to the predominance of paddy cultivation. The most common agricultural
implements used by farmers in the study region are the ploughs for tilling
the land and carts for carrying material from place to place and field to
field. The land resources being limited, the additional production will
have to be achieved by increasing the productivity of land. That is
possible by increasing the use of agricultural implement. Each of them is
interlinked with the other interdependent of factor (Kadukar P.M., 2006).

97
These factors are topography, climate, types of soils, along with some
socio-economic factors such as economic status.

Social structure of

community and choice of crop influence the use of agricultural

implement. The farm implement are closely adjusted to the environment
that there is little possibility of change (Singh R.L., 1975).
The agricultural implement are very simple in size, light and within
the capacity of drought oxen (Shitole P.A., 1990). They are wooden and
iron ploughs for ploughing, harrows for crushing the seeds driller for
sowing, hoes for inter culture, stoneroller for thrashing motes, oil engine
and electric pumps for water lifting, carts for transport and tractors for
many agricultural operations. Out of them wooden and iron ploughs, carts
and oil engines, electric pumps and tractors are the factors considered in
the present study.
The density of each agricultural implement (per 100 hectares) is
worked out by using the following formula.
Density of agricultural
Implement

Total Number of any Implement

= ------------------------------------------ x 100
Total Cropped Area

3.5.1 Wooden Plough

Table no. 3.9 reveals that in the year 1987 total number of wooden
ploughs used in the district was 120000. Highest number of them was
used in Kudal tahsil which was 31102. The number was as low as 7649 in
Vaibhavwadi and 8650 in Vengurla tahsil. Both the trahsils have small
geographical area as well as cultivated area. Number of wooden phoughs
in the district has decreased to 77276 in the year 2003. the decrease is
observed in all tahsils except that of Vaibhavwadi where there was
remarkable increase in the number of wooden plough from 7649 (1987)
to 9673 (2003) during the period under investigation.

98
Percentage of wooden ploughs to total number of farm implements
was 96.34% in 1987 which the tahsils of Devgad, Kankavali, Sawantwadi
and Kudal were having 96% to 98.16% wooden ploughs to total
implement, where as the tahsils of Vaibhavwadi, Malvan and Vengurla
were having 92.82% to 96% wooden ploughs in 1987.
Density of wooden ploughs in the district per 100 hectares was
90.36 per cent in 1987 which decreased 52.08 per cent in 2003. The
proportion of ploughs in relation to per 100 hectare of gross cropped area
is uneven throughout the study region. In the year of 1987 the tahsils of
Kankavali, Malvan and Sawantwadi were having 69.07%, 67% and
75.75% density per 100 hectare of gross cropped area respectively where
as the tahsil of Vengurla 81.60% while tahsils of Devgad, Vaibhavwadi
and Kudal were having 130%, 96.82% and 134.06% respectively (table
no. 3.10).
Table 3.10 indicate that tahsils like Devgad and Vengurla were
having 21.25% and 30.49% density per 100 hectare of wooden ploughs of
district where as Sawantwadi and Kudal tahsils were having 43.27% and
57.49% respectively in 2003. Above 60 per cent wooden plough density
per 100 hectare of gross cropped area was observed in Vaibhavwadi,
Kankavali and Malvan tahsils during the same year.
A large numbers of wooden ploughs are distributed over all the
study region because of easy to handle to the farmers as well as bullocks
and it is also easy to repair in village level in the study region. The
wooden plough is a traditional agricultural implement (locally called
Nangar) widely used in the entire study region. It is made by the local
carpenters using locally available wood. This is mainly due to the socioeconomic conditions of the farmers and nature of the land forms owing to

99
its suitability to drought animals portability and low cost of
manufacturing the wooden plough has been used for many centuries.
3.5.2 Iron Ploughs
Iron ploughs facilitate deep ploughing as compared to that of
wooden ploughs. Total numbers of iron ploughs in Sindhudrg district
increased from 88 in 1987 to 3211 in 2003 (table no. 3.9). The share of
iron ploughs in the agricultural implement was below 1 per cent in
Kankavali (0.31%) and Sawantwadi (0.10%) tahsils in 1987. Data for the
year 1987 for the tahsils of Devgad, Vaibhavwadi, Malvan, Vengurla and
Kudal is not available.
It is clear from table 3.9 and map 3.15B show that the proportion of
iron plough in the agricultural implement was (0.20%) and (0.52%) seen
in Vaibhavwadi and Kankavli tahsils where as (2.76%) and (3.54%) was
observed in the tahsils of Devgad and Vengurla in 2003. Percentage of
iron ploughs to the total number of farm implement was 4.72%, 6.26%
and 5.72% observed in Malvan, Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils
respectively during the same period.
Table 3.10 indicate the highest density of iron ploughs per 100
hectares was observed in Kudal tahsil (4.25%) where as it was below 1
percent in Devgad, Vaibhavwadi and Kankavali tahsils. The tahsils of
Malvan and Sawantwadi were having 3.92% and 2.87% density of Iron
Ploughs per 100 hectare of gross cropped area during the year 2003. It is
observed from same table that there was an increase in the density of iron
plough per 100 hectare in total Sindhudurg district which was 0.06% in
1987 and 2.16% in 2003.

100
Table No. 3.9

Tahsil wise Distribution of Agricultural Implement

in Sindhudurg District
(1987 and 2003)
Sr.
No.

Tahsil

Devgad

Vaibhav
wadi

Kankavali

Malvan

Vengurla

Kudal

Sawant
wadi

District

Year

Wooden
Iron
Oil
Electric
Carts
Plough Plough
Engines Pumps

Tract
ors

1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%
1987
%
2003
%

16825
97.42
47.88
84.19
7649
93.6
9673
97.82
19409
96.41
17217
93.11
13258
94.68
11761
85.73
86.5
92.82
3930
81.5
31102
98.16
17315
84.74
23106
96.33
12592
86.16
111199
96.34
77276
88.16

6
0.03
5
0.3
4
0.02
3
0.06
2
0.06
7
0.03
1
0.004
6
0.04
8
0.009
26
0.06

157
2.76
20
0.2
63
0.31
98
0.52
648
4.72
171
3.54
1281
6.26
25
0.1
836
5.72
88
0.07
3211
3.66

215
1.24
316
5.55
436
5.33
9
0.9
467
2.31
511
2.76
460
3028
295
2.15
177
1.89
35
72

320
1.59
300
1.25
174
1.19
2055
1.64
1660
1.89

Source: Socio-Economic Abstract -1988-89 & 2006-07

54
0.31
312
5.48
38
0.46
133
1.34
40
0.19
152
0.82

188
1.37
181
1.94
180
3.73
252
0.79
367
1.79
246
1.02
372
2.54
811
0.65
1704
1.94

176
1.01
114
2
49
0.59
53
0.53
152
0.75
507
2.74
179
1.99
822
5.99
311
3.33
503
10.43
326
1.02
1137
5.56
301
1.25
633
4.33
1594
1.27
3769
4.29

Total
Imple
ments
17270
100
5687
100
8172
100
9888
100
20131
100
18491
100
14002
100
13708
100
9321
100
4822
100
31682
100
20433
100
23979
100
14113
100
124555
100
87652
100

101
Table No. 3.10

Tahsil wise Density of Agricultural Implement in Sindhudurg

District
(1987 and 2003)
(Density per 100 hectares)

Carts

Oil Engines

Electric
Pumps

Tractors

Total
Implements

Iron Plough

1.6

0.41

1.36

133.87

1.4

1.38

0.5

25.24

5.51

0.48

0.62

103.44

0.16

0.07

1.11

0.44

82.66

69.07

0.22

1.66

0.14

0.54

71.64

2003

68.14

0.38

2.02

0.6

0.02

73.18

1987

67.64

2.34

1.42

0.02

71.43

2003

71.23

3.92

1.78

1.13

4.97

0.02

83.08

1987

81.6

1.66

1.7

2.93

87.91

2003

30.49

1.32

0.27

1.39

3.9

0.02

37.41

1987

134.06

1.08

1.4

0.008

136.56

2003

57.49

4.25

1.06

1.21

3.77

0.02

67.84

1987

75.75

0.08

0.98

0.8

0.98

0.003

78.61

2003

43.27

2.87

0.59

1.27

2.17

0.02

50.22

1987

90.36

0.07

1.54

0.61

1.2

0.006

93.79

2003

52.08

2.16

1.11

1.14

2.54

0.01

59.07

Year

Wooden
Plough

Tahsil

1987

130

2003

21.25

1987

96.82

2003

80.87

1987

Sr.
No.
Devgad

0.69

Vaibhavwadi

Kankavali

Malvan

Vengurla

Kudal

Sawantwadi

District

Source : Socio-Economic Abstract -1988-89 & 2006-07

Computed by Researcher.

3.5.3 Carts
Cart is such a vehicle which not only serves as a means of
transportation of goods and agricultural implements, raw material from
field to field and place to place in the study region. There are great

102
variations in the percentage of carts to the total implement of Sindhudurg
district.
Table 3.9 reveals that in the year 1987 total number of carts used in
the district was 2055. Highest number of them was used in Vaibhavwadi
tahsil which was 436. The number was as low as 177, 215 and 300 in
Vengurla, Devgad and Sawantwadi tahsils. These tahsils have small
geographical area as well as cultivated area. Number of carts in the
district decreased to 160 in the year 2003. The decrease is found in all the
tahsils except that of Devgad and Kankavali tahsils.
Table 3.9 and map 3.16 B indicate that the share of carts in
agricultural implements was observed below 2 percent in Vaibhavwadi,
Vengurla, Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils where as it was between 2% to
4% in Kankavali and Malvan tahsils. Above 4% proportion of carts in
agricultural implements was found in Devgad tahsil in 2003.
Table 3.10 shows that there has been slight decrease in the density
of carts per 100 hectares of gross cropped area from 1.54% in 1987 to
1.11% in 2003. The highest density of carts per 100 hectare of gross
cropped area was recorded in Vaibhavwadi tahsil (5.51%) in 1987 and
2.02% in Kankavali tahsil in 2003. Below 2% density of carts per 100
hectares of gross cropped area noticed in Vaibhavwadi(0.7%), Vengurla
(0.27%) and Sawantwadi (0.59%) tahsils in 2003. Entire study region is
poorly served by carts where densities are low. Rugged terrain and poor
transport network largely explain overall poor density of carts per 100
hectares of gross cropped area in Sindhdurg district.
3.5.4 Oil Engines
There has been more than two times increase in the total oil
engines in Sindhudurg district from the number of 811 in 197 to 1704 in
2003. The highest increase in oil engines was recorded 5.48% to the total

103
agricultural implements in Devgad tahsil in 2003. In the year 1987 the
tahsils of Devgad, Vaibhavwadi, Kankavali and Kudal having 0.31%,
0.46%, 0.19% and 0.79% the proportion oil engines in the agricultural
implements respectively to the total of the district. Where as the same
was 1.94% and 1.02% in the Vengurla and Sawantwadi tahsils
respectively.
It is clear from the table 3.9 and map 3.17 B that there was an
increase in oil engines in the study region. The proportion of oil engines
in agricultural implement was observed in Vaibhavwadi (1.34%),
Kankavali (0.82%), Malvan (1.37%) and Kudal (1.79%) tahsils where as
2% to 4% share of oil engines was found in Vengurla and Sawantwadi
tahsils in 2003.
Table 3.10 shows the density oil engines per 100 hectares of gross
cropped area in Sindhudurg district. There has been increase in the
number of oil engine density per 100 hectares of gross cropped area in
Sindhudurg district from 0.16% in 1987 to 1.14% in 2003. Except
Kankavali tahsil above 1% density of oil engines per 100 hectares has
been noticed in Devgad Vaibhavwadi, Malvan, Vengurla and Sawantwadi
tahsils during 2003.
3.5.5 Electric Pumps
Electric pump is an important device to lift the water from the
sources of water e.g. river, well, canal, tank etc. to the farm. As a result of
electrification the oil engine are mostly replaced by electric pumps. The
regional analysis shows that there is the variation in the distribution of
electric pumps in the study region.
Number of electric pumps varies from tahsil to tahsil in
Sindhudurg district. The trends of electric pumps use for agricultural
purpose have been increasing day by day in the study region. There has

104
been more than two times increase in electric pumps from 1594 in 1987
to 3769 in 2003 in the entire study region. Table 3.9 and map 3.18 A
show the proportion of electric pumps in the agricultural implements.
Below 1% was observed in Vaibhavwadi and Kankavali tahsils while 1%
to 2% share was found in Devgad, Malvan, Kudal and Sawantwadi tahsils
in 1987. Above 2% share of electric pumps in the agricultural implement
was recorded in Vengurla tahsil during the same year.
It is observed from the table 3.9 and map 3.18 B that there was
increase in electric pumps in 2003. The proportion of electric pumps to
the total agricultural implement was observed in Devgad as (2.0%),
Vaibhavwadi (0.53%) and Kankavali (2.74%) tahsils. On the other hand
tahsils like Malvan (5.99%), Kudal (5.56%) and Sawantwaadi (4.33%)
have seen the share of electric pumps in the same year. Above 6%
contribution of electric pumps in total agricultural implements was
observed in Vengurla tahsil during 2003.
Table 3.10 gives the clear cut idea about density of electric pumps
per 100 hectares of gross crossed area in Sindhudurg district. There has
been 100 per cent increase in density of electric pumps per 100 hectare of
gross cropped area in Sindhudurg district from 1.20% in 1987 to 2.54% in
2003. In the year 1987 below 2% density of electric pumps per 100
hectares was found in Devgad, vaibhavwadi, Kankavali, Malvan, Kudal
and Sawantwadi tahsils otherhand only Vengurla tahsil was found above
2 per cent density per 100 hectares of gross cropped area.
Density of electric pumps per 100 hectares was noticed below 3%
in Devgad, Vaibhavwadi, Kankavali and Sawantwadi tahsils where as
above 3% was observed in Malvan, Vengurla and Kudal tahsils in the
study region in 2003. The highest number of electric pumps were

105
concentrate in Kudal tahsil (1137) and the lowest number electric pumps
were seen in Vaibhavwadi tahsil (53) in the same year.
3.5.6 Tractors
Unlike farm workers and their bullocks or camels or he buffaloes
or horses, the tractor is not tired. Moreover, the extra power, speed and
persistence of the tractor enable the farmer to execute farming operations
rapidly and to work round the year to create favorable soil preparation
conditions. The farmers take decisions with regard to the bulk of
investment in tractorization depending upon their capacity to invest and
creditworthiness. The need mobile power (tractors) for ensuring timely
operations and for reducing the dependency on the uncertainties of hired
labour (Singh and Dhillon, 1975).
Tractors has been become a major vehicle of transportation
particularly agricultural materials e.g. fertilizers, agricultural implements
produce from place to place. Most of the farmers are poor. The tractors
are useful for several agricultural operations in the study region. Number
of tractors is negligible in the district. Table 3.9 indicate the total numbers
of tractors recorded in Sindhudurg district was only 8 in 1987 and 26 in
2003. There was not a single tractor observed in Devgad, and
Vaibhavwadi tahsils from1987 to 2003. The share of tractors in
agricultural implements was below 1% that is 0.3% to 0.006% in 1987
and 2003 in the study region.
Their proportion to per 100 hectares of gross cropped area varies
from tahsil to tahsils. It is observed from table 3.10 shows there was not a
single density per 100 hectares of tractors was recorded in all tahsils of
Sindhudurg district from 1987 to 2003. Entire study region have very
insignificant proportion of tractors. Thus the use of tractors for
agricultural purpose is very limited which indicate the backwardness of

106
agricultural development in the study region in general. Very small
holding is also an important reason.
The environment conditions do not for favour the use of tractors,
some progressive farmers belonging to coastal level areas have adopted
the use of tractors for ploughing.
3.6 IMPROVED SEEDS
Seed is a Basic and crucial input attaining sustained growth in
agricultural production. Improved seed is the carrier of new technology
to crop production, proportion and multiplication. Accordingly,
production of quality seeds and distribution of new improved plant
nutrients constitute an important component of governments agricultural
policy.
Quality seeds have always been proved to be important aspect of
increasing agricultural production. Agricultural productivity depends to a
great extent, upon the use of quality seeds (Jalan M.L. 1987). The
increase in the yields are dependent to a large extent on suitable variety of
seeds which are capable of producing high yields provided other
associated factors are available in the proper combination, improved
varieties of seeds are one of the most important component of strategic
input in the study region.
Paddy is the dominant cereal crop in Sindhudurg district. Out of
total improved varities of paddy is the highest proportion in the study
region. The principal varities of paddy generally used in the study region
are Masuri, Suvarna, Ratna 1, 24 and 711, H.M.T. Premier, MTU 1010.
B.P.T. 5210, Jaya, Sonam, Manico 5629 and 5445, Sahyadri, Karjat 2 and
3 etc. tahsil wise paddy seeds used in the study region given in table 3.11.
Table 3.11indicate the tahsil wise improved paddy seeds used in
Sindhudurg district. The use of improved seeds of rice has been growing

107
rapidly from a mere 51001 kg. in 1990-91 to 369762 kg. in 2007-08. Use
of High Yielding Verity seeds increased by about 6 times during 18 years
between 1990-91 and 2007-08.
Table 3.11
Tahsil wise Paddy Seeds used in Sindhudurg District
(1990-91 and 2007-08)
Sr.No.

Tahsil

Devgad

Vaibhavwadi

Kankavali

Malvan

Vengurla

Kudal

Sawantwadi

District

Seeds in Kilograms
1990-91
2007-08
5900
65381
(11.56)
(17.68)
6650
16924
(3.03)
(4.57)
8710
111202
(17.07)
(30.07)
7800
24023
(15.29)
(6.49)
9720
76750
(19.05)
(20.75)
8155
20581
(15.98)
(5.56)
4070
54901
(7.97)
(14.84)
51005
369762
(100)
(100)

Source :- Agricultural Department, Zilla Parishad Sindhudurg District.

In 1990-91 out of total seeds about 19.05 per cent were used in
Kudal tahsil, where as 7.97 per cent seeds were used in Sawantwadi
tahsil. The proportion of HYV seeds were used in Devgad, Vaibhavwadi,
Kankavali, Malvan and Vengurla tahsis were 11.56%, 13.03%, 17.07%,
13.29% and 15.98%respectively. In 2007-08 out of the total improved
seeds about 30.07 per cent seeds were used in Kankavali tahsil whereas
4.57 per cent seeds were used in Vaibhavwadi tahsil. The proportion of
improved seeds used in Devgad, Malvan, Kudal, Sawantwadi and
Vengurla were 17.68%, 6.49%, 20.75%, 14.84% and 5.56% respectively.

108
Use of improved seeds has continuously increased in all tahsils of
Sindhudurg district from 1990-91 to 2007-08 (table 3.11). Due to the
attitude of farmers and the intensive minor irrigation schemes, use of
chemical fertilizers has supported the increased use of HYV seeds during
the period under investigation.
Though the farmers are found using improved variety seed of rice,
they are not following improved methods o paddy cultivation particularly
the nursery management practices. Almost all the farmers fallow the
traditional method of rab. (Rab the branches of trees and leaves are
spread in the fields and are burnt to ashes. The ash is then spread in the
fields. This is a traditional practice of manuring the fields. Actually it is
harmful for the environment. It reduces the forest cover and increases the
air pollution).
3.7 FERTILIZERS
For boosting agricultural output, the use of chemical fertilizers has
an important role. Indian soil though varied and rich is deficient in
nitrogen and phosphorus and other plant nutrients which together with
organic manure influence crop return. With the population rising at fast
rate, the use of larger doses of chemical fertilizers is the only way to
increase our food grain production. The new agricultural strategy was
based on increased use of chemical fertilizers.
Inputs like fertilizers if used under conditions of assured irrigation,
may promote growth with stability, but if used under conditions of
uncertain rainfall, may increase the range of fluctuations in output with
growth (Hanumantha Rao, C.H., 1975). An increase under net sown area
has always demanded considerable quantity of fertilizers which is
reflected in higher yields of rice and fruit farming production.

109
Table 3.12
Tahsilwise Use of Chemical Fertilizers in Sindhudurg District
(1987-88 and 2006-07)
Sr.No.

Tahsil

Devgad

Vaibhavwadi

Kankavali

Malvan

Vengurla

6
7

Kudal
Sawantwadi

District

Chemical Fertilizers In M. Toones.

1987-88
2006-07
5615
3215
(36.45)
1352

(17.14)
896

(8.77)
1288

(4.77)
3075

(8.36)
1116

(16.4)
805

(7.24)
1739

(4.29)
2455

(11.29)
2017
(13.09)
2274
(14.76)
15401
(100)

(13.09)
2986
(15.92)
5318
(28.36)
18750
(100)

Source : - Agricultural Development Officer, Zilla Parishad, Sindhudurg District.

3.7.4 Spatial Pattern of Fertilizer Consumption in Sindhudurg

District
Recent experience has shown that in the absence of organic
manures, use of fertilizer alone has given very profitable returns. In view
of deficiency in nutrients in the soils, the supply of fertilizers becomes
inevitable particularly in Sindhudurg district. There is regional disparity
in use of chemical fertilizers. The application of fertilizers to crops is
largely influenced by a number of factors like availability of fertilizers of

110
required time and quantity, purchasing power of farmers, price of
fertilizer, an assured of supply of water, attitude of farmers, government
policies, credit facilities etc. The physiographic limitations in the hilly
parts of Sindhudurg district and scarcity of water have resulted in small
proportion of net sown area.
The consumption of chemical fertilizers has been growing slightly
from a mere 15401 m. tones in 1987-88 to 18750 m. tones in 200-05.
Utilization of improved seeds in area under certain crops as like rice,
pulses, oilseeds, horticulture and use of chemical fertilizers has increased
in the various irrigated tracts of Sindhudurg district. However the
increase is negligible.
Table 3.13
Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers in Kg. per Hectare Net Sown
Area in Sindhudurg District
(1987-88 and 2006-07)
Use of Chemical Fertilizers
Sr.No.

in Kg. /ha.

Tahsil

1987-88
438.67

2006-07
144.80

Devgad

Vaibhavwadi

175.58

75.72

Kankavali

43.36

122.42

Malvan

55.8

50.74

Vengurla

164.0

192.62

Kudal

87.31

100.25

Sawantwadi

76.30

196.86

District

115.10

129.70

Source - Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District in 1987-88 and

2006-07. Computed by the researcher.

Use of chemical fertilizers includes Urea, D.A.P., M.O.P.,S.S.P.,

Suphala and Sampurna 20:20:00,10:26:26, 18:18:10, 20:10:10.

111
Table 3.12 and fig. 3.1 show that during 1987-88 in Vaibhavwadi,
Kankavali and Malvan tahsils the percentage of Chemical fertilizers was
below 10%. In Sawantwadi, Kudal and Vengurla tahsils it was 10 to 15
percent. In Devgad tahsil it was above 15 per cent.
Table 3.13 and map 3.20 B indicate that there was an increase in
consumption of Chemical fertilizers in Kg. per hectare net sown areaduring 2006-07. It was below 150 Kg. per hetare net sown area in
Devgad, Vaibhavwadi, Kankavali, Malvan and Kudal tahsils and was
above 150 kg. per hectare net sown area was in Vengurla and
Sawantwadi tahsils.
Consequently the consumption of fertilizers is relatively low due to
inadequacy of water and irrigation facilities, poor soils, rugged
topographic conditions, poor farmers have no money to invest and thus
are discouraged to use chemical fertilizers.
3.8

PESTICIDES
Term pesticide encompasses all chemical material used for

controlling of pest. Based on their principal uses, pesticide may be

classified as insecticides which control insects, fungicides which kill
pantnogens causing diseases to the plant, rodenticides to kill rodents,
weedicides or herbicides to control unwanted plants and nomatocides to
control nematodes. The role of pesticides is most significant among
various agrochemicals in the sense that these act as protective umbrella
for other inputs. Even after using other inputs such as HYV seeds,
irrigation, fertilizers, machinery etc. the crop may be destroyed by pest
and diseases, the entire investment is a lost (Jalan M.L., 1987).
The farmers in Sindhudurg district are aware of the importance of
this input in agriculture. They have inadequate knowledge about using
them at proper time and in proper quantity too. The pesticides are

112
generally used by farmers for many improved varieties ranging from
foodgrains to many commercial and horticultural crops. They cannot be
afforded by small farmers in hilly farming areas where income level of
farmers is insignificant. There is regional disparity in the distribution of
these pesticides (table 3.14).
Sindhudurg District is a land of paddy, cashew and mango, which
are the major rain fed crops. Insects, pests, and weeds can seriously
damage crops if adequate preventive and curative measures are not taken
in time. The main problem faced by the mango growers in the district are
alternate bearing of fruits, spongy tissue and heavy infestation by hopers.
In the case of cashew crop, cultivation of the local varieties heavy
infestation of tea mosquito is the main problem, Manocrotophos, Endosulphan and Carbaril are the pesticides used to remove the problem
created by tea mosquito on the cashew crop in the study region. The
heavy infestation of tudtude and bhuri is the problem faced by mango
growers

in

the

district.

Fenvelrate,

Indosulphan,

Quinolphos,

Diamethoate and Sulpher are the pesticides helping to face the problem of
tudtude and bhuri on mango trees. The heavy infestation of Kolerog is
the main problem faced by Betelnuts. With the help of Copper Sulphate
and lime are used to face the problem of Kolerog on betelnut. In this
way the given pesticides are the blessing for the variety of crop protection
in the study region.
Table 3.14 indicates the tahsilwise use of varieties of pesticides in
the study region sponsored by the state government crop protection
scheme in 2006-07. Use of pesticides in liter or in kg, under the crop
protection scheme during 2006-07 is presented in table no 3.14.

113
Table No. 3.14

Use of Pesticides in Sindhudurg District (2006-2007)

Lit.

Sr.
No.

Tahsil

Devgad

Vaibhav
wadi

Kanka
vali

Kg.

Indos
alphan

Fenv
alrate

Quina
lphos

Diame
thoet

Saipe
Rmeth
rin

Mono
Croto
phos

Axodi
raction

Sul
pher

Carb
aril

Copper
Sulphet

Lime

2134

90

580

149.5

60

435

130

580

225

1250

1250

34.27

16.98

51.55

22.11

16.51

30.89

25.74

26

37.81

14.38

14.38

338

60

90

70

30

278

10

180

115

300

300

5.42

11.32

8.04

10.35

8.45

19.71

1.98

8.07

19.32

3.45

3.45

675

150

100

200

200

100

230

100

500

500

10.83

28.3

8.88

29.58

14.18

19.8

10.31

16.8

5.75

5.75

440

50

200

115

117

75

400

85

500

500

7.1

9.43

17.77

17.04

8.29

14.85

17.03

14.28

5.75

5.75

1570

95

100

81

200

70

10

350

25

400

400

25.21

17.92

8.88

11.98

56

4.96

1.98

15.69

4.2

4.6

4.6

610

25

20

25

50

270

30

250

45

1500

1500

9.79

4.71

1.77

3.69

14

19.14

5.94

11.21

7.59

17.28

17.28

460

60

35

35.5

25

40

150

240

4240

4240

7.38

11.34

3.11

5.25

7.04

2.83

29.7

10.76

48.79

48.79

6227

530

1125

676

355

1410

505

2230

595

8690

8690

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

Malvan

Vengurla

Kudal

Sawant
wadi

District

Source : Agricultural Development Officer, Z.P. Sindhudurg 2006-07.

Indosalphan is used to control pest on the table clearly indicates

that the total use of the pesticide was 6227 liters. The highest quantity
was used in Devgad tahsil which was 34.27 per cent of the total quantity
used in the district followed by Vengurla tahsil, where it was 25; 21 per
cent, Its lowest use was seen in Vaibhavwadi tahsil where it was 5.42 per
cent only followed by Malvan (7.10%) and Sawantwadi 7.38%. In all
other tahsils the use of Indosalphan is 8% to 11%. Use of Fenvalrate it
was below 15 per cent in Vaibhavwadi, Malvan, Kudal and Sawantwadi
tahsils. The highest quantity was used in Kankavali tahsil which was

114
28.30 per cent of the total quantity used in district (table no. 3.14)
followed by Vengurla tahsil, where it was 17.92 per cent. Its lowest use
was seen in Kudal tahsil where it was 4.71 per cent only followed by
Malvan (9.43%) and Vaibhavwadi (11.32%). In all other tahsils the use of
Fenvalrate is 11.34 per cent to 17 per cent. The highest use of Quinalphos
was found in Devgad tahsil where as the lowest use of Quinalphos was
observed in Kudal tahsil. Above 20 percent use of Diamethost was
experienced in Devgad and Kankavali tahsils where as the remaining
tahsils were having below 20 per cent use of Diamethoet. Table 3.14
shows the use of Indosalphan, Fenvalrate, Quinalphos, Diamethoate,
Saipermethrin, Manocrotophos and Axodiration these are in liquid form.
The highest i.e. 56% use of Saiper Methrin was seen in Vengurla tahsil,
where as its lowest use was seen in Sawantwadi tahsil which was 7.04
only. It is clear from table 3.14 that above 25 per cent use of
Monocrotophos was seen in Devgad tahsil which was 30.89 per cent
where as the lowest i.e. only 2.83 per cent use of Monocrotophos was
noticed in Sawantwadi tahsil. The highest proportion of Axodiraction use
was found in Devgad tahsil which was 25.75 per cent where as the lowest
percentage of Oxidiractin was used in Vaibhavwadi and Vengurla tahsils
which was 1.98 per cent each.
Sulpher, Carbil, Copper Sulphet and Lime are the non liquid form
of pesticides distributed in the study region during 2006-07. The highest
use of Sulpher under the crop protection scheme was observed in Devgad
tahsil (73.81%) where as the lowest use of Sulpher was noticed in
Vaibhavwadi tahsil (8.07%). Kankavali, Sawantwadi, Kudal, Vengurla
and Malvan tahsils have recorded the use of Sulpher as 10.31%, 10.76%,
11.21%, 15.69% and 17.03% respectively.

115
The highest proportion of Carbil was used in Devgad tahsil
(37.81%) where as the lowest use of Carbil was found in Vengurla tahsil
(4.20%). It is observed from the table 3.14 that in Vaibhavwadi,
Kankavli, Malvan and Kudal tahsils the use of Carbaril was 19.32%,
16.80%, 14.28% and 7.59% respectively. The highest use of Copper
Sulphet and Lime was recorded in Sawantwadi tahsil 48.79 per cent
where as its lowest use was observed in Vaibhavwadi tahsil (3.45%). It is
observed from the table 3.14 that in Devgad, Kankavali, Malvan,
Vengurla and Kudal tahsils was the use of Copper Sulphet and Lime was
14.38%, 5.75%, 5.75%, 4.60% and 17.28% respectively. Beside this
some proportion of the B.H.C., Phosphomidon (Pesticides) and Copper
Oxy Cloride (fungicide) were also distribute over the study region.
3.9

Credit and Finance

In the past money lenders provide finance to small, marginal and

poor farmers in the study region. These money lenders could be in the
form of either agriculturist village shopkeepers or professional money
lenders. The money lenders are associated with many malpractices like
obtaining promissory notes on false pretentions form debtors, entering
larger sums than actually lent, not giving receipts for repayments and
often denying such repayments and charging excessive rate of interest.
Thus the varied nature of behavior of money lenders they could be
regarded as curse for rural economy in general.
Today agricultural credit finance plays a vital role in the process of
agricultural development and indirectly helps in increasing agricultural
productivity. Agriculture need large number amount of capital. The
farmers in the study region have enjoyed agriculture credit facilities to
meet the cultivation, expense, agricultural implements, pesticide, High
Yielding Varieties of seeds etc. The sources of providing loan for
agricultural purpose are the central district co-operative banks. The

116
institutions provides long, mid and short term loans is distributed through
agricultural co-operative ensure short term loans either in cash or in the
form of agricultural inputs. Agricultural Land Development Banks
provided mid and long term loans for purchasing, harrow and other
equipment. Beside this they provide large amount of money for lift
irrigation schemes, digging and repairing the wells and for installing fruit
processing units. It means that the primary agricultural credit societies are
the backbone of rural economy in the study region.
The co-operative credit societies play vital role in the field of
agricultural development by extending credit facilities on an extensive
scale. Details of various types of achievements in respect of credit
societies are given in the table no. 3.15. It is seen that the number of
primary agricultural societies has increased during the period of under
investigation.
Table 3.15

Primary Agricultural Societies in Sindhudurg District

(31st March, 2007)
(Rs. Million)

Sr.
No.

Tahsil

Agricultural
Loan
Loan
Societies
Advances Outstanding
34
20.333
30.292
1
Devgad
(15.04)
(8.36)
(14.12)
25
9.147
9.079
2
Vaibhavwadi
(11.06)
(3.76)
(4.23)
38
40.000
41,518
3
Kankavali
(16.81)
(16.45)
(19.36)
28
32.524
46.102
4
Malvan
(12.38)
(13.38)
(21.49)
23
39,790
26.140
5
Vengurla
(10.17)
(16.36)
(12.19)
34
46.373
30.021
6
Kudal
(15.04)
(19.07)
(14.00)
44
54.094
31.281
7
Sawantwadi
(19.46)
(22.58)
(14.58)
226
243.071
214.433
District
(100)
(100)
(100)
Source 1) Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg District 2006-07.
2) Fig. in bracket indicates percentage.

Recovery
%
(0.74)
(34.30)
(35.26)
(43.02)
(11.76)

117
There was also increase in the membership and loan advances.
As on 31March 2007 per member advance was Rs. 3736. As
compared to per member advance in the year 2007 outstanding loan per
member was Rs. 5613 which is an indicator of very poor repaying
capacity of the members, so also the efforts of the authorities of the
societies to recover. With few achievements there still remains much to
be done in the field of co-operative sector.
In the study region number of primary agricultural societies is very
low. It varies from tahsil to tahsil which is quite evident from the table
3.15. There were total 226 primary agricultural societies as on 31March
2007. The highest percentage of the primary agricultural societies is
concentrated in Sawantwadi tahsil (19.46%) and the lowest 10.17% are in
Vengurle tahsil. Tahsils like Kankavali, Kudal, Devgad, Malvan and
Vaibhavwadi, the percentage of primary agricultural societies was 16.81,
15.04, 15.04, 12.38 and 11.06 respectively.
Table 3.15 reveals tahsil wise loan advances and loan out standing
in entire study region. Some Rs. 243 million loans were distributed in
Sindhudurg district. Out of the total loan distributed 22.58% was in
Sawantwadi tahsil where as only 3.76% loan was distributed in
Vaibhavwadi tahsil as one 31 March 2007. The percentage of loan
advances distributed to the members in the tahsils of Kudal was 19.07%,
followed by Kankavali 16.45%, Vengurle 16.36%, Malvan 13.38% and
Devgad 8.36%.
Some Rs. 214.43 million amounts were outstanding in entire study
region. The highest percentage of outstanding amount was observed in
Malvan tahsil (21.49) whereas the lowest percentage of outstanding was
found in Vabhavwadi tahsil(4.23). The percentage loan outstanding was
in other tahsils was as Kankavali (19.36), Sawantwadi (14.58), Devgad

118
(14.12), Kudal (14.00) and Vengurle (12.19).
Table 3.15 indicates that percentage of loan recovery varies from
tahsil to tahsil. Zero loan recovery was recorded in Devgad, Kankavali
and Malvan tahsils. On the other hand the highest lone recovery was
noticed in Sawantwadi 43.02% on 31 March 2007. Tahsil like Kudal,
Vengurle and Vaibhavwadi were having loan recovery about 35.26%,
34.30% and 0.74% respectively. Average percentage of loan recovery of
the district was only 11.78% as on 31 March 2007.
3.10 Weekly Market Centers
In defining the weekly market centers in country like India, which
is undergoing the process of development and where socio-economic
bonds of the societies are very rigid, one has to be careful in defining a
market centre. A market centre is an authorized public gathering of
buyers and sellers of commodities meting at an approved place at regular
intervals (Hodder B.W., 1965). Rural markets not only facilitated
economic transactions, but also bring about a flow of ideas. People from
different villages come to a market place with goods and news. These
periodic gathering, thus provided a medium of mass communication in
addition to their primary functions of presenting a channel for the
agricultural and other commodities (Bhowmik K.L., and Choudhari K.K.,
1972).
There are various factors responsible for the origin, growth and
distribution of weekly market centers. The physical, Social, economic,
administrative importance and religious sites are the other important
attributes, which jointly or individually attracts several functions and give
rise to the weekly market centers. Tahsil wise weekly market centers in
the study region are shown in table no. 3.16.

119
Table 3.16
Tahsil wise weekly Market Centers in Sindhudurg District
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Tahsil
Devgad
Vaibhavwadi
Kankavali
Malvan
Kudal
Vengurla
Sawantwadi
District

Market
Centers
5
3
6
8
7
4
10
43

Adjoining
Village
28
11
33
28
28
19
38
185

No. of farm
Families
975
772
1042
975
860
350
1437
6411

Source: Socio Economic Absrtact of Sindhudurg District 2006-07.

Table3.16 indicates the numbers of market centers, adjoing villages

and number of farm families covered. Less than 10% weekly market
centers are spread over Vengurla and Vaibhavwadi tahsils where as 10 to
20% weekly market centers are observed in Kudal, Kankavali, Malvan
and Devgad tahsils. Above 20% weekly market centers are spread over
Sawantwadi tahsil during 2007.
Foodgrains,

vegetables,

coconut,

fish

are

the

important

commodities and mango, cashew, are the seasonal important commodities

handled by the buyers and sellers.
The highest number of 1437 agricultural families are served by the
weekly market centres in Sawantwadi tahsil and lowest number i.e. 350
farm families are covered by the weekly market centers in Vengurla
tahsil. Number of adjoining villages covered by the market centers of
Sawantwadi (53), Vengurla (19), Kudal (27), Kankavali(33), Malvan(28),
Devgad(28) and Vaibhavwadi(11). In this way the weekly markets are
indicators of the stage of economic and cultural economic and cultural
development. Weekly market centers are very important economic

120
institutions. They are acting as a central place and serve for fulfill the
needs of rural population.
3.11 Transportation/Road Accessibility
Roads are considered as the lifeline or the arteries of any region.
These vital channels promote agricultural and economic development.
Roads represents important linkages in the process of bettering
agricultural penitential roads should be develop on potential roads should
be develop on a priority basis which is responsible for complete change in
the agricultural landscape. A network of roads, comprising trunk roads,
link roads, approach roads and village roads provides proper access to
markets for all types of farmers (J. Singh and Dhillon ).
Transportation facilities also have a direct bearing on the cropping
pattern of a region. Better transport linkages are advantageous because of
the economies in farm labor and storage costs which they make possible.
Better transport also makes it possible for farmers to put their less
accessible land to more productive use.
3.11.1 Roads
Table 3.17 indicates that the categories length of roads in Km.
4764.63 of Sindhudurg district as on 31March, 2007. It is clear from the
figures that there are great variations in the length of roads. Out of the
total length about 49.07% roads were noticed in village area, which roads
are purely dusty in summer season and muddy in rainy season. The
proportion of Bombay-Goa national highway was only 2.26 per cent in
the study region but the frequency of varieties of transports is very high
comparatively to the other roads in the study region. Mumbai-Goa
National Highway (NH17) traverses the district in north south direction.
Though its length is only 153 Km it is a most busy road in the district
only 3.21% roads are Major State Highway and 11.49% are State

121
Highway. About 19.16% roads connect different tahsils Major Districts
Roads where as 12.21% roads are known as Other District roads. The
density of road length per 1000 hectare was 9.47Km on 31March 2007.
About 105Km broad gauge railway line is available in the study
region e.g. known as 'Konkan Railway' water ways are also playing as
important role the study region. It supports to fish market and importexport materials place to place. It means that transport facilities are
playing important role in the regions of agriculture. Due to the
transportation facilities the farmers are able to supply his perishable fish,
fruits, vegetables and other commodities to the distant markets within a
short period of time at a reasonable cost of transportation to the places
situated at greater distance, like Mumbai and Goa.
Table 3.17
Road Transport System in Sindhudurg District
(As on 31st March 2007)
Sr.
No.
1

Categories
National Highway

153.04

% To the total
District Road
3.21

Major State Highway

107.91

2.26

State Highway

547.84

11.49

Major District Road

913.29

19.16

Other District Road

582.00

12.21

Village Road

2338.14

49.07

Other Road

122.41

2.50

4764,63

100

Total Road Length

Sources:

Length in Kms

1) Engineer P.W.D., Sawantwadi, Kankavali.

2) Engineer P.W.D., Z.P., Sindhudurg.
3) Carpo, Sawantwadi, Malvan, Vengurla

122
3.11.2 Railway Communication
The Konkan Railway has completed the ambitions work of
constructing railway line which passes through the district. The Konkan
railway service is started between Mumbai and Ernakulam, Since 21st
March 1998. At present eight trains are running in the district. The total
railway line passing through the district is 105 Kms which share of total
length of railway is about 2.15% in the study region- with 7 stations. The
district is now connected to south India and North India with railway
facility. With the commissioning of the railway service the people of
Sindhudurg expect opening of lot of business, trading, industrial and
tourism activities in the district. The railway service will also provide
better marketing facility for Mango, Cashew konkan and other products
of the district; The railway service gives substantial impetus for the
speedy economic development of the district.
Summary
The study region had negligible area under irrigation till recently.
The highest actual area brought under irrigation was 24.36% in
Sawantwadi tahsil whereas the lowest irrigated area was 5.81% in
Vabhavawadi tahsil in 2006-07. There was a decrease in the number of
wells by 9849 during the period of 20 years due to the lowering of ground
water table in the study region.
As evident from table 3.4 and map 3.4 the positive change in the
net irrigated area to net sown area in all tahsil of study region except
Vengurla tahsils.. In short it is clear that the both net irrigated area and
net sown area have increased from 1981-82 to 2000-2001.
The crude density of population in Sindhudurg district was 168 per
square kilometer in 1981 and 172 persons per square kilometer in 2001.
Physiological density of population was 678 square kilometer

123
observed in 1981 and 601 sq. km was noticed in 2001 in the study region.
The agricultural density of population which was 157 persons per sq.km
in 1981 and it increased to 185 per square kilometer in 2001 and Caloric
density of population was 578 per square kilometer in 1981 and which
increased up to 585 per square kilometer in 2001. Increase in caloric
densities in every tahsils in the period of investigation due to the physical
and non physical determinants. .
The positive change in the percentage of literacy rate has increased
in all tahsils in Sindhudurg district during the period from 1981 and 2001.
Cattle population of the study region was decreased from 283861
in 1987 to 200071 in 2003.
Below 5% negative change in buffalos population was registered
in Devgad tahsil whereas 5% to 10% negative change was observed in
Vaibhavwadi, Kankavali, Malvan and Vengurla tahsils from 1987 to
2003. During the period of sixteen years (1987-2003) all the tahsils in
Sindhudurg district have negative change in goat and sheep population.
Due to the shortage of fodder crops and green grass during summer
season is a major reason of the decrease in the population of livestock.
Percentage of wooden ploughs to total number of farm implements
in the district was 96.36% in 1987 which was decreased to 88.16% in
2003. Total numbers of iron ploughs in Sindhudurg district increased
from 88 in 1987 to 3211 in 2003.
The trends of electric pumps are using in agricultural purpose is
increasing day by day in the study region. There has been more than two
times increase in electric pumps 1594 in 1987 to 3769 in 2003.
In 1987 there were only 8 tractors and the number increased up to
26 in 2003. There was not a single tractor recorded in Devgad and
Vaibhavwadi tahsils in 2003.Thus the use of tractors is almost negligible

124
in the study region. In general the use of tractors for agricultural purpose
is very limited which indicates the backwardness of agricultural
development in the study region.
The use of improved seeds of rice has been growing rapidly from
51005 kilogram in 1990-91 to 369762 kg in 2007-08, use of High
Yielding Varieties seeds increased by about 6 times during 18 years. Due
to the agricultural attitudes of farmers and the intensive minor
irrigational schemes, use of chemical fertilizer have supported for the use
of High Yielding Verities seeds during the period from 1990-91 and
2007-08.
The consumption of chemical fertilizers has been growing from a
mere 15401 m. tones in 1987-88 to 18750m tones in 2005-06.
Consequently the consumption of fertilizers is relatively low due to
inadequacy of irrigation which discourages use of chemical fertilizers
consumption in Sindhudurg district.
Sindhudurg district is a land of paddy, cashew and mango which
are the major rain fed crops. Insects, pests and weeds can seriously
damage crops if adequate preventive and curative measures are not taken
in

time.

Indosalphan,

Fenvalrate,

Quinalphos,

Diametehoet,

Saipermethrin, Monocrotophos and Axiduraction these pesticides are the

inliquied form pesticides.
Zero percent loan recovery was recorded in Devgad, Kankavali,
and Malvan tahsils, on the other hand the highest loan recovery was
noticed in Sawantwadi 43.02% and an average percentage of loan
recovery of the district was only 11.78% as one 31st March 2007.

125
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